CHAPTER 4

TRUSS ELEMENTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Structures composed of straight elastic members subjected to axial forces only are defined as
truss structures. Satisfaction of this restriction requires that all members of the truss be bar
elements and that the elements be connected by pin joints such that each element is free to
rotate about the joint. Although the bar element is inherently one dimensional, it is quite
effectively used in analyzing both two- and three dimensional trusses.

The global coordinate system is the reference frame in which displacements of the structure
are expressed and usually chosen by convenience in consideration of overall geometry.
Considering the simple cantilever truss shown in Figure 4.1a, it is logical to select the global
XY axes as parallel to the predominant geometric “axes” of the truss as shown. If we examine
the circled joint, for example, redrawn in Figure 4.1b, we observe that five element nodes are
physically connected at one global node and the element x axes do not coincide with the
global X axis. The physical connection and varying geometric orientation of the elements
lead to the following premises inherent to the finite element method:
1. The element nodal displacement of each connected element must be the same as the
displacement of the connection node in the global coordinate system; the mathematical
formulation, as will be seen, enforces this requirement (displacement compatibility).
2. The physical characteristics (in this case, the stiffness matrix and element force) of each
element must be transformed, mathematically, to the global coordinate system to
represent the structural properties in the global system in a consistent mathematical frame
of reference.
3. The individual element parameters of concern (for the bar element, axial stress) are
determined after solution of the problem in the global coordinate system by
transformation of results back to the element reference frame (post processing).

Figure 4.1: (a) Two-dimensional truss composed of ten elements.

(b) Truss joint connecting five elements.

Generally, a design engineer is more interested in the stress to which each truss member is
subjected, to compare the stress value to a known material property, such as the yield strength
of the material. Comparison of computed stress values to material properties may lead to

FEM 37 CHAPTER 4
changes in material or geometric properties of individual elements (in the case of the bar
element, the cross-sectional area). It is much easier to predict the loading (forces and
moments) to which a structure is subjected than the deflections of such a structure. If the
external loads are specified, the relations between loads and displacements are formulated in
terms of the stiffness matrix and we solve for displacements. Back-substitution of
displacements into individual element equations then gives us the strains and stresses in each
element as desired. This is the stiffness method and is used exclusively. In the alternate
procedure, known as the flexibility method, displacements are taken as the known quantities
and the problem is formulated such that the forces (more generally, the stress components)
are the unknown variables. Similar discussion applies to nonstructural problems. In a heat
transfer situation, the engineer is most often interested in the rate of heat flow into, or out of,
a particular device. While temperature is certainly of concern, temperature is not the primary
variable of interest. Nevertheless, heat transfer problems are generally formulated such that
temperature is the primary dependent variable and heat flow is a secondary, computed
variable in analogy with strain and stress in structural problems.

Returning to consideration of Figure 4.1b, where multiple elements are connected at a global
node, the geometry of the connection determines the relations between element displacements
and global displacements as well as the contributions of individual elements to overall
structural stiffness. In the direct stiffness method, the stiffness matrix of each element is
transformed from the element coordinate system to the global coordinate system. The
individual terms of each transformed element stiffness matrix are then added directly to the
global stiffness matrix as determined by element connectivity (as noted, the connectivity
relations ensure compatibility of displacements at joints and nodes where elements are
connected). For example and simply by intuition at this point, elements 3 and 7 in Figure
4.1b should contribute stiffness only in the global X direction; elements 2 and 6 should
contribute stiffness in both X and Y global directions; element 4 should contribute stiffness
only in the global Y direction. The element transformation and stiffness matrix assembly
procedures to be developed in this chapter indeed verify the intuitive arguments just made.

The direct stiffness assembly procedure, subsequently described, results in exactly the same
system of equations as would be obtained by a formal equilibrium approach. By a formal
equilibrium approach, we mean that the equilibrium equations for each joint (node) in the
structure are explicitly expressed, including deformation effects. This should not be confused
with the method of joints, which results in computation of forces only and does not take
displacement into account. Certainly, if the force in each member is known, the physical
properties of the member can be used to compute displacement. However, enforcing
compatibility of displacements at connections (global nodes) is algebraically tedious. Hence,
we have another argument for the stiffness method: Displacement compatibility is assured via
the formulation procedure. Granted that we have to “backtrack” to obtain the information of
true interest (strain, stress), but the backtracking is algebraic and straightforward, as will be
illustrated.

