Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491
DOI 10.1007/s00426-012-0438-8
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Examining auditory kappa effects through manipulating intensity
differences between sequential tones
Doug Alards-Tomalin • Launa C. Leboe-McGowan
Todd A. Mondor
Received: 17 January 2012 / Accepted: 7 April 2012 / Published online: 27 April 2012
Ó Springer-Verlag 2012
Abstract The auditory kappa effect is a tendency to base
the perceived duration of an inter-onset interval (IOI)
separating two sequentially presented sounds on the degree
of relative pitch distance separating them. Previous
research has found that the degree of frequency discrep-
ancy between tones extends the subjective duration of the
IOI. In Experiment 1, auditory kappa effects for sound
intensity were tested using a three-tone, AXB paradigm
(where the intensity of tone X was shifted to be closer to
either Tone A or B). Tones closer in intensity level were
perceived as occurring closer in time, evidence of an
auditory-intensity kappa effect. In Experiments 2 and 3, the
auditory motion hypothesis was tested by preceding AXB
patterns with null intensity and coherent intensity context
sequences, respectively. The auditory motion hypothesis
predicts that coherent sequences should enhance the per-
ception of motion and increase the strength of kappa
effects. In this study, the presence of context sequences
reduced kappa effect strength regardless of the properties
of the context tones.
Introduction
Previous research has consistently shown that contextual
elements (features inherent to a stimulus) exhibit powerful
biasing effects on duration judgments. For example, an
interval of time is systematically estimated as longer in
duration as the number of stimuli presented within that
D. Alards-Tomalin (&)
L. C. Leboe-McGowan
T. A. Mondor
Duff Roblin Building, Department of Psychology,
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
e-mail: umalards@cc.umanitoba.ca
123
•
interval is increased, a finding called the filled-duration
illusion (Adams, 1977; Buffardi, 1971; Thomas & Brown,
1974; Poynter & Homa, 1983). Other studies have dis-
covered similar subjective temporal lengthening (or dila-
tion) effects with increased stimulus complexity (Mulligan
& Schiffman, 1979; Ornstein, 1969), stimulus change
(Leboe & Mondor, 2008; Casasanto & Boroditsky, 2008;
Brown, 1995; Block, 1982), and stimulus sequence tempo
(Kanai, Paffen, Hogendoorn, & Verstraten, 2006).
Perceived duration has also been found to be influenced
by variations in spatial distance. Research has shown that
the perceived duration of an interval between two
sequentially presented stimuli is partially derived as a
function of the distance demarking those stimuli. This
perceptual phenomenon, referred to as the kappa effect, has
been demonstrated in visual (Abe, 1935; Cohen, Hansel &
Sylvester, 1953; Lebensfeld & Wapner, 1968; Matsuda,
1974; Newman & Lee, 1972; Sarrazin, Giraudo, Pailhous,
& Bootsma, 2004), auditory (Allan, 1984; Boltz, 1998;
Cohen, Hansel, & Sylvester, 1954; Crowder & Neath,
1994, Grondin & Plourde, 2007; Henry & McAuley, 2009;
Sarrazin, Giraudo, & Pittenger, 2007; Shingeno, 1986;
Shingeno, 1993), and tactile modalities (Grondin, Kuroda,
& Mitsudo, 2011; Suto, 1952).
The visual kappa effect
The standard method for eliciting visual kappa effects
involves the sequential presentation of three transient
stimuli (e.g., light flashes) along a spatial trajectory sepa-
rated by two inter-onset intervals (IOIs) (Abe, 1935;
Benussi, 1913; Cohen et al., 1953; Cohen, Hansel, &
Sylvester, 1955; Huang & Jones, 1982). According to this
procedure, the first and third (bounding) elements are fixed
Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491
with respect to their spatial and temporal characteristics.
Participants are told to ignore the spatial location of the
target (middle occurring) stimulus, while judging its timing
within the sequence. The perceived interval timing is
thought to be based on the inference that a stimulus
sequence constitutes a single object moving through space
at a constant speed (Cohen et al., 1955; Price-Williams,
1954); this inference is referred to as the imputed velocity
(Anderson, 1974; Collyer, 1977; Jones & Huang, 1982). As
a result, when timing deviations violate the expectation of
constant velocity, the temporal characteristics of the
sequence are perceptually re-adjusted to maintain the initial
expectation. In summary, there is a tendency for the central
system to maintain constant velocity of motion. As a result,
larger spatial distances are perceived to indicate longer
durations, while smaller spatial distances indicate short
durations.
The auditory kappa effect
Research on the auditory kappa effect has focused pri-
marily on the influence of sound frequency discrepancies
between sequential tones (referred to as pitch distance) on
perceived interval duration. Auditory frequency has been
theorized to act as a phenomenological analog to visual
spatial distance (Hass & Hass, 1984; Jones & Huang,
1982), where pitch information is directly mapped onto
visual space (e.g., high/low pitch tones). For example,
impairments in judging sound frequency have occurred
when a sound is presented from an incongruent spatial
location (e.g., high frequency tone presented from a low
spatial location) (Leboe & Mondor, 2007).
Early research on the auditory kappa effect required
participants to manually adjust the timing of a middle
occurring tone (X) in a repeating sequence of three tones
until the two IOI durations were perceived as equivalent
(Cohen et al., 1954). Shingeno (1986, 1993), used a modified
AXB procedure where the timing and spacing of the middle
element (X) was manipulated by the experimenter, while
participants judged the durations of the two IOIs (IOI1: A–X
and IOI2: X–B). She found that when the frequency of the
middle stimulus (X) was closer in pitch to the first boundary
stimulus (A), there was a bias to report the first IOI in the
sequence as short. When the middle tone’s frequency neared
that of the second boundary stimulus (B) the reverse bias
occurred, a tendency to judge the first IOI as long.
The imputed-velocity model holds that kappa effect
strength is determined by the degree to which the expected
timing of a stimulus sequence is derived from its overall
velocity. At faster speeds, the perceived stimulus timing
becomes reliant upon the degree of spatial separation
between transient elements (Jones & Huang, 1982). Henry
481
and McAuley (2009) have recently provided evidence for
the imputed-velocity account in audition, finding stronger
kappa effects for shorter total duration (T) sequences
(T = 728 ms vs. T = 1,000 and 1,200 ms). In addition to
the imputed-velocity model, the auditory motion hypothe-
sis (MacKenzie & Jones, 2005; Jones, 1976; Jones, Maser,
& Kidd, 1978) proposes that imputed pitch velocities
convey inherent motion-like properties, such that listeners
will be able to predict where and when a tone will occur in
a regularly unfolding sequence. Therefore, auditory kappa
effects should be eliminated or drastically reduced when
perceived motion is disrupted; and enhanced when per-
ceived motion is reinforced. MacKenzie (2007) tested this
hypothesis in a series of experiments in which a three-tone
context sequence preceded the presentation of each AXB
pattern (or kappa-cell). It was demonstrated that auditory
kappa effects were eliminated when kappa-cells were
preceded by monotonic context sequences, or serial context
sequences that conveyed pitch changes in the opposite
direction of the kappa-cell. However, when expectancies
regarding pitch-trajectory across three context tones were
consistent with the trajectory conveyed in the kappa-cell,
the overall effect was strengthened when compared against
a no context sequence control.
While the auditory motion hypothesis focuses primarily
on frequency change, the perceived intensity of a tone also
exists along a spatialized perceptual continuum where ris-
ing intensity levels are perceived to signify the arrival of
the sound’s source (Neuhoff, 1998). Additionally, loudness
judgments can be biased by introducing frequency changes
into a sound (Leboe & Mondor, 2010) suggesting that
auditory intensity and pitch scales are perceptually inter-
related (Jones, 1976). The purpose of the following paper is
to investigate the hypothesis that intensity acts in a manner
similar to pitch in inducing auditory kappa effects. In
addition, we wish to test an extension of the auditory
motion hypothesis that includes sound intensity as an
analog to visual motion.
Perceptual interactions between sound intensity
and duration
Few studies have directly examined the biasing influence
of sound intensity on perceived duration. One noteworthy
example was conducted by Divenyi and Danner (1977),
who found that interval timing accuracy decreased signif-
icantly as the intensity difference between tones increased.
Several studies have also examined the effect of ramping
(continually increasing the intensity) versus damping
(continually decreasing the intensity) a tone on time esti-
mation, in which ramped sounds tend to be perceived as
longer in duration than damped sounds (Schlauch, Ries, &
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482 Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491

DiGiovanni, 2001). In addition, it has also been demon-
strated that damped sounds tend to be substantially
underestimated (Grassi & Darwin, 2006; Schlauch et al.,
2001). Critically, Oléron (1952) found that loud sounds are
perceived as longer than quiet sounds.
In addition to sound intensity, the biasing effect of visual
intensity on perceived duration has been reliably established
(Brigner, 1986; Goldstone, Llamon, & Seschzer, 1979;
Kraemer, Brown, & Randall, 1995), wherein higher inten-
sity (i.e., brighter) lights are perceived as having longer
durations than lesser intensity (i.e., dimmer) lights. A recent
study by Xuan, Zhang, He and Chen (2007) demonstrated
that visual intensity is factored into IOI duration judgments.
On their task, the perceived duration of an interval sepa-
rating two bounding visual elements was found to be influ-
enced by the magnitude of those elements (magnitude
variations included: stimulus quantity, size and luminance
changes across a sequence of dots). They reported a con-
gruency effect where an IOI flanked by larger magnitude
stimuli facilitated the perception of a long duration interval,
and an IOI flanked by smaller magnitude stimuli facilitated
the perception of a short duration interval. This is similar to a
congruency effect reported by Allan (