John Baker (john.baker@eng.ua.

edu)
UA/AEM

AEM 360 ASTRONAUTICS

The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

All recorded lectures and presentations are for viewing by members of this class section only and may not be posted in any public forum or shared
with anyone not enrolled in this class. Any student violating these rules may be referred to the Office of Student Conduct for disciplinary action.
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Remember to fully utilize the course resources

• AEM 360 Blackboard Site
• Course Syllabus
• Handouts
• Homework
• Quizlet

• Textbook: Sellers, J.J., Understanding Space: An Introduction

to Astronautics, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, 2005.

o Key Terms and Definitions

o Identified at the end of textbook sections
o Typically identified in the notes (BOLD)
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

In This Module
• Why should we explore and develop space?
• Three philosophies about space exploration and development
• A first look at the elements of a space mission
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Astronautics Defined
The term astronautics refers to the study, design, fabrication,
testing, and operation of spacecraft (systems that operate
beyond a planetary atmosphere) and launch vehicles/systems
(systems that transport spacecraft beyond planetary
atmospheres)

• orbital mechanics

• space environment

• attitude determination & control

• telecommunications

• space structures

• rocket propulsion
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

THE QUESTIONS
With all the problems in the world today, why expend our limited resources
to explore and develop space?

Why not focus these resources on curing diseases, solving our society’s
social problems, developing alternative energy sources, improving the
environment, and increasing the overall quality of life for all people?
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

Drivers that propel people to do great things1
1. Tyson, N., “Space Exploration: The Power of Vision,” in The Case for Space Exploration, Space Foundation, 2006.

• National Security
• Economics
• Praise of a deity or royalty

Are their other drivers?

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/egyptjournal/photogalleries/pyramid/index.html https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral#
/media/File:National_Cathedral_Center.jpg

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/destinations/The_Black_Hills/ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/09/photogalleries/throughthelens2/ http://java.nationalgeographic.com/studentatlas/clickup/mogul.html http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/Modern/panama.html

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

Why nations expend resources to explore space

National Pride
A successful space program historically increases the morale of a country’s
citizens. For example, China sees its space program as example of it being a
“Great Power”. International competition also drives the
exploration/development of space, i.e. U.S., Russian, and European GPS.

National Security/Safety
Space-based remote sensing/surveillance/communication allows information
to be gathered on the activities of potentially hostile groups/nations and can
be used to verify treaty obligations. Space-based assets enhance our ability to
deal with man-made and natural disasters. Satellite images are used to predict
the paths of hurricanes and other severe weather behavior.

Exploration
Human and robotic missions have provided a wealth of knowledge as to the image source: NASA
nature of our universe.
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

Why nations expend resources to explore space

Commercial/Industrial Applications
The commercial satellite market is valued in the billions of dollars (ATMS,
Internet, telephone services, etc.). Satellite imagery is used in numerous
agricultural applications. Weather forecasting often uses satellite imagery.
Satellite communications/imagery has revolutionized the radio/television
industry and dramatically changed the way news is reported.

Technological spin-off of commercial products from products developed for

space applications continue to change the way we live/work.

Scientific Research
A microgravity environment allows for research/development which simply can
not be performed in a terrestrial environment.

Satellite imagery has provided clues to the extinction of the dinosaurs, the
nature of ancient civilizations, and how we are currently affecting the planet. image source: NASA (https://pmm.nasa.gov/image-gallery/visualization-hurricane-floyd)
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

Why nations expend resources to explore space

Military Applications
Space provides the “ultimate high ground” militarily. Space-
based technology now an integral part of U.S. military
doctrine (C4ISR – Command, Control, Communication,
Computer, Information, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance).
Space-based assets are used for both military and civilian
navigation.

U.S. Air Force X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle 4

(source: https://www.dvidshub.net/image/3362967/x-37b-otv4-lands-kennedy-space-center)
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

GPS (Global Positioning System) - The GPS system is a
constellation of satellites (31 operational satellites as of
02.20.2020) used to provide time and geolocation data to users
of the system. For the system to operate properly, a user needs
simultaneous access to 4 GPS satellites

How Does GPS Work? https://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/

r2=ct2 transformations/gps/Figure_1.html
• Signal sent out from satellite include information on
the satellite’s exact location and the time the signal
was sent. Ground stations monitor satellite
position/flight path, synchronizing the atomic clocks on
the satellites, & uploading data for transmission.
r1=ct1
• The signal is transmitted in a pseudo-random code
and travels at the speed of light. The GPS receiver
has a pre-programmed code generator to generate the
exact codes (in 32 variations). r3=ct3

• GPS receivers calculate the distance between the

receiver and the satellite, i.e. the pseudorange, by
examining the pseudo-random code relative to the
code its own code generator has produced.
Trilateration – Trilateration uses the known location of 3 satellites and
the measured distance between these satellites and the point of interest
to determine the location of the point of interest. So why do you need 4
satellites to fix a location.
Problem: GPS satellites have atomic clocks (very accurate time
measurement) while GPS receiver units do not (not nearly as
accurate). Without atomic clocks, there is an error introduced in
the time measurement and thus the measurement of the radius
of the circle (sphere) is incorrect, i.e. can not locate the position.

The GPS receivers can measure accurately the

difference between the times when the signals
were received. Using a 4th satellite and
multilateration, the GPS receiver can adjust to give a
better estimate of the actual location.

source: UNAVCO (https://www.unavco.org/education/outreach/infographics/infographics.html)

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

How should we explore & develop space?

Space Exploration Philosophies

Governments are the only entities with the resources needed to

explore space

Entrepreneurs must take the lead since government led space

exploration isn’t going to “open up” space for the public

Robots are the most effective way of exploring space and this
approach does not risk lives. Image credit: SpaceX

Image credit: NASA Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

How should we explore & develop space?

Government Led

Pros
• Financial resources
• Infrastructure
• Corporate memory (NASA)
• National Sense of Purpose
• National Security
• Has led to the widespread use of
space for civilian/military applications

Cons
• Politics
• Bureaucracies
• Keeping on “Mission”/Vision
• Should the government compete with
private sector?
• Has the government been in
competition with private sector?
• Has not led to the widespread access
to space by the public Image credit: NASA
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

How should we explore & develop space?

Some Facts about NASA

NASA’s Budget (FY 17): $19.5 billion

US budget (FY17): $4.2 trillion – NASA’s budget is 0.47% of US budget

NASA’s cost per person: 16¢/person/day

Assuming a population of 325.7 million Americans

Compared to Fortune 500 companies (2018 Revenues: approximate)

1. Wal-Mart $500 billion
2. Exxon Mobile $224 billion
4. Apple $229 billion
7. CVS Health $185 billion
Image credit: NASA

NASA’s budget includes funds for astronautics, aeronautics, earth science, etc.
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

How should we explore & develop space?

Entrepreneur Led

Pros
• Financial resources
• Less Bureaucracy
• Lower expectations v. NASA
• Entrepreneurial opportunities
• The Wild West/Similar to the dawn of the “Age of Flight”
• Large, publicly-available body of knowledge on which to draw
• Renewed “Spirit of Discovery” among the public Image credit: Virgin Galactic/marsscientific.com and Trumbull Studios

Cons
• Financial Resources
• Uncertain Regulatory Future
• Unrealistic Expectations
• A dangerous business for people with little to no
understanding of the risks
• What happens when someone get injured/killed?
• Sustainability

Image credit: NASA (https://spacenews.com/nasa-orbital-differ-on-root-cause-of-antares-launch-failure/)

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

How should we explore & develop space?

Robotic

Pros
• Cost
• Long history of success
• Longer missions
• No risk to human life during mission
• Public excitement
• Power requirements
• Less chance of contaminating the surroundings

Cons
• Not as exciting as human missions
• Sensor limitations (resolution/type)
• Troubleshooting
• Humans are more effective at exploring/ understanding
than externally controlled robots
• Doesn’t expand human civilization

image credit: NASA (https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/image/msl.jpg)

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

How should we explore & develop space?

The Space Imperative: Summary Plus

• Risks | Danger | Cost

• New Technology | Fundamental Research
• Commerce & Banking | Tourism
• Communications
• Navigation/GPS
• Science
(astronomy | free fall – µg)
• National Security/Military
(high ground | net-centric military | missile defense)
• Resources
• Survival of the Species
(weather | planetary defense | solar storms)
• Exploration
• Perspective
• Earth Observation
• National Prestige https://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/apollo/apollo11/html/as11_44_6550.html

Space-based assets provide a “clear” view of space itself.

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Why should we explore & develop space?

THE QUESTIONS THE ANSWERS
With all the problems in the world
today, why expend our limited In a very real sense, the exploration and development of
resources to explore and develop
space?
space is an integral and critical part of our civilization.
Why not focus these resources on
curing diseases, solving our We take for granted, and implicitly depend upon, space
society’s social problems,
developing alternative energy technology in our daily lives and for our national security.
sources, improving the
environment, and increasing the
overall quality of life for all The continued exploration and development of space will
people?
benefit our society in ways we can not predict.

The exploration and development of space inspires us,

even in times of crisis.
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

What elements comprise a space mission?

Three segments of a space mission

Ground
• Systems Engineering
• Design
• Telemetry & Tracking
• Mission Operations/Management

Transfer
• Launch Vehicle – transports the payload
• Air/Space Environment

Space
• Orbital Mechanics / Trajectories
• Space Environment
• Spacecraft
o Payload – performs the mission
o Bus – integrated subsystems
supporting the payload

Image from : http://www.justatinker.com/Future/

ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

What elements comprise a space mission?

Three segments of a space mission

Ground
• Systems Engineering
• Design
• Telemetry & Tracking
• Mission Operations/Management

Transfer
• Launch Vehicle – transports the payload
• Air/Space Environment

Space
• Orbital Mechanics / Trajectories
• Space Environment
• Spacecraft
o Payload – performs the mission
o Bus – integrated subsystems
supporting the payload
source: Sellers, J.J., Understanding Space: An Introduction to Astronautics, 3rd
ed.,McGraw-Hill, 2005.
 ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

System: A group of interconnected elements capable of

SYSTEMS OF SYSTEMS (SoS)
producing a behavior or result that is not achievable by the
(highly interdisciplinary)
individual elements - constructive emergent behavior.
• Campaign: A group or series of interconnected
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. operations intended to achieve a desired outcome.
-Aristotle
Example: Apollo, Artemis

SoS: Campaign • Architecture: The high-level structure of the

relationships between the individual constituent
systems (as well as the constituent systems and the
SoS: Architecture environment). Includes both space vehicles and
mission elements. Architecture aspects:

SSys: Vehicles SSys: Missions • organizational (people)

• physical (hardware)
• configurational (interfaces)
Technologies Subsystems • functional (what does it do)
• operational (how does it do it)

Example: Apollo – Lunar Orbit Rendezvous

 ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

System: A group of interconnected elements capable of

SPACE SYSTEMS (SSyS)
producing a behavior or result that is not achievable by the
(highly interdisciplinary)
individual elements - constructive emergent behavior.
• Vehicles: Machines, mechanisms, and/or structures
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. that is designed to actively (or passively) transport a
-Aristotle payload; the payload being the part of the spacecraft
that performs the mission

SoS: Campaign Example: Launch vehicles, satellite buses

• Missions: The tasks and purposes of the tasks that

SoS: Architecture define the action being taken

Example: Apollo 11 – safely land humans on the

SSys: Vehicles SSys: Missions Moon and then safely return them to Earth

Technologies Subsystems
 ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

System: A group of interconnected elements capable of

SUBSYSTEMS
producing a behavior or result that is not achievable by the
(interdisciplinary)
individual elements - constructive emergent behavior.
• Attitude Determination & Control
The whole is greater than the sum of the parts. • Command & Data Handline
-Aristotle • Environmental Control & Life Support
• Electric Power
• Guidance, Navigation, & Control
SoS: Campaign • Propulsion
• Structure & Mechanism
• Telemetry, Tracking, & Command
SoS: Architecture • Thermal Control

TECHNOLOGIES
SSys: Vehicles SSys: Missions (interdisciplinary)

• Engineering solutions to problems

Technologies Subsystems • Hardware (device), software, processes, methodologies
• Technology Readiness Level (TRL)
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

What elements comprise a space mission?

Important Questions to Always Keep In Mind

Objectives: What must be achieved?

Users/Customers: Who will be using the system/data?
Operational Concepts: How will the objectives be achieved?

Critical Engineering Considerations: Systems (elegant design)

Constructive Emergence: Functionality/requirements

Efficiency: Ratio of desired output to required input
Robustness: Required range of operation (surroundings)
Resilience: Ability to return to normal operations after an unforeseen perturbation
Destructive Emergence: Unforeseen response
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

Engineering Design

Scientific Method Engineering Design

(simplified) Method
(simplified)
ASTRONAUTICS: The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

In Summary
• Why should we explore and develop space?
• Three philosophies about space exploration and development
• A first look at the elements of a space mission

source: Sellers, J.J., Understanding Space: An Introduction to Astronautics, 3rd

ed.,McGraw-Hill, 2005.
 John Baker (john.baker@eng.ua.edu)
UA/AEM

AEM 360 ASTRONAUTICS

The Space Imperative | Elements of a Space Mission

All recorded lectures and presentations are for viewing by members of this class section only and may not be posted in any public forum or shared
with anyone not enrolled in this class. Any student violating these rules may be referred to the Office of Student Conduct for disciplinary action.