4.2 STIFFNESS OF A PLANE TRUSS ELEMENT

4.2.1 Direct (Unit Displacement) Method
Consider an arbitrarily oriented bar as shown in Figure 4.2. The local node numbers of the
element are defined as i and j. With respect to the global coordinate system XY, there are
four local degree of freedom for the element defined as ui, vi, uj and vj. The local
displacement vector and local force vector are defined as

FEM 38 CHAPTER 4
 Y

f jy

j f jx
fj

vj
j
uj

f iy

f ix
i
vj

i
ui
fi

X

Figure 4.2: Bar Element with an Arbitrary Orientation

{u}= and {f}=

Then the force displacement relationship for the element is given by

= ………. (4.1)

Let us apply unit displacement at node i in horizontal direction (ui = 1), as shown in Figure
4.3, while keeping other the same. The resulting force required at each degree of freedom of
system is then given by

= = ………. (4.2)

The net deformation d of the bar is given by

Therefore, force produced in the axial direction is

and

FEM 39 CHAPTER 4
 Y

f jy f
j

j f jx

f iy


i f ix
1 i'
fi

X

Figure 4.3: Deformed Bar Element with ui = 1

Now resolving the forces, we get

Hence, the first column of the stiffness matrix is given by

= ………. (4.3)

Similarly applying unit displacements at the remaining degrees of freedom, we can derive

= ………. (4.4)

= ………. (4.5)

FEM 40 CHAPTER 4
 = ………. (4.6)

Hence the stiffness matrix of a arbitrarily oriented bar elements with reference to global
coordinate system is given by

………. (4.7)

where

4.2.2 Transformation Method

The force displacement relationship for the bar element shown in Figure 4.4 with reference
to local coordinate system X’Y’ is

………. (4.8)

where [k’] is the stiffness matrix for axial direction (X’).

Y

f jy f '
j

j f jx

X'
Y'
f iy

i f ix
f i'

X

Figure 4.4: Local Coordinate system X’Y’ and Global Coordinate System XY

The transformation of displacements between the local and global coordinate systems are
given by

and

FEM 41 CHAPTER 4
Rewriting the above equations in matrix form

 ………. (4.9)

where ………. (4.10)

is called transformation matrix.

Similarly the local and global force components are related as

; ; ;

Rewriting in matrix form

 ……… (4.11)

Substituting from Equation (4.8) into Equation (4.11), we get

………. (4.12)

Substituting from Equation (4.9) into Equation (4.12), we get

………. (4.13)
where [K] is the global stiffness matrix and is given by
………. (4.14)

Substituting and , we get

which is same as Equation (4.7).

FEM 42 CHAPTER 4
EXAMPLE 4.1
For the plane truss composed of the three elements shown in Figure E4.1, determine the
horizontal and vertical displacements at node 3. Also determine the reactions at nodes 1
and 2.

Member Area, E, Nodes:

1 cm2 GPa i,j
1 20 70 1,2
2 20 200 2,3
3 50 200 3,1

3
1

200 kN
2 2 3
100 kN
2m

Figure E4.1

Solution
The stiffness matrices for the each element are given as
ui vi uj vj
ui
vi
uj
vj

For element 1 (Nodes 1 and 2):

A1 = 20 10-4 m2, E1 = 70 109 Pa, L1 = 2 m, 1 = 900
u1 v1 u2 v2
u1
v1
u2
v2

For element 2 (Nodes 2 and 3):

A2 = 20 10-4 m2, E2 = 200 109 Pa, L2 = 2 m, 2 = 00

u2 v2 u3 v3

FEM 43 CHAPTER 4
 u2
v2
u3
v3

For element 3 (Nodes 3 and 1):

A3 = 50 10-4 m2, E3 = 200 109 Pa, L3 = 2.8284 m, 3 = 1350
u3 v3 u1 v1
u3
v3
u1
v1

Using the concept of superposition, we obtain the global stiffness matrix as

K = k(1) + k(2) + k(3)
u1 v1 u2 v2 u3 v3
= u1
v1
u2
v2
u3
v3

Then the global stiffness matrix, the global forces and global displacements are related as
follows:

= (E 4.1a)

Applying the boundary conditions u1 = 0; v1 =0; u2 = 0; v2 =0; F3x = ; and F3y =

, in fifth and sixth equations, we get

Solving for u3 and v3, we get

u3 = – 1.5 mm and v3 = – 2.6313 mm

Substituting u1 = 0; v1 =0; u2 = 0; v2 =0; u3 = 1.5 mm and v3 = 2.6313 mm into

Equation (E4.1a), we get reaction forces
F1x = – 200 kN; F1y = 200 kN; F2x = 300 kN; F1y = 0;

