Chapter 7

BASIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS 7-1
CHAPTER 7
BASIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS
There had been very few one-dimensional engineering problems of interest in

solid mechanics prior to the advent of FEM. It is not surprising then, that engineers were
seeking solution methods to two-dimensional problems when they invented the finite
element method. The very first finite elements were two-dimensional elements.1,2 The
preceding FEM studies in one dimension (Chapters 5 and 6) in particular serve to
facilitate the development of shape functions for two- and three-dimensional elements.
Formulations for basic two-dimensional finite elements are based on
straightforward extensions of one-dimensional finite elements. This is primarily because
two-dimensional shape functions, which are key to these elements, may be constructed as
products of familiar one-dimensional shape functions. Shape functions for the following
four regularly shaped or basic finite element types are developed:
(1) Four-node bilinear rectangular element,
(2) Nine-node biquadratic rectangular element,
(3) Three-node linear triangular element,
(4) Six-node quadratic triangular element.
Two- and three-dimensional, curved or isoparametric versions of these basic
elements are formulated in succeeding chapters. They are the "work horses" in FEM.
However, it is useful to first understand fundamental behavior of elements in their basic
form, which then perhaps surprisingly will be shown to carry over to curved elements.
To that end, shape functions for basic, two-dimensional elements are featured in this
chapter.3
Section 7-1. Shape Functions for the Four-Node Bilinear Rectangular
Element. A four-node rectangular element having length l and width w is shown below.
The local, element coordinate xy system has its origin at node 1. The four nodes may be
1
Turner, M. J., R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin and L. T. Topp (1956). Stiffness and Deflection Analysis of
Complex Structures, J. Aeronautical Science, 25, 805-823, 1956.
2
Argyris, J. H. and S. Kelsey (1960). Energy Theorems and Structural Analysis, Butterworth & Co. Ltd,
London, 1960 (reprinted from Aircraft Engineering, Oct. 1954-May 1955).
3
Going forward, element nodes are labeled with integers, 1, 2, ... , etc., rather than with Latin characters, i,
j, ... , etc. By convention, node numbering proceeds counterclockwise around two-dimensional elements.
imagined to displace in response to loading. The rectangular components of these

displacements in the x- and y-directions are denoted u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 and v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ,
respectively. When the four nodes displace, any point ( x, y ) within the element or on its
boundary displaces correspondingly. The displacement is keyed to the nodal

displacements according to two assumed behavior functions for the element.
Four-node bilinear rectangular element having eight dof
The actual displacement of any point ( x, y ) in a two-dimensional elastic region
occupied by the element is defined by its two rectangular components, denoted u ( x, y )
and v ( x, y ) . These two displacement components are approximated throughout the

⌢ ⌢
element by the assumed behavior functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) , respectively. The
behavior functions are chosen so that both displacements and corresponding strains are
continuous and smooth throughout the element, just as before with assumed behavior
functions for one-dimensional elements.
⌢ ⌢
Next, the interpolation function expressions for u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) are
constructed to interpolate the nodal displacement components u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 and
v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , respectively, throughout the element. The eight unknown nodal
displacement components, i.e., two unknowns per each of the four nodes, are the
element's eight dof, shown enumerated in the above sketch. Once these nodal
⌢ ⌢
displacements have been computed, the two displacement components u and v for any
( )
point x, y within the element or on its boundary may be evaluated by using the
⌢ ⌢
interpolation functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) , respectively.
⌢ ⌢
7-1.1 Bilinear behavior functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) . Certain criteria must be
met by the assumed behavior functions. The functions and their first derivative are
required to be smooth, as mentioned, to ensure the existence of element strain energy.
The element is then capable of replicating deformation of a continuous elastic medium.4
One-dimensional polynomials in x were used in the study of one-dimensional elements,
⌢
i.e., u ( x ) = α1 + α 2 x was the continuous behavior function for the linear element.
The construction of two-dimensional elements is also best accomplished with
polynomials, but now, two-dimensional polynomials in x and y are needed. Furthermore,
⌢ ⌢
since either u ( x, y ) or v ( x, y ) interpolates a dof at each of the four nodes, the behavior
function is required to have four terms. Four dof are accommodated when a behavior
function has four terms. This is analogous to the one-dimensional behavior function
⌢
u ( x ) having two terms to accommodate the linear, one-dimensional element’s two dof.
A bilinear polynomial of x and y is defined as the product of two linear

polynomials, one in x and one in y. That is, the product
( c1 + c2 x ) ( c3 + c4 y )
is a bilinear polynomial in x and y and clearly has four terms. Consequently, the
following bilinear polynomial functions are apparently the required, assumed behavior
⌢ ⌢
functions u and v ,
⌢
u ≈ u ( x, y ) = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 xy
⌢
v ≈ v ( x, y ) = α 5 + α 6 x + α 7 y + α 8 xy
They are called bilinear behavior functions, and they describe the displacement behavior
of the four-node rectangular element.
4
Since the assumed behavior functions for displacements are smooth functions, the subject finite element
formulation will not inherently admit replication of cracks, e. g., in support of fracture and fatigue analyses.
Nonetheless, high-end industrial FEM programs, such as Abaqus, provide substantial facilities supporting
both fracture mechanics and fatigue analysis/design. Using specially formulated shape functions, these
facilities permit modeling of cracks and crack growth.
The constants α 1 through α 4 , and α 5 through α 8 , are unknown amplitudes of

modes of deformation for the element, in the x- and y- directions, respectively. The four
⌢ ⌢
deformation modes inherent in u ( x, y ) or v ( x, y ) are: (1) constant or rigid body mode,
(2) linear mode in x, (3) linear mode in y, and (4) bilinear mode in xy .
⌢
v ( x,y ) = 0
⌢
The four modes of deformation constituting the assumed bilinear behavior function u ( x, y )
⌢
These four modes are sketched above for u ( x, y ) exclusively. A corresponding
⌢ ⌢
set of four deformation modes may similarly be sketched for v ( x, y ) ( v equals zero in
each sketch for clarity). Accordingly, the four-node rectangular element is imbued with
these and only these modes of deformation behavior. Irrespective of the exact
displacement components u ( x, y ) or v ( x, y ) for any point within an elastic subregion
represented by the rectangular element, the computed finite element displacement

component is restricted to a linear combination of these four modes of deformation,
⌢ ⌢
according to the assumed bilinear behavior functions u ( x, y ) or v ( x, y ) .
Recall that it is significant that there are as many assumed deformation mode
terms, each with unknown amplitude α i , as there are dof defined for the element. This is
so that a sufficient number of equations will be available to find the amplitudes α i

uniquely in terms of the dof ui ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ). This is also true for vi ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ). So it
was in one-dimension that the amplitudes α i and α j were expressed in terms of ui and
u j for the two-node element to develop the element shape functions (recall the order-2
matrix equation α = C −1d in Section 5-1.1). Thus, in this case, two sets of four linear
simultaneous equations can be written in terms of the two sets of four unknown
amplitudes ( α 1 , α 2 , α 3 , α 4 ) and ( α 5 , α 6 , α 7 , α 8 ), expressing them in terms of
( u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ) and ( v5 , v6 , v7 , v8 ), respectively. This describes the matrix inversion
method for finding the rectangular element’s shape functions. It will be discussed further
later.
However, it is not yet entirely clear why bilinear functions were chosen. Why
not, for example, choose as behavior functions the four-term polynomials
⌢ ⌢
u = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 x 2 and v = α 5 + α 6 x + α 7 y + α 8 y 2 ? Two sets of four
simultaneous equations, though different, could again be written to the same purpose.
Pascal triangle – terms for bilinear and biquadratic polynomials indicated
The Pascal triangle is introduced to help clarify the particular forms of