FEM 44 CHAPTER 4
4.3 STIFFNESS OF A SPACE TRUSS ELEMENT
Three-dimensional (3-D) space trusses can also be modeled using the bar element, provided
the connections between elements are such that only axial load is transmitted. Strictly, this
requires that all connections be ball-and-socket joints. Even when the connection restriction
is not precisely satisfied, analysis of a 3-D truss using bar elements is often of value in
obtaining preliminary estimates of member stresses, which in context of design, is valuable in
determining required structural properties. Referring to Figure 4.5 which depicts a one-
dimensional bar element connected to nodes i and j in a 3-D global reference frame, the unit
vector along the element axis (i.e., the element reference frame) expressed in the global
system is

v j A(e)

uj
wj j

vi
Y
ui
wi i

Figure 4.5: Arbitrarily Oriented Space Truss Element

Thus, the element displacements are expressed in components in the 3-D global system as

Here, we use the notation that element displacements and are in the global X direction,
displacements and are in the global Y direction, and element displacements and
are in the global Z direction.

Analogous to Equation (4.9), Equations (4.16) and (4.17) can be expressed as

FEM 45 CHAPTER 4
 ..……. (4.18)

where [ ] is the transformation matrix mapping the one-dimensional element displacements

into a three-dimensional global coordinate system. Following the identical procedure used for
the 2-D, the element stiffness matrix in the element coordinate system is transformed into the
3-D global coordinates via
………. (4.19)
where

Substituting for the transformation matrix [ ] and performing the multiplication results in

To simplify the calculations, we can also express Equation (4.20) as

where

4.4 ELEMENT STRAIN AND STRESS

The final computational step in finite element analysis of a truss structure is to utilize the
global displacements obtained in the solution step to determine the strain and stress in each
element of the truss. For an element connecting nodes i and j, the element axial strain is given
by

Substituting from Equation (4.9) into Equation (4.23), we get

The element axial stress is then obtained by the application of Hooke’s law as

FEM 46 CHAPTER 4
where

and

The same relations can be used for the space truss, for which

and

EXAMPLE 4.2
For the space truss shown in Figure E4.2, determine the nodal displacements and the
stresses in each element. Let E = 210 GPa, A= 10  10-4 m2 for all elements. All supports
are ball and socket joints.

(0,4,0)
2 10 kN
1

(4,4,3)
2 1

(0,4,6) 4
X

(8,-1,1)
4 5
(4,0,3)

Figure E4.2

Solution
The stiffness for each element of the space truss element is given by

FEM 47 CHAPTER 4
where

For element 1 (Nodes 1 and 2):

u1 v1 w1 u2 v2 w2
u1
v1
w1
u2
v2
w2

For element 2 (Nodes 1 and 3):

u1 v1 w1 u3 v3 w3
u1
v1
w1
u3
v3
w3

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For element 3 (Nodes 1 and 4):

u1 v1 w1 u4 v4 w4
u1
v1
w1
u4
v4
w4

For element 4 (Nodes 1 and 5):

u1 v1 w1 u5 v5 w5
u1
v1
w1
u5
v5
w5

Using the concept of superposition, we obtain the global stiffness matrix as

K = K(1) + K(2) + K(3) + K(4)

FEM 49 CHAPTER 4
Then the global stiffness matrix, the global forces and global displacements are related as
follows:

Applying the boundary conditions u2 = 0; v2 =0; w2 = 0; u3 = 0; v3 =0; w3 = 0; u4 = 0; v4 =0;

w4 = 0; u5 = 0; v5 =0; w5 = 0; F1x = 0; F1y = ; and F1z = 0 , in first three equations,
we get

Solving for u1, v1 and w1, we get

u1 = m; v1 = and w1 =

Then the stresses in each element is calaculated as

where

and

For element 1

For element 2

FEM 50 CHAPTER 4
 =

For element 3

For element 4

EXERCISE
1. For each assembly of the bar elements shown in Figure P4.1, determine the global
stiffness matrix.
Y
Y

E = 210 GPa E = 70 GPa

A = 410 -4 m2 A = 210 -4 m2
L=3m L=1m

1
X 1 2
20°
30°

Figure 4.1(a) Figure 4.1(b)

2. For the bar shwon in Figure P4.2, determine the axial stress. Take A = 10  10-4 m2, E =
210 GPa, and L = 2 m. Assume the global displacements have been previously
determined to be

FEM 51 CHAPTER 4
 Y

60°
X

Figure P4.2

3. For the two bar truss shown in Figure P4.3, determine the displacements at node 1 and
the stresses in each member. Show the deformed configuration.
10 kN
2 A = 1210-4 m2 1
30°
0.4 m

E =200 GPa A = 1610-4 m2

0.6 m 0.3 m

Figure P4.3

4. Determine the nodal deflections, stresses in members and reactions at supports for the
three bar truss shown in Figure P4.4.
12 kN

2
3 A = 810-4 m2
2
E =200 GPa

1
1 3

2m 2m

Figure P4.4

5. For the plane trusses shown in Figure P4.5, determine the horizontal and vertical
displacements of node 1 and the stresses in each element. All the elements have E = 210
GPa and A = 10  10-4 m2.

FEM 52 CHAPTER 4
 2

2 2m 1

3 3m
1
3 2

60°
3m

1
m 2 5m
3
45° 40 kN

3
3
4
10 kN
1 4
3m

Figure 4.5(a) Figure 4.5(b)

6. For the two bar truss shown in Figure P4.6, determine the horizontal displacement of
node 1 and the axial force in each element. A force of P = 1000 kN is applied at node 1
while node 1 settles an amount  = 50 mm as shown. Let E = 210 GPa and A = 6  10-4
m2 for each element.
2

1
3m

3 2 1
P = 1000 kN

4m  = 50 mm

Figure P4.6

7. For the plane trusses supported by the spring at node 1, as shown in Figure P4.7,
determine the nodal displacements and the stresses in each element. Let E = 210 GPa and
A = 6  10-4 m2 for both truss elements.
8. The plane truss shown in Figure P4.8 is composed of members having a square 15 mm ×
15 mm cross section and modulus of elasticity E = 69 GPa. Determine the nodal
displacements and the stresses in each element.
9. For the plane trusses shown in Figure P4.9, determine displacements and. Let E = 210
GPa and A = 6  10-4 m2 for elements 1 and 2 and A = 6  10-4 m2 for elements 3.
10. For the plane trusses shown in Figure P4.10, determine the nodal displacements, and the
stresses in each element. Use symmetry in your model. (a) E = 210 GPa and A = 10  10-
m (b) E = 70 GPa and A = 3  10-4 m2.
4 2

FEM 53 CHAPTER 4
 2 3
2
5m 5m
1 2
5m
1 50 kN 100 kN

45°

60
°
60
3 2

°
1 1
10 m

3 k= 2000 kN/m 3 k= 4000 kN/m

4 4

Figure 4.7(a) Figure 4.7(b)

1m

3
1000 kN
2 2

1
3
1m

Figure P4.8 Figure P4.9

50 kN 100 kN 50 kN

4
2 4 6
20 kN

5
3
20 kN 4 6 20 kN
1
3m

6
2 5 5
4m

1 3 7 9 3
1 2 4 8 6 2 3
1 5

8m 8m 3m 3m

Figure 4.10(a) Figure 4.10(b)

FEM 54 CHAPTER 4
11. For the space truss elements shown in Figure P4.11, the global displacements at node 2
have been determined to be u2 = 5 mm, v2 = 10 mm and w2 = 15 mm. Determine the
displacement along the local axis at node 2 of the elements. The coordinates shown in
Figures are in meters.
2 (5,4,-1)
Y Y

2 (1,1.5,1)

1 X X

1 (2,0,2)

Z Z

Figure 4.11(a) Figure 4.11(b)

12. For the space truss shown in Figure P4.12, determine the displacement of node and
stresses in each element. Let E = 210 GPa and A = 10  10-4 m2 for all elements. A load
of 20 kN is applied at node 1 in the global X direction.
Y
Z
(0,0,0)

2
X

4 (14,6,0)
1
3

1
(12,-3,-4)
2 20 kN

(12,-3,-7)
Figure P4.12

13. The members of the space truss shown in Figure P4.13 have a cross-sectional area of 15
cm2 and are made of steel (E = 200 GPa). Determine the deflection of joint A, the stress
in each member and the reaction forces.

FEM 55 CHAPTER 4
 Figure P4.13

14. For the space truss shown in Figure P4.14, determine the deflection of upper joint , the
stress in each member and the reaction forces.

Figure P4.14

FEM 56 CHAPTER 4