polynomial approximations required for the present formulation as well as for other finite
element formulations. It is a diagram constituted of monomials in x and y, conveniently
arranged in a triangular pattern as shown above. The interpretation of x and y remains
that of coordinates in the local element coordinate system. In general, the linear
combination of all monomials above any horizontal line through the pattern constitutes a
complete, two-dimensional polynomial of order n. The degree of completeness n is
generally considered the most important measure of an element’s theoretical accuracy.
For example, a complete two-dimensional polynomial of order n = 1 is, c0 + c1 x + c2 y ,
i.e., a superposition of all three terms above the line n = 1. The importance of this is that,
in general, the higher the degree of completeness in a polynomial used in an element
formulation, the higher the convergence rate of the element.5,6 It may be concluded that
higher-order elements are generally more accurate than lower-order elements, although
note that the former implies more computation than the latter.
According to the Pascal triangle, the bilinear behavior function
⌢
u(x, y) = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 xy
has enough information to be a complete linear ( n = 1 ) polynomial in its first three terms.
This indicates theoretically a linear convergence rate for the element. In this sense, the
bilinear term α 4 xy may be regarded as a surplus term, since it does not increase the order
of completeness or enhance accordingly the convergence rate of the element.
Nonetheless, exactly four terms are required to reckon with the element’s four dof
u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 . That the fourth term is taken as the bilinear term α 4 xy and not, for
example, either of the two quadratic terms α 4 x 2 or α 4 y 2 , is due to the preference for a
behavior function that is unbiased in x and y. The bilinear term offers balanced
displacement behavior within the element and along its edges. The alternative quadratic
terms α 4 x 2 or α 4 y 2 would bias behavior in the x- or y- direction, respectively. In this
respect the symmetric quartic term α 4 x 2 y 2 would be satisfactory, but this option has
been discarded historically in favor of the bilinear term, probably because the resulting
element is not lagrangian.
The bilinear element is also called a four-node or low order lagrangian element,
the first member of a family of such elements. Its two assumed behavior functions are
each a product of two linear polynomials while higher order members of the family are
5
Strang, G. and G. J. Fix, An Analysis of the Finite Element Method, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N. J., 306 pages, 1973.
6
Hughes, T. J. R., The Finite Element Method, p.137, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 803
pages, 1987.
formed using similar products of higher order polynomials. The symmetric quartic term
is included in the higher order lagrangian or biquadratic behavior function, which is a
product of two quadratic polynomials (see Section 7-2).
7-1.2 Conforming basic elements. All behavior functions for rectangular and
triangular elements in this chapter include at least the first three terms of the Pascal
triangle. This ensures that they satisfy the completeness requirements necessary for a
convergent element (see Section 5-6), i.e., they have the ability to exhibit:
(1) Constant displacement or rigid body motion in both coordinate directions,
(2) Constant strain in both coordinate directions.
Further, since these are displacement-based finite elements they are compatible
elements, i.e., they satisfy displacement compatibility at all points within an element and
along element interfaces. Possessing both completeness and compatibility they are said
to be conforming, and as such they converge to the exact solution in the limit of mesh
refinement.
7-1.3 Bilinear interpolation functions via matrix inversion. The matrix inversion
method introduced in Chapter 5 (Section 5-1.2) can be used to derive the four shape
functions N i ( x, y ) ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ) corresponding to the four dof u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 and the four
⌢
dof v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 . Two sets of interpolation conditions are invoked, one for u(x, y) and
⌢
one for v(x, y) , at each of the four nodes. At node 1 the two conditions are,
⌢ ⌢
u ( x1 ,y1 ) = u1 and v ( x1 ,y1 ) = v1
⌢
and similarly for nodes 2, 3 and 4. The four conditions for u at nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4 result
in the following four simultaneous equations for the unknown amplitudes
α i ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ) ,
⌢
u( x1 , y1 ) = u1 ⇒ α 1 + α 2 x1 + α 3 y1 + α 4 x1 y1 = u1
⌢
u( x2 , y2 ) = u2 ⇒ α 1 + α 2 x2 + α 3 y2 + α 4 x2 y2 = u2
⌢
u( x3 , y3 ) = u3 ⇒ α 1 + α 2 x3 + α 3 y3 + α 4 x3 y3 = u3
⌢
u( x4 , y4 ) = u4 ⇒ α 1 + α 2 x4 + α 3 y4 + α 4 x4 y4 = u4
These equations may be symbolized by,

Cα = d u
where,
⎛ 1 x1 y1 x1 y1 ⎞ ⎧ α1 ⎫ ⎧ u1 ⎫
⎜ ⎟ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
1 x2 y2 x2 y2 ⎟ ⎪ α2 ⎪ ⎪ u2 ⎪
C=⎜ , α=⎨ ⎬ and d u = ⎨ ⎬
⎜ x3 y3 ⎟ α3 ⎪
⎜
1 x3 y3
⎟ ⎪ ⎪ u3 ⎪
⎜⎝ 1 x4 y4 x4 y4 ⎟⎠ ⎪ α4 ⎪ ⎪ u4 ⎪
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
In general, the system is invertible, i.e., α = C −1d u , giving the four constants α 1
through α 4 in terms of the four dof u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 .7 Then, α 1 through α 4 are eliminated

⌢
in the bilinear behavior function u = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 xy . Upon collecting terms, the
coefficients of u1 , u2 , u3 and u4 are identified as the shape functions N 1 , N 2 , N 3 and N 4 ,
respectively, as follows,
( )
N i ui = C1i( −1) + C2i( −1) x + C3i( −1) y + C4i( −1) xy ui (i = 1,2,3, 4 )
So, N i is obtained from the ith column of C −1 (see Problem 7-1),
N i ( x, y ) = C1i( −1) + C2i( −1) x + C3i( −1) y + C4i( −1) xy (i = 1, 2, 3, 4 )

⌢
The finite element interpolation function u ( x, y ) for the approximate
displacement follows as a linear combination of the four shape functions,

4
⌢
u ( x,y ) = N 1 ( x,y ) u1 + N 2 ( x,y ) u2 + N 3 ( x,y ) u3 + N 4 ( x,y ) u4 = ∑ N i ( x,y ) ui
i=1
⌢
( )
Since u ( x, y ) is a bilinear function, each shape function N i x, y is a bilinear function.
⌢
For example, if all the nodal displacements happen to be zero except u1 , then u = N 1u1 .
It follows that,
⌢
u α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 xy
N1 = =
u1 u1
(u2
= u3 = u4 = 0 )
and therefore N 1 is a bilinear function, and likewise for N 2 , N 3 and N 4 .
The matrix inversion method may also be applied to find the analogous finite
⌢
element interpolation function for v . The result will be the same four bilinear shape
functions so that,
7 −1 ( −1)
Mathematical programs featuring symbolic math are used to find C explicitly. The notation Cij
−1
stands for the ijth component of C .
4
⌢
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
v = N 1 x, y v1 + N 2 x, y v2 + N 3 x, y v3 + N 4 x, y v4 = ∑ N i x, y vi
i=1
The matrix inversion method for deriving two-dimensional shape functions will
be illustrated in more detail with the three-node triangular element (Section 7-3). Also,
functions thus derived will satisfy the key criteria of shape functions (Problem 7-1).
7-1.4 Bilinear interpolation functions via bivariate Lagrange interpolation. For
the subject bilinear rectangular element and for most elements there is a more direct way
of deriving element shape functions. It builds upon experience with the Lagrange
interpolation method for deriving one-dimensional shape functions. This method is
called bivariate Lagrange interpolation.
The key criteria for bilinear shape functions are recalled as follows,
⎧⎪ 1 at node i
N i ( x,y ) = ⎨ ( i = 1,2,3,4 )
⎩⎪ 0 at all other nodes
( )
Since N i x, y are bilinear functions in x and y and since they must satisfy these criteria,
their individual graphs may be deduced and sketched as shown below. Each shape
( )
function N i x, y is graphed as a surface in three dimensions over the region of a four-
node element, which lays flat in the xy-plane. A bilinear function varies linearly along
any x- or y- coordinate line, so that in particular straight lines form the edges of the
graphed surface. It’s noted that the surface is not flat since a projection of an element’s
diagonal onto the surface above is shown to be a quadratic curve.
Shape function graphs for the bilinear rectangular element

Bilinear shape functions are derived as products of two, one-dimensional linear

functions, one in x and one in y, i.e., N i ( x, y ) = N i ( x ) ⋅ N i ( y ) . These are termed bivariate
products. The two, linear functions N i ( x ) and N i ( y ) are constructed by the usual
Lagrange interpolation method in one-dimension (Section 5-2.2). The following example

illustrates derivation of N 1 ( x, y ) using bivariate Lagrange interpolation.
===============================================================
Example 7-1. The bilinear shape function N 1 ( x, y ) is derived using bivariate Lagrange
interpolation as follows. The bivariate product for N 1 ( x, y ) is,
N 1 ( x, y ) = N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y )
N 1 ( x ) must equal zero at x = l as shown in the graph above for N 1 ( x, y ) . Thus,
() (
N1 x = c x − l )
It must also equal unity at x = 0 ,
1
( )
N 1 x=0 = c −l = 1 ⇒ c = −
l
x
()
∴ N1 x = 1 −
l
( )
N 1 y must equal zero at y = w as shown in the graph above for N 1 ( x, y ) . Thus,
( ) (
N1 y = c y − w )
It must also equal unity at y = 0 ,
1
N1 y=0
( )
= c −w = 1 ⇒ c = −
w
y
( )
∴ N1 y = 1 −
w
( )
Therefore, since the bilinear shape function N 1 x, y equals N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) ,
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ y⎞
( )
N 1 x, y = ⎜ 1 −
⎝ ⎟
l⎠⎝⎜ 1− ⎟
w⎠
( )
As a check, note that as required N 1 x, y equals 1 at node 1 and 0 at the other three
nodes.
===============================================================
From Example 7-1, it is clear that the bivariate product N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) yields the
shape function for node 1. The concept of a graph in space may be used to reinforce how
this is so. Let the graph of N 1 ( x ) in space consist of all points (x, y, z) that satisfy the
equation z = N 1 ( x ) , and for which the point (x, y) is in the domain of the rectangular
element, R = {0 ≤ x ≤ l; 0 ≤ y ≤ w} . Thus, the graph in space for N 1 ( x ) and domain R is
plotted as indicated here,
Three-dimensional graph of N 1 ( x ) for domain R
Likewise, the graph in space for N 1 ( y ) and domain R is plotted as indicated here,
Three-dimensional graph of N 1 ( y ) for domain R
The graph in space of the bivariate product N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) and domain R is the
product of their individual graphs in space. This product graph, as may be envisioned by
the reader, is shown below. By inspection, the graph satisfies the key criteria for the
shape function for node 1, so the bivariate equation for the product graph is also the
equation of the shape function for node 1, i.e.,
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ y⎞
z = N 1 ( x, y ) = N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ l ⎠⎝ w⎠
Three-dimensional graph of N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) for domain R
The surface of the graph is curved as may be easily verified. For example, the
amplitude of the surface at the center of the element is ¼, i.e.,
z = N 1 ( l 2,w 2 ) = 1 2 × 1 2 = 1 4 .
And the amplitudes at the four node points are 1, 0, 0, and 0 as indicated on the graph.
Thus, the lines projected onto the surface from the two diagonals of the element cannot
be straight lines and in fact are parabolas.
The other three bilinear shape functions for the subject element are similarly
constructed as bivariate products of two, one-dimensional linear functions, each of which
is constructed using Lagrange interpolation in one dimension as shown in Example 7-1.
The four shape functions for the bilinear rectangular element are listed in Table 7-1.
Thus, the bilinear interpolation functions for the element are,
4 4
⌢ ⌢
u ( x, y ) = ∑ N i ( x, y ) ui and v ( x, y ) = ∑ N i ( x, y ) vi
i=1 i=1
Table 7-1. Shape functions for the bilinear rectangular element.

=============================================
( )( )
N1 = 1 − x l 1 − y w ⎫
⎪
( )(
N2 = x l 1 − y w ) ⎪⎪ (0 ≤ x ≤ l )
⎬
( )( )
N3 = x l y w ⎪ ( 0 ≤ y ≤ w)
⎪
( )( )
N4 = 1 − x l y w ⎪⎭
=============================================
Section 7-2. Shape Functions for the Nine-Node Biquadratic Rectangular

Element. This finite element is also known as a nine-node lagrangian element, the
second or the higher order member of the two-dimensional lagrangian element family. It
is illustrated below with the origin of its cartesian coordinate system xy located at node 1.
Additional nodes are required for higher order elements since these elements have higher
accuracy. An additional five nodes beyond the four corner nodes are required in this
case. They are positioned at the four midside points and at the center point as shown.
For example, midside node 6 has coordinates ( l, w 2 ) and center node 9 has coordinates
(l 2, w 2 ) . Node 9 is also called an internal node in FEM.
Nine-node biquadratic rectangular element having 18 dof
⌢ ⌢
The approximate displacement components u and v for any point ( x, y ) within
the element or on its edges are interpolated among the element's 18 dof, which are
enumerated on the sketch. In general, dof numbering occurs counterclockwise around the
element beginning at node 1 with the two dof at corner nodes first, the two dof at midside
nodes next, and the two dof at internal nodes last. The 18 dof are the nine nodal
displacement components in the x-direction ( u1 through u9 ), and the nine nodal
displacement components in the y-direction ( v1 through v9 ).

⌢ ⌢
7-2.1 Biquadratic behavior functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) . A biquadratic
polynomial function of x and y is defined as the product of two quadratic polynomial

functions, one in x and one in y. For example,
(c1 )(
+ c2 x + c3 x 2 c4 + c5 y + c6 y 2 )
Upon expansion of this product, a biquadratic function arises with nine terms, the last of
which is the biquadratic term c3 c6 x 2 y 2 . Just as the four-node rectangular element has a
bilinear behavior function with four terms, the nine-node rectangular element has a
biquadratic behavior function with nine terms. In this sense, the latter element is a
logical extension of the former element, and so they are considered the first and second
members, respectively, of the lagrangian family of two-dimensional rectangular elements.
⌢ ⌢
The assumed biquadratic behavior functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) are each
comprised of the nine terms constituting a biquadratic function as follows; refer also to
the Pascal triangle (Section 7-1.1),
⌢
u ≈ u ( x, y ) = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 x 2 + α 5 xy + α 6 y 2
+ α 7 x 2 y + α 8 xy 2 + α 9 x 2 y 2
⌢
v ≈ v ( x, y ) = α 10 + α 11 x + α 12 y + α 13 x 2 + α 14 xy + α 15 y 2
+ α 16 x 2 y + α 17 xy 2 + α 18 x 2 y 2
These functions are balanced, and eliminate any bias in displacements in the x- or
y- directions of a rectangular element employing them. Moreover, the first six terms
alone constitute complete quadratic polynomials in x and y. Thus, an element that
employs these functions theoretically has a quadratic convergence rate ( n = 2 ), as
indicated by the Pascal triangle. In this regard, the last three terms are surplus terms.
Though these three terms are necessary to a balanced biquadratic function requiring a
total of nine terms, the Pascal triangle shows that they are insufficient in number to
produce an element with a cubic convergence rate ( n = 3 ).
Referring again to the Pascal triangle, it is noted that an alternative nine-term
behavior function that includes both the x 3 - and y 3 -terms in lieu of the x 2 y - and xy 2 -
terms, is also balanced. However, it is neither a biquadratic function nor a logical
extension of the bilinear function used for the four-node lagrangian element.
⌢ ⌢
7-2.2 Biquadratic interpolation functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) . The nine-node
( )
rectangular element has nine shape functions, denoted N 1 x, y through N 9 x, y , i.e., ( )
one shape function for each node. Each is constructed using the bivariate product of two
one-dimensional quadratic functions, one in x and one in y. Derivation of these two
functions will be familiar from the method presented for one-dimensional, quadratic
shape functions (Section 5-2).
( )
For a corner node, node 1 for example, the shape function N 1 x, y must satisfy
the key criteria,
⎧ 1 at node 1
N 1 ( x,y ) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 0 at all other nodes
⌢ ⌢
Since the interpolation function u ( x, y ) or v ( x, y ) is a biquadratic polynomial, each of
the nine shape functions must also be a biquadratic polynomial, the former function being
a linear combination of the latter functions. From this information alone, one is able to
sketch the graph in space of N 1 ( x,y ) plotted over the rectangular domain of the element,
as shown below. The sketch may then be used to facilitate bivariate construction of
N 1 ( x,y ) .
( )
Graph of N 1 x, y for biquadratic rectangular element
Observe that the biquadratic shape function varies as a quadratic along any x- or
y-coordinate line that does not go through three zero-valued interpolation points (in
which case it is a straight line having zero amplitude). The two, one-dimensional,
quadratic functions shown in the sketch, one in x and one in y, are used in bivariate
construction of N 1 ( x,y ) . They are derived most easily by the Lagrange interpolation
method for quadratic, one-dimensional shape functions (Section 5-2.2). Then, N 1 x, y ( )

is constructed as the bivariate product of these two, one-dimensional functions. This is

illustrated in the following example.
==============================================================
Example 7-2. The biquadratic shape function N 1 ( x, y ) is derived using bivariate
Lagrange interpolation as follows. It equals the bivariate product,
N 1 ( x,y ) = N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y )
()
Now, N 1 x must be quadratic and zero-valued at nodes 5 and 2, as shown in the sketch.
Thus, using the Lagrange interpolation method, irrespective of a constant c,

⎛ l⎞
()
N1 x = c ⎜ x −
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
(
x−l )
()
Further, N 1 x must equal one at node 1 where x = 0. This leads to c and N 1 x , ()
⎛ l⎞ 2
() ( )
N 1 0 = c ⎜ − ⎟ −l = 1 ⇒ c = 2
⎝ 2⎠ l
2⎛ l⎞
∴ N1 x = () 2 ⎜
l ⎝
x− ⎟ x−l
2⎠
( )
( )
Similarly, N 1 y must be quadratic and zero-valued at nodes 8 and 4. Thus, using the
Lagrange interpolation method, irrespective of a constant c,

⎛ w⎞
( )
N1 y = c ⎜ y − ⎟ y − w
⎝ 2⎠
( )
( )
Further, N 1 y must equal one at node 1 where y = 0. This leads to c and N 1 y , ( )
⎛ w⎞ 2
() ( )
N 1 0 = c ⎜ − ⎟ −w = 1 ⇒ c = 2
⎝ 2⎠ w
2 ⎛ w⎞
∴ N1 y = ( ) 2 ⎜
w ⎝
y− ⎟ y−w
2⎠
( )
Therefore, the bivariate product N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) is,
4 ⎛ l⎞ ⎛ w⎞
( )
N 1 x, y = 2 2 ⎜
l w ⎝
(
x− ⎟ x−l ⎜y− ⎟ y−w
2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
) ( )
This is the biquadratic shape function for node 1. It checks out by inspection; it equals
one at node 1 and zero at the other eight nodes, as required.
===============================================================
( )
For a midside node such as node 5, the biquadratic shape function N 5 x, y must
satisfy the key criteria,

⎧⎪ 1 at node 5
N 5 ( x,y ) = ⎨
( )
Given also that it is biquadratic, its graph z = N 5 x, y may be sketched as shown. Then
proceeding as in Example 7-2, the two, one-dimensional quadratic functions shown in the
graph are derived using the Lagrange interpolation method. The biquadratic shape
function N 5 ( x,y ) is then the product of these two one-dimensional functions,
4x 2 ⎛ w⎞
N 5 ( x,y ) = − 2 (
x − l ) ⋅ 2 ⎜ y − ⎟ ( y − w)
l w ⎝ 2⎠
8x ⎛ w⎞
2 2(
=− x − l ) ⎜ y − ⎟ ( y − w)
l w ⎝ 2⎠
( )
Graph of N 5 x, y for the biquadratic rectangular element
( )
For the center node 9, the biquadratic shape function N 9 x, y is constructed in
the same manner following Example 7-2. Its key properties are,
⎧⎪ 1 at node 9
N 9 ( x,y ) = ⎨
Its graph may be sketched as shown below and is bubble-like. The two, one-dimensional
quadratic functions included in the sketch are derived using the Lagrange interpolation
( )
method. The result for N 9 x, y is,
4x 4y
N 9 ( x,y ) = − 2 (
x − l ) ⋅ − 2 ( y − w)
l w
16 xy
= 2 2 ( x − l ) ( y − w)
l w
( )
Graph of N 9 x, y for the biquadratic rectangular element
Derivation of the remaining six biquadratic shape functions follows similarly and
is left as an exercise (Problem 7-5). All shape functions for the element are listed in
Table 7-2, and though it is not obvious, each possesses the partition-of-unity property,
∑ i=1 Ni ( x, y ) = 1 (Problem 7-5).

9
Finally, the biquadratic interpolation functions for the rectangular element are,
9 9
⌢ ⌢
u ( x, y ) = ∑ N i ( x, y ) ui and v ( x, y ) = ∑ N i ( x, y ) vi
i=1 i=1
Table 7-2. Shape functions for the 9-node biquadratic rectangular element
=================================================================
4 ⎛ l⎞ ⎛ w⎞ 8x ⎛ w⎞
( )
N 1 x, y = 2 ⎜
l w ⎝
2 (
x− ⎟ x−l ⎜y− ⎟ y−w
2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
) ( ) ( )
N 5 x, y = − 2
l w
(
2 )
x−l ⎜y− ⎟ y−w
⎝ 2⎠
( )
4x ⎛ l⎞⎛ w⎞ 8xy ⎛ l⎞
( )
N 2 x, y = 2 2 ⎜
l w ⎝
x− ⎟⎜y− ⎟ y−w
2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
( ) ( )
N 6 x, y = − 2 2 ⎜
l w ⎝ 2 ⎠
(
x− ⎟ y−w )
4xy ⎛ l⎞⎛ w⎞ 8xy ⎛ w⎞
( )
N 3 x, y = 2 2 ⎜
l w ⎝
x− ⎟⎜y− ⎟
2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
( )
N7 x, y = − (
l 2 w2
)
x−l ⎜y− ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
4y ⎛ l⎞ ⎛ w⎞ 8y ⎛ l⎞
( )
N 4 x, y = 2 2 ⎜ (
x− ⎟ x−l ⎜y− ⎟ ) ( )
N 8 x, y = − 2 2 ⎜
l w ⎝
( )(
x− ⎟ x−l y−w
2⎠
)
l w ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
16 xy
( )
N 9 x, y = (
l 2 w2
)(
x−l y−w )
=================================================================
Section 7-3. Shape Functions for the Three-Node Triangular Element. The
three-node triangular element shown below may be regarded as the first finite element
ever to have been developed. It is known alternatively as the linear triangular element or
the constant strain triangular element for reasons to be made clear later when the
element’s equations are addressed (Section 9-2).8 For now it is sufficient to focus on its
shape functions.
The element is shown embedded in a local xy coordinate system that is positioned
with its origin at node 1 with the x-axis running horizontally along side 1-2. Later, a
global cartesian coordinate system will also be introduced along with this same local
system askew from the horizontal.
Three-node triangular element having six dof
⌢ ⌢
The rectangular displacement components u and v at any point x, y within the ( )
element or on an edge are interpolated among the element’s six dof shown enumerated at
the nodes. These six dof are comprised of two sets of three nodal displacement
components, i.e., ( u1 , u2 , u3 ) in the x-direction and ( v1 , v2 , v3 ) in the y-direction.
⌢ ⌢
7-3.1 Linear behavior functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) . The assumed behavior
functions for this three-node element employ the first three terms of the Pascal triangle
shown below, i.e., the three terms above the top horizontal line. They are a linear
combination of three modes of deformation as follows,
8
This element and its three-dimensional counterpart (Section 10-3) have little to offer for modern stress
analysis in support of design functions. Nonetheless, both are of interest not only for pedagogical and
historical reasons, but they remain useful for heat transfer problems and in FEM research involving very
large systems of nonlinear equations, for example.
⌢
( )
u ≈ u x, y = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y
⌢
( )
v ≈ v x, y = α 4 + α 5 x + α 6 y
Pascal triangle – terms for complete linear and quadratic polynomials indicated
The constants α 1 through α 6 are amplitudes of the various modes of

⌢
( )
deformation. The three modes of deformation for v x, y , for example, are shown in the
Modes for the other component u ( x, y ) are assumed zero in the

⌢
sketches below.
sketches for clarity. The three modes shown are rigid body, shear, and axial modes of
deformation in the y-direction for the element. Irrespective of the exact displacement of
⌢
( )
any point (x,y), the assumed behavior function v x, y limits computed displacement in
the y-direction to a linear combination of these three modes.
⌢
u ( x,y ) = 0
⌢
The three modes of deformation constituting the linear behavior function v x, y( )
According to the Pascal triangle these behavior functions are complete linear
polynomial functions in x and y (i.e., n = 1 ). Apparently, that they have no surplus terms
would distinguish the linear triangular element as computationally more efficient than the
bilinear rectangular element. Recall that the four-node bilinear element is also complete
to linear order (n = 1), but is required to carry the surplus bilinear xy-term. Nonetheless,
it proves more efficient than the triangular element. Like most all displacement-based
finite elements, both of these elements are over stiff (Section 5-7). However, the bilinear
element has one more mode of deformation (i.e., four versus three modes) and two more
dof (i.e., eight versus six dof), and hence it is less stiff and proves more efficient and
accurate (see Section 7-6).
⌢ ⌢
7-3.2 Linear interpolation functions u ( X ,Y ) and v ( X ,Y ) . The element’s
behavior functions were expressed in a local xy coordinate system so that behavior and
displacement mode shapes could be explained and illustrated conveniently. However, in
the case of the basic three-node triangular element it is possible and desirable to refer the
interpolation functions with their shape functions to the global XY coordinate system.
Element matrices ( k( e) , fq( e) , etc.) are then referred to the global coordinate system
directly. This eliminates having to transform element matrices from a local to the global
coordinate system prior to assembly (see Sections 3-3.3 or 4-7).
As stated before, the three-node triangular element is generally considered the
first finite element to have been developed. Originally, the matrix inversion method was
employed to derive the shape functions, and that method is followed here primarily for
historical interest. Alternative methods employ a non-cartesian coordinate system that is
suited to triangular regions. Introduction to this new coordinate system and alternative
shape function methods for basic triangular elements are addressed in following sections.
Derivation by matrix inversion begins by writing the following three interpolation
⌢
conditions on the behavior function u(X,Y ) , now expressed in global coordinates, at
each of the element’s three nodes,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢
u ( X 1 ,Y1 ) = u1 u ( X 2 ,Y2 ) = u2 u ( X 3 ,Y3 ) = u3
These conditions lead to three simultaneous linear equations in the three unknowns
α 1 , α 2 , α 3 . For example, the condition at node 1 leads to the first equation,
α 1 + α 2 X 1 + α 3Y1 = u1 . In matrix form, the three equations are symbolized by,
Cα = du
where
⎛ 1 X Y ⎞ ⎧ α ⎫ ⎧ u ⎫
⎜
1 1
⎟ ⎪⎪ 1 ⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ 1 ⎪⎪
C = ⎜ 1 X 2 Y2 ⎟ , α = ⎨ α 2 ⎬ and du = ⎨ u2 ⎬
⎜ 1 X Y ⎟ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎪⎩ α 3 ⎪⎭ ⎪⎩ u3 ⎪⎭
It can be shown that the inverted system α = C −1du is,
⎧ α
⎪⎪ 1
⎫
⎪⎪
⎛ (X Y − X Y ) (X Y − X Y ) (X Y − X Y ) ⎞⎧ u ⎫
⎟ ⎪⎪ 1 ⎪⎪
1 ⎜
2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 1
⎨ α2 ⎬= ( e) ⎜ Y23 Y31 Y12 ⎟ ⎨ u2 ⎬

⎪ ⎪ 2A ⎜ ⎟⎪ ⎪
⎪⎩ α 3 ⎪⎭ ⎜⎝ X 32 X 13 X 21 ⎟⎠ ⎪ u3 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
in which the shorthand notation X ij = X i − X j and Yij = Yi − Y j has been used. The
constant A( e) is the area of the triangular element. It can be expressed in terms of the
element's nodal coordinates as follows,
⎛ 1 X Y ⎞
1 1
1 ⎜ ⎟
A = det ⎜ 1 X 2 Y2 ⎟
(e)
2 ⎜ 1 X Y ⎟
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
To obtain a positive value with this formula, it is

important that the ordered sequence of node numbers
be counterclockwise around the element.9 Node sequence for positive area
⌢
Substituting for α 1 , α 2 , α 3 in the behavior function u = α 1 + α 2 X + α 3Y and then
rearranging terms to disclose the coefficients of u1 , u2 and u3 , respectively, reveals the
three shape functions N 1 , N 2 and N 3 for the element. For example, the ith column of
C −1 leads to N i ( X,Y ) as follows,
9
The sign of a determinant is changed when any two rows or columns (not necessarily adjacent) are
interchanged.
( )
N i ( X,Y ) ui = C1i( −1) + C2i( −1) X + C3i( −1)Y ui (i = 1,2,3)
⌢
Thus, the linear interpolation function u ( X,Y ) for the three-node triangle element is,
3
⌢
u ( X ,Y ) = N 1 ( X ,Y ) u1 + N 2 ( X ,Y ) u2 + N 3 ( X ,Y ) u3 = ∑ N i ( X ,Y ) ui
i=1
where three shape functions are listed in Table 7-3. Observe that the shape functions,
like the assumed behavior functions, are linear polynomials in X and Y.
Table 7-3. Shape functions for the basic three-node triangular element.
=========================================
1
N 1 ( X ,Y ) = ⎡( X Y − X 3Y2 ) + Y23 X + X 32Y ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
1
N 2 ( X ,Y ) = ⎡( X Y − X 1Y3 ) + Y31 X + X 13Y ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 3 1 ⎦
1
N 3 ( X ,Y ) = ⎡( X Y − X 2Y1 ) + Y12 X + X 21Y ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 1 2 ⎦
=========================================
Repeating the matrix inversion method using the interpolation conditions on

⌢
v ( X ,Y ) at the three nodes, results in the system Cα = d v , which is solved for α 4 , α 5 , α 6
in terms of v1 , v2 , v3 . This will lead to the same three shape functions, N 1 , N 2 , and N 3 .
⌢
Thus, the linear interpolation function v ( X,Y ) is,
3
⌢
v ( X ,Y ) = N 1 ( X ,Y ) v1 + N 2 ( X ,Y ) v2 + N 3 ( X ,Y ) v3 = ∑ N i ( X ,Y ) vi
i=1
That N 1 ( X ,Y ) , for example, satisfies the key shape function criteria may be
verified as follows. At node 1, the coordinates are X = X 1 and Y = Y1 so that,
1
N 1 ( X 1 ,Y1 ) = ⎡( X Y − X 3Y2 ) + (Y2 − Y3 ) X 1 + ( X 3 − X 2 ) Y1 ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
1
= ⎡( X Y − X 3Y2 ) − X 1 (Y3 − Y2 ) + Y1 ( X 3 − X 2 ) ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
Now, observe that this equation is the same as the following equation when its
determinant is expanded about the first row,
⎛ 1 X Y ⎞
1 1
1 ⎜ ⎟
N 1 ( X 1 ,Y1 ) = (e)
det ⎜ 1 X 2 Y2 ⎟
2A ⎜ 1 X Y ⎟
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
Therefore, since the determinant equals 2A( e) ,

1
N 1 ( X 1 ,Y1 ) = (e)
⋅ 2 A( e ) = 1
2A
Further, at node 2,
1
N 1 ( X 2 ,Y2 ) = ⎡( X Y − X 3Y2 ) + (Y2 − Y3 ) X 2 + ( X 3 − X 2 ) Y2 ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
1
= (Y X − X 2Y2 ) = 0
2 A( e ) 2 2
and at node 3,
1
N 1 ( X 3 ,Y3 ) = ⎡( X Y − X 3Y2 ) + (Y2 − Y3 ) X 3 + ( X 3 − X 2 ) Y3 ⎤
2 A( e ) ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
1
=
2 A( e )
( −Y3 X 3 + X 3Y3 ) = 0
Therefore, the Kronecker delta property for N 1 is satisfied. That all the shape functions
in Table 7-3 possess this property is apparent from the following sketches of their graphs.
Shape function graphs for the basic linear three-node triangular element
It may also be verified with a little reflection facilitated by these sketches that the
3
partition-of-unity property holds, i.e., ∑ Ni ( X,Y ) = 1 .
i=1
===============================================================
Example 7-3. Write the shape functions in terms of local xy coordinates for the
arbitrarily oriented 3-node triangular element shown.
Solution: Replace X with x and Y
with y in Table 7-3. Then let
x1 = y1 = y2 = 0 in Table 7-3. The result
is:
Y
1
N 1 ( x,y ) = ( x y − y3 x + x32 y )
x2 y3 2 3
1 X
N 2 ( x,y ) = ( y x − x3 y )
x2 y3 3
y
N 3 ( x,y ) =
y3
With only a little algebra, it can also be verified that these expressions satisfy the
key criteria for element shape functions. Thus, the three-node element’s shape functions
are considerably simplified when written relative to a convenient local xy coordinate
system.
Using these shape functions to establish the element’s matrices in the local xy
system, such as k ′( e) , implies the necessity for a subsequent transformation to the global
XY coordinate system prior to assembly, i.e., k( e) = T( e)k ′( e)T( e)T (e.g., see Section 4-7).
On the other hand, k( e) is established directly when it is possible to develop shape

functions that are referred to the global XY coordinate system, as for the subject three-
node triangular element.
===============================================================
Section 7-4. Area Coordinates for Triangular Element Shape Functions.

Shape functions are conveniently derived for basic or straight-sided triangular elements
using an area coordinate system. Area coordinates are a generalization of length
coordinates for points within one-dimensional regions (see Table 5-5).
7-4.1 Area coordinates. Area coordinates, denoted L1 , L2 and L3 , for an arbitrary
point P within or on the sides of a triangular region are defined by the following non-
dimensional area ratios,
A1 A2 A3
L1 = L2 = L3 =
A A A
where A is the total area of a triangular region, and A1 , A2 , A3 are areas of triangular sub-
regions, as shown below. Since,
A1 A2 A3
A1 + A2 + A3 = A or + + =1
A A A
the sum of the area coordinates for point P is unity,
L1 + L2 + L3 = 1
Consequently only two of the three area coordinates for point P are independent. 10
Triangular subregion areas A1, A2, A3
Point P may be defined either by its local area coordinates ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) or by its
global cartesian coordinates ( X, Y ) , as necessary. By definition, Ai (i = 1,2,3) is the area

subtended by P and the two vertices opposite vertex i. For example, P and vertices 2 and
3 subtend area A1 . Each area coordinate ranges from zero on a side to unity at the vertex
opposite the side. So, L1 = 0 when P is on side 1 (the side opposite to vertex 1), and
L1 = 1 when P coincides with vertex 1. In this respect, area coordinates are naturally
suited to points within triangular regions and constitute a natural coordinate system.
Values for the area coordinates of point P may be calculated as follows. Recall
the following formula for the area of a triangle in terms of the cartesian coordinates of its
three vertices,
10
Length coordinates and their two- and three-dimensional counterparts, area coordinates and volume
coordinates (see Section 10-2), respectively, are barycentric coordinates. Barycentric coordinates of a
centroid have equal value. For example, the area coordinates of the centroid of a triangular region are
L1 = L 2 = L 3 = 1 3 .
⎛1 X1 Y1 ⎞
1 ⎜ ⎟
A = det ⎜ 1 X2 Y2 ⎟
2
⎜⎝ 1 X3 Y3 ⎟⎠
This formula is also applicable to subregion areas Ai (i = 1,2,3) . So, when the cartesian
coordinates ( X, Y ) of point P are given, the area coordinates ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) of P may be

calculated with the following transformation formulas,
⎛1 X Y ⎞ ⎛1 X Y ⎞ ⎛1 X Y ⎞
A1 1 ⎜ ⎟ A2 1 ⎜ ⎟ A3 1 ⎜ ⎟
L1 = = det ⎜ 1 X 2 Y2 ⎟ ; L2 = = det ⎜ 1 X 3 Y3 ⎟ ; L3 = = det ⎜ 1 X 1 Y1 ⎟
A 2A A 2A A 2A
⎜⎝ 1 X Y ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 X Y ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 X Y ⎟⎠
3 3 1 1 2 2
In each of these formulas, the sequence for vertex coordinates is obtained by

traversing the three vertices of the subregion in a counterclockwise direction beginning
with vertex P. The counterclockwise sequence ensures that the calculated value is
positive. Also, the formula for the total area A is simplified by expanding the
determinant, e.g., expanding across the top row yields,
1
A= ( ) ( )
⎡ X Y − X 3Y2 − X 1 Y3 − Y2 + Y1 X 3 − X 2 ⎤
2⎣ 2 3 ⎦ ( )
1
( ) ( )
= ⎡⎣ X 1 Y2 − Y3 + X 2 Y3 − Y1 + X 3 Y1 − Y2 ⎤⎦
2
( )
1
= ⎡⎣ X 1Y23 + X 2Y31 + X 3Y12 ⎤⎦
2
where Yij = Yi − Y j , (i, j = 1,2,3) .
7-4.2 Alternative shape function expressions for the basic three-node element. It
is also useful to observe that the area coordinates L1 , L2 and L3 actually equal the shape
functions for the basic three-node triangular element, N 1 , N 2 and N 3 , respectively (given
in Table 7-3). For example, expanding the determinant in the transformation formula for
L1 about the first row yields (with A ≡ A( e) ),

1
e ⎣( 2 3
L1 = ⎡ X Y − X 3Y2 ) − X (Y3 − Y2 ) + Y ( X 3 − X 2 ) ⎤
⎦
2 A( )
1
e ⎣( 2 3
= ⎡ X Y − X 3Y2 ) + Y23 X + X 32Y ⎤
⎦
2 A( )
∴ L1 = N 1 ( X ,Y )
( )
where N 1 X ,Y is the shape function for node 1 derived earlier by the matrix inversion
method (Section 7-3.2). Similarly, the area coordinates L1 and L2 are the shape
functions for nodes 2 and 3, respectively, i.e.,
L2 = N 2 ( X ,Y ) and L3 = N 3 ( X ,Y )
Therefore, the shape functions N i for the three-node triangular element in terms
of area coordinates are simply,
( )
N 1 L1 ,L2 ,L3 = L1 ( )
N 2 L1 ,L2 ,L3 = L2 ( )
N 3 L1 ,L2 ,L3 = L3
It should be clear that in this form they too satisfy the Kronecker-delta property, i.e.,
⎧⎪ 1 at node i
N i ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) = ⎨ (i = 1,2,3)
0 at other two nodes
⎩⎪
Also, that they satisfy the partition-of-unity property is quickly verified, i.e.,
N1 + N 2 + N 3 = L1 + L2 + L3 = 1
Upon substituting the cartesian transformation formulas for area coordinates
L1 , L2 , L3 in the preceding formulas for N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , the shape functions for the three-
node triangular element may be expressed in the following alternative cartesian forms
(i.e., alternative to the forms given in Table 7-3),
1
N 1 ( X ,Y ) = ( a1 + b1 X + c1Y )
2A( e)
1
N 2 ( X ,Y ) = ( a2 + b2 X + c2Y )
2A( e)
1
N 3 ( X ,Y ) = ( a3 + b3 X + c3Y )
2A( e)
where ai , bi , ci (i = 1,2,3) are cofactors of the first row of the determinant in the formula
for Li (i = 1,2,3) . That is,
⎛ X2 Y2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 Y2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 X2 ⎞
a1 = + det ⎜ b1 = − det ⎜ c1 = + det ⎜
⎝ X3 Y3 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 Y3 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 X3 ⎟⎠
⎛ X3 Y3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 Y3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 X3 ⎞
a2 = + det ⎜ b2 = − det ⎜ c2 = + det ⎜
⎝ X1 Y1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 Y1 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 X1 ⎟⎠
⎛ X1 Y1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 Y1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 X1 ⎞
a3 = + det ⎜ b3 = − det ⎜ c3 = + det ⎜
⎝ X2 Y2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 Y2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 1 X2 ⎟⎠
Section 7-5. Shape Functions for the Six-Node Triangular Element. Three
midside nodes in addition to three vertex nodes are employed for the six-node triangular
⌢ ⌢
element. Rectangular displacement components u and v at any point within this
element or on its sides are interpolated from the element's 12 dof shown enumerated in
the element sketch. The 12 dof are comprised of the two sets of six nodal displacement
( ) ( )
components u1 ,u2 ,u3 ,u4 ,u5 ,u6 and v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 .
Basic six-node quadratic triangular element having 12 dof
⌢ ⌢
7-5.1 Assumed quadratic behavior functions u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) . The assumed
behavior functions are quadratic polynomial functions. They are constructed from the
first six monomial terms in the Pascal triangle as follows (Section 7-3.1),
⌢
u ( x,y ) = α 1 + α 2 x + α 3 y + α 4 x 2 + α 5 xy + α 6 y 2
⌢
v ( x,y ) = α 7 + α 8 x + α 9 y + α 10 x 2 + α 11 xy + α 12 y 2
The constants α i are amplitudes of the various behavioral modes of deformation

possessed by this element, i.e., constant, linear, bilinear and quadratic displacement
modes. The behavior functions are complete quadratic functions in x and y and they
carry no surplus terms, according to the Pascal triangle.
This contrasts with the assumed behavior functions for rectangular element
counterparts, one of which is the nine-node biquadratic element, which carries three
surplus terms (Section 7-2). Therefore, the six-node triangular element appears to be
more efficient than the nine-node rectangular element (or a similar eight-node element
presented in Section 8-4). Both have a theoretical, quadratic convergence rate, but the
former carries no surplus terms.
⌢ ⌢
7-5.2 Quadratic interpolation functions u ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) and v ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) . The
quadratic interpolation functions for the six-node triangular element are linear
combinations of six quadratic shape functions in area coordinates L1 , L2 , L3 . Derivation
of these shape functions by the matrix inversion method would be inconvenient. The
issue may be glimpsed from the equation α = C −1d u where the coefficient matrix C is
order-three for the simpler three-node triangular element (Section 7-3.2), but now would
be order-six. Further, an increased effort to collect terms associated with dof to finally
define shape functions would be required. Fortunately, the more direct Lagrange
interpolation method is available owing to the use of area coordinates. It is employed to
derive the quadratic shape functions.
Since it has been shown that the area coordinate Li ( i = 1,2,3 ) equals the linear
shape function N i ( X,Y ) for the three-node element, the previous graph of N i ( X,Y )
may be borrowed and used as shown here to illustrate how Li varies over the region of
the subject (and previous three-node) triangular element.
Graphs of area coordinates L1 , L2 , L3 over the six-node triangular element region
These graphs demonstate that area

coordinate Li varies linearly from 0 to 1 along
the line drawn from any point on the side
opposite vertex i to vertex i. In the first graph,
for example, L1 is zero at any point on side 1
(e.g., at node point 2, 5, or 3) and varies linearly
from there to the value 1 at node 1.
The area coordinates of any node point
are obtained directly by referring to the diagram Area coordinates of midside node 4
shown here of the subject element embedded in
the area coordinate system.11 Diagram of six-node triangular element in the
area coordinate system
11
There is no single origin point for a barycentric coordinate system. For area coordinates, for example,
there is no point with coordinates (0,0,0). After all, the three coordinates of a point must sum to unity.
Instead, there are three "semi-origin" points, (1,0,0), (0,1,0) and (0,0,1), i.e., node points 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.
For example, the diagram shows the area coordinates for nodes 1, 4, and 2 are
(1, 0, 0 ) , (1 2, 1 2, 0 ) and (0, 1, 0 ) , respectively. Notice that when point P coincides
with node 1, the sub-areas are A1 = A and A2 = A3 = 0 . When point P coincides with
node 4, the sub-areas are A1 = A2 = A 2 and A3 = 0 . When point P coincides with node
2, the sub-areas are A1 = 0 , A2 = A and A3 = 0 .
Derivation of the quadratic shape functions for the six-node triangular element is
illustrated using the Lagrange interpolation method together with the diagram of the area
coordinate system in the following.
( )
It’s known that the shape function N 1 L1 ,L2 , L3 must be a quadratic function for
which,
⎧⎪ 1 at node 1
N 1 ( L1 ,L2 , L3 ) = ⎨
According to the Lagrange interpolation method, a quadratic function that is zero at all
six nodes except node 1 on the diagram is,
( ) (
N 1 L1 ,L2 ,L3 = cL1 L1 − 1 2 )
This function is the product of the two linear functions cL1 and ( L1 − 1 2 ) and is
therefore quadratic. Irrespective of the constant c, the function cL1 coerces a zero value
for N 1 at all points on side 1 (i.e., on the side opposite to node 1 where L1 is zero), most
specifically node points 2, 5 and 3. The function ( L1 − 1 2 ) coerces a zero value for N 1
at node points 4 and 6 for which L1 equals 1 2 (this is so for all points on line 4-6).
Finally, the constant c is determined so that N 1 equals 1 at node 1 whose area
coordinates are (1, 0, 0). That is,
N 1 (1,0,0 ) = c (1) (1 − 1 2 ) = 1 ⇒ c = 2
Therefore, the shape function for vertex node 1 is,
(
N 1 = 2L1 L1 − 1 2 )
This procedure results in similar quadratic expressions for N 2 and N 3 when applied to
vertex nodes 2 and 3, respectively (Problem 7-12(a)).
(
For a typical midside node such as node 4, the shape function N 4 L1 ,L2 ,L3 must )
be a quadratic function for which,
⎧⎪ 1 at node 4
N 4 ( L1 ,L2 ,L3 ) = ⎨
Referring to the diagram, a quadratic function that is zero at all nodes except node 4 is,
( )
N 4 L1 ,L2 ,L3 = cL1 L2
That is, N 4 is clearly zero when either L1 or L2 is zero, and L1 is zero at node points 2,
5 and 3 (i.e., on side 1), and L2 is zero at node points 1, 6 and 3 (i.e., on side 2). Thus,
irrespective of the constant c, the function cL1 L2 is zero at all six nodes except node 4.
The constant c is determined so that N 4 equals 1 at node 4 whose area coordinates are
(1/2, 1/2, 0), i.e.,
N 4 (1 2,1 2,0 ) = c (1 2 ) (1 2 ) = 1 ⇒ c = 4
Therefore, the shape function for midside node 4 is,
N 4 = 4 L1 L2
Further, since L2 = 1− L1 − L3 (or L1 = 1− L2 − L3 ), it should be clear that N 4 is a

quadratic function as required. This procedure results in similar quadratic functions for
N 5 and N 6 when applied to midside nodes 5 and 6, respectively (Problem 7-12(b)).
The six shape functions for the subject higher-order triangular element are listed
in Table 7-4. Each may be expressed differently (but equivalently) using the relation
6
L1 + L2 + L3 = 1 . Proof that the partition-of-unity property ∑ N ( L ,L ,L ) = 1 holds is
i 1 2 3
i=1
left as an exercise (Problem 7-14).
Table 7-4. Shape functions for the basic six-node quadratic triangular element.
=================================
N 1 = 2L1 ( L1 − 1 2 ) ⎫
⎪
N 2 = 2L2 ( L2 − 1 2 ) ⎪
⎪
N 3 = 2L3 ( L3 − 1 2 ) ⎪ 6
⎬ ∑ N ( L ,L ,L ) = 1
i 1 2 3
N 4 = 4 L1 L2 ⎪ i=1
⎪
N 5 = 4 L2 L3 ⎪
N 6 = 4 L1 L3 ⎪
⎭
==============================
Finally, the quadratic interpolation functions for the basic, six-node triangular
element are the following two, linear combinations of the six shape functions in Table 7-
4.
6 6
⌢ ⌢
u ( L1 ,L2 ,L3 ) = ∑ N i ( L1 ,L2 ,L3 ) ui and v ( L1 ,L2 ,L3 ) = ∑ N i ( L1 ,L2 ,L3 ) vi
i=1 i=1
As an aside, it may be recalled that evaluation of element stiffness matrices

generally requires integration of coordinate functions over an element’s area A. For basic
triangular elements formulated in area coordinates, the following general integral formula
for products of these coordinates raised to arbitrary powers is recommended (see also
Section 5-5),
a! b! c!
∫ L1
a
L2b L3 c dA = × 2A
A
( a + b + c + 2)!
For example,
2! 0! 0! 1
∫ L1
2
dA = × 2A = A
A
( 2 + 2)! 6
Section 7-6. /CAE Study - Computational Efficiency of Low and High

Order Elements. It is important to know whether or not high order elements are
more accurate than low order elements for comparable computational effort. This
is explored using a series of plane stress analyses with Abaqus/CAE.12 The study
considers only linear and quadratic elements, and considers them only in their
basic triangular and rectangular forms, as presented in this chapter. 13
Objective: The objective is to compare the accuracy of linear and quadratic

triangular elements having three (3) and six (6) nodes, respectively, and the accuracy of
linear (actually bilinear) and quadratic rectangular elements having four (4) and eight (8)
nodes, respectively. Comparisons are made with benchmark deflections from elementary
beam theory, which are considered “exact deflections” in this study. In particular, the
transverse deflection v of a slender cantilever beam with a uniform load q is given by:
12
Finite element plane stress analysis is covered in Chapter 9 and in Tutorials T8 and T9.
13
Abaqus does not have a biquadratic or nine-node continuum element nor does it have cubic continuum
elements. Instead, a comparable quadratic or eight-node element is used in this study (see Chapter 8).
v=−
24EI
(
qx 2 2
x − 4Lx + 6 L2 ) and vmax = −
qL4
8EI
Length, L = 1 m
Depth, h = 0.1 m
Width, b = 0.01 m
Uniform load, q = 10 kN/m
Young's modulus, E = 200 GPa
1 3
Moment of inertia, I = bh
12
Subject Models: The subject structure is the uniformly loaded slender

cantilever beam shown above with its relevant properties. It is modeled with basic
triangular elements and with basic rectangular elements. Both linear and quadratic
behavior with each of these basic elements is studied. Thus, a series of four /CAE
plane stress analyses is conducted. For meaningful comparisons in this study,
each of the four models was designed to have the same total number of degrees of
freedom.
Loading and boundary conditions are indicated in the structural idealization of the
cantilever beam shown. The fixed end condition was implemented by pinning the origin,
and otherwise constraining points along the vertical edge in the horizontal direction only.
In this way, localized artificial effects extraneous to the elementary theory’s benchmark
deflections are minimized.
Structural idealization of the cantilever beam
The following four finite element meshes are representative of the four models
employed in the study, each model having a total of 404 active DOF:
(1) Three-node linear triangular element mesh (element type CPS3),
(2) Six-node quadratic triangular element mesh (element type CPS6),

(3) Four-node bilinear rectangular element mesh (element type CPS4),
(4) Eight-node quadratic rectangular element mesh (element type CPS8).
Results: The deformed configuration of the cantilever beam shown here is taken
from the 8-node rectangular element model. It is typical of the deformed configuration
for all four models.
Deformed configuration of the cantilever beam
The two graphs below show the transverse deflection v(x) of the cantilever beam
modeled with low and high order triangular elements (on the left), and with low and high
order rectangular elements (on the right). The exact solution from elementary theory is
also included. Deflection data are normalized on vmax, the exact value from beam theory
for tip deflection of the cantilever beam. The plotted data markers are taken from node
points along the neutral or mid-plane surfaces of the models.
Moreover, the following table shows the percent error in the maximum or tip
deflection of the subject cantilever beam for each of the four element types.
vmax − FEM
Percent error in maximum deflection = × 100
vmax
Low order, High order,
linear element quadratic element
Triangular 16.38% -1.260%
Rectangular 1.689% -1.208%
Conclusions: Since the computational effort for all four models is comparable,
owing to each model having the same number of active degrees of freedom, high order
elements are shown to be more computationally efficient than low order elements in the
two graphs. However, the difference between the bilinear and quadratic rectangular
elements is comparatively small. It’s noted that the effectiveness of high order elements
can also be very problem dependent.14
The quadratic rectangular element is shown in the table to be only slightly more
accurate than the quadratic triangular element. In these data the difference is too small to
be of any consequence. The low order triangular element is not competitive when
bending dominates the problem, as it does in this study, or in general when high stress
gradients exist.
/CAE Modeling Tips: The

Element Type dialogue in the Mesh
module is for specifying a particular
finite element type for use in modeling
tasks, as in the solution phase for this
study. The dialogue shown selects
element type CPS8 from the
Abaqus/Standard element library; it is a
continuum, plane stress, 8-node, element.
However, it’s noted that the
element is not biquadratic as indicated in
the dialogue, for to be so it must have
nine nodes. It is instead a quadratic
element (see also Tutorials T8 and T9).
14
T. J. R. Hughes (1987). The Finite Element Method, p.126, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J.,
803 pages, 1987.
BASIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS P7-1
PROBLEM SET 7
Problem 7-1
(a) Derive shape functions N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , and N 4 given in Table 7-1 for the bilinear
rectangular element using the bivariate lagrangian interpolation method.
(b) Derive N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , and N 4 for the bilinear rectangular element using the matrix
inverse method. (Hint: Use a computer to calculate the inverse matrix symbolically.)
(c) Show that N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , and N 4 satisfy the partition-of-unity property of finite element
shape functions.
Problem 7-2
While displacement is a vector quantity having component interpolation functions
⌢ ⌢
u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y ) , temperature is a scalar quantity having a single interpolation
⌢
function T ( x, y ) .
⌢
(a) Write the interpolation function T ( x, y ) for a bilinear rectangular element.
⌢ ⌢
(b) Calculate the temperature gradients in the x- and y-directions, ∂T ∂x and ∂T ∂y ,
respectively, and evaluate them at the center of the bilinear rectangular element shown
below with l = w = 1 in.
(c) At the center, compute qx and q y , the x - and y-components of the heat flux,
respectively, if the coefficient of thermal conductivity is k = 13.10 Btu hr per ( ft ⋅°F ) .
Assume A = 1in 2 in the x- and y-directions.
T1 = 42°F
T2 = 46 °F
T3 = 50 °F
T4 = 38 °F
Problem 7-3
Considering the four-node bilinear element in Problem 7-2, calculate the x and y
coordinates of three points on the following isotherms, including two points that lie on
sides of the element. Use the points to sketch the isotherms in the xy plane through the
element.
(a) 40° -isotherm
(b) 45° -isotherm
Problem 7-4
( ) ( )
Verify that the shape functions N 1 x, y , N 5 x, y and N 9 ( x, y ) given in Table 7-2 for
the biquadratic rectangular element, each satisfy the Kronecker delta property.
Problem 7-5
(a) Derive the shape functions for the nine-node biquadratic rectangular element, except
for N 1 , N 5 and N 9 , using the bivariate lagrangian interpolation method (see Table 7-2).
(b) Derive the shape functions for the nine-node biquadratic rectangular element using
the matrix inversion method (symbolic math software is recommended).
(c) Show that the shape functions for the nine-node biquadratic rectangular element
satisfy the partition-of-unity property (symbolic math software is recommended).
Problem 7-6
The nine-node biquadratic rectangular element is shown below in the xy coordinate
system with origin at node 1. The bivariate product for the shape function for node 4 is,
N 4 ( x, y ) = N 4 ( x ) ⋅ N 4 ( y )
(a) With the element lying flat in the xy plane, sketch in three dimensions the shape
function graph z = N 4 ( x,y ) .
(b) Sketch the three-dimensional graph z = N 4 ( x ) and then derive the quadratic function
N 4 ( x ) where,
⎧⎪ 1 at nodes 4, 8 and 1
N4 ( x ) = ⎨ (0 ≤ x ≤ l; 0 ≤ y ≤ w)
(c) Sketch the three-dimensional graph z = N 4 ( y ) and then derive the quadratic function
N 4 ( y ) where,
⎧⎪ 1 at nodes 4, 7 and 3
N4 ( y ) = ⎨ (0 ≤ x ≤ l; 0 ≤ y ≤ w)
(d) Write the biquadratic shape function N 4 ( x,y ) for the element.
Problem 7-7
(a) Sketch and label the four modes of deformation constituting the assumed
⌢
displacement function v ( x, y ) for the four-node, bilinear, rectangular element.
(b) Sketch and label the three modes of deformation constituting the assumed
⌢
displacement function u ( x, y ) for the three-node, linear, triangular element.
Problem 7-8
Show that the shape functions N 1 ( x, y ) , N 2 ( x, y ) and N 3 ( x, y ) , as given in Table 7-3 for
the three-node linear triangular element, satisfy the following two key properties:
(a) the Kronecker delta property,
(b) the partition-of-unity property for a typical point, say ( x2 2, 0 ).
Problem 7-9
For the three-node, linear triangular element shown:
(a) Derive the shape functions N 1 ( x, y ) , N 2 ( x, y ) and N 3 ( x, y )
using Lagrange interpolation.
(b) Verify the solutions in part (a) using the shape functions in
Table 7-3.
Problem 7-10
A linear, three-node triangular element is one meter on a side, and its nodal temperatures
are given as shown below. Calculate the coordinates of the 40 0 -isotherm's intersections
with the sides of the element, and sketch the isotherm through the element.
T1 = 20 0 C
T2 = 30 0 C
T3 = 50 0 C
Problem 7-11
Plane stress finite element analyses (Chapter 9) may employ three-node linear triangular
elements. One is shown here for reference. This element approximates the displacement
components u and v with the interpolation formulas,
⌢ 3 ⌢ 3
u ≈ u = ∑ N iui and v ≈ v = ∑ N i vi
i=1 i=1
and the corresponding strain displacement relationships are,
⌢ ⌢ ⌢ ⌢
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
εx = εy = γ xy = +
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Complete the following relationship between strain components and nodal displacements,
⎧ u1 ⎫
⎪ ⎪
⎪ v1 ⎪
⎧ ε ⎫ ⎡ ⎛ 1 x y1 ⎞
⎪⎪ x ⎪⎪ ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ⎤⎪ ⎪ 1
1 ⎢ ⎥⎪ u2 ⎪ 1 ⎜ ⎟
⎨ εy ⎬= A = det ⎜ 1 x2
(e)
(e) ⎢
0 ? 0 ? 0 ? ⎥⎨ ⎬ where y2 ⎟
⎪ 2 A ⎢⎣ v2 ⎪ 2
⎪ ? ? ? ? ? ? ⎥⎦ ⎪ ⎜ 1 x y3 ⎟⎠
⎪⎩ γ xy ⎪⎭ ⎪ u3 ⎪ ⎝ 3
⎪ ⎪
⎪ v3 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
Problem 7-12
For the basic six-node quadratic triangular element:
( )
(a) Derive the shape function N 2 L1 ,L2 ,L3 , using Lagrange interpolation,
(b) Derive the shape function N ( L ,L ,L ) , using Lagrange interpolation,
5 1 2 3
(c) N ( L ,L ,L ) = 4 L L is the shape function for which node?

? 1 2 3 1 3
(d) Does stress vary linearly or is it constant throughout the element? Explain why.
Problem 7-13
Derive the shape functions N i ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) ( i = 1, 2, …, 6 ) for the basic six-node quadratic
triangular element listed in Table 7-4.
Problem 7-14
Show that the partition-of-unity property holds for the shape functions for the basic six-
node quadratic triangular element.
Problem 7-15
For the basic, six-node quadratic triangular element shown:
(a) Derive the shape function for node 6, N 6 ( x, y ) , using
the Lagrange interpolation method and cartesian
coordinates.
(b) Verify the solution in part (a) using Table 7-4 and area
coordinates.
Problem 7-16 ⌢
Nodal temperatures are given in the adjacent table. Find the temperature T at the
centroid of the basic 6-node triangular element shown.
Node Ti
i
°C
1 10
2 55
3 80
4 35
5 55
6 60
Problem 7-17
Referring to Tutorial T7, construct parts and/or meshes as required in the following using
Abaqus/CAE. Document by printing the parts and/or meshes.
(a) Exploiting the symmetry of the part defined in Example T7-1, generate two free
meshes of the new (half) part, one with the default quadrilateral elements, and one with
triangular elements. Refine both meshes.
(b) Exploiting the two planes of symmetry of the part defined in Example T7-2, free
mesh the new (quarter) part with both quadrilateral and triangular elements. Refine both
meshes about the hole, partitioning as necessary.
(c) Generate or import the geometry of a solid object of your choosing that is comparable
feature-wise to the pin's geometry in Example T7-3. Partition the object as necessary and
mesh it with hexahedral elements using swept or structured meshing.
(d) Import the pin part in the CAD file Pin.STEP. Free mesh it using tetrahedral
elements, and apply mesh verification and virtual topology tools to enhance the quality of
the mesh, as demonstrated in Example T7-4. Show the initial and enhanced meshes, and
record for each the numbers of elements that would trigger mesh distortion
errors/warnings during an analysis.
Problem 7-18
Referring to Tutorial T7, construct parts and/or meshes as required in the following using
Abaqus/CAE. Document by printing the parts and/or meshes.
(a) The refined, quadrilateral and triangular element meshes in Example T7-1 are not
symmetric with respect to the vertical centerline of the part. Partition the part and
employ structured meshing as necessary to create refined quadrilateral and triangular
element meshes that are symmetric.
(b) The refined, symmetric mesh in Example T7-2 is perhaps too fine in the outer regions
of the plate. Use biased, local edge seeding to increase the element size in the outer
region with distance from the inner region.
(c) The defeatured CAD part file, prt_331_94_defeatured.sat, was

exported (to the working directory) in Example T5-2. Referring to
Example T7-3, import it and observe that it is initially rendered in
orange in the Mesh module. Partition the part as shown here. The
base is rendered in yellow using the Extend face method, and then
the upper region is rendered in both green and pink using the Point & Normal method.
Finally, mesh the part using a combination of hex and tet elements.
(d) Suppress all partition features and then free mesh the component in part (c) using
tetrahedral elements. Apply mesh verification and virtual topology tools as demonstrated
in Example T7-4, and attempt to enhance the quality of the mesh. Record the initial and
final number of elements that would trigger mesh distortion warnings during analysis.

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Chapter 7

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BASIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FINITE ELEMENT SHAPE FUNCTIONS 7-1

There had been very few one-dimensional engineering problems of interest in

imagined to displace in response to loading. The rectangular components of these

boundary displaces correspondingly. The displacement is keyed to the nodal

Four-node bilinear rectangular element having eight dof

The actual displacement of any point ( x, y ) in a two-dimensional elastic region

occupied by the element is defined by its two rectangular components, denoted u ( x, y )

and v ( x, y ) . These two displacement components are approximated throughout the

constructed to interpolate the nodal displacement components u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 and

v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , respectively, throughout the element. The eight unknown nodal

A bilinear polynomial of x and y is defined as the product of two linear

The constants α 1 through α 4 , and α 5 through α 8 , are unknown amplitudes of

represented by the rectangular element, the computed finite element displacement

so that a sufficient number of equations will be available to find the amplitudes α i

uniquely in terms of the dof ui ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ). This is also true for vi ( i = 1, 2, 3, 4 ). So it

Pascal triangle – terms for bilinear and biquadratic polynomials indicated

The Pascal triangle is introduced to help clarify the particular forms of

These equations may be symbolized by,

through α 4 in terms of the four dof u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 .7 Then, α 1 through α 4 are eliminated

coefficients of u1 , u2 , u3 and u4 are identified as the shape functions N 1 , N 2 , N 3 and N 4 ,

N i ( x, y ) = C1i( −1) + C2i( −1) x + C3i( −1) y + C4i( −1) xy (i = 1, 2, 3, 4 )

displacement follows as a linear combination of the four shape functions,

Shape function graphs for the bilinear rectangular element

Bilinear shape functions are derived as products of two, one-dimensional linear

Lagrange interpolation method in one-dimension (Section 5-2.2). The following example

interpolation as follows. The bivariate product for N 1 ( x, y ) is,

N 1 ( x ) must equal zero at x = l as shown in the graph above for N 1 ( x, y ) . Thus,

element, R = {0 ≤ x ≤ l; 0 ≤ y ≤ w} . Thus, the graph in space for N 1 ( x ) and domain R is

plotted as indicated here,

Three-dimensional graph of N 1 ( x ) for domain R

Three-dimensional graph of N 1 ( y ) for domain R

The graph in space of the bivariate product N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) and domain R is the

Three-dimensional graph of N 1 ( x ) ⋅ N 1 ( y ) for domain R

Table 7-1. Shape functions for the bilinear rectangular element.

Section 7-2. Shape Functions for the Nine-Node Biquadratic Rectangular

(l 2, w 2 ) . Node 9 is also called an internal node in FEM.

Nine-node biquadratic rectangular element having 18 dof

displacement components in the y-direction ( v1 through v9 ).

polynomial function of x and y is defined as the product of two quadratic polynomial

the key criteria,

method for quadratic, one-dimensional shape functions (Section 5-2.2). Then, N 1 x, y ( )

is constructed as the bivariate product of these two, one-dimensional functions. This is

Thus, using the Lagrange interpolation method, irrespective of a constant c,

Lagrange interpolation method, irrespective of a constant c,

satisfy the key criteria,

∑ i=1 Ni ( x, y ) = 1 (Problem 7-5).

Three-node triangular element having six dof

The constants α 1 through α 6 are amplitudes of the various modes of

Modes for the other component u ( x, y ) are assumed zero in the

the y-direction to a linear combination of these three modes.

α 1 + α 2 X 1 + α 3Y1 = u1 . In matrix form, the three equations are symbolized by,

It can be shown that the inverted system α = C −1du is,

⎨ α2 ⎬= ( e) ⎜ Y23 Y31 Y12 ⎟ ⎨ u2 ⎬

To obtain a positive value with this formula, it is

rearranging terms to disclose the coefficients of u1 , u2 and u3 , respectively, reveals the

C −1 leads to N i ( X,Y ) as follows,

Repeating the matrix inversion method using the interpolation conditions on

verified as follows. At node 1, the coordinates are X = X 1 and Y = Y1 so that,

Therefore, since the determinant equals 2A( e) ,

On the other hand, k( e) is established directly when it is possible to develop shape

Section 7-4. Area Coordinates for Triangular Element Shape Functions.

Triangular subregion areas A1, A2, A3

Point P may be defined either by its local area coordinates ( L1 , L2 , L3 ) or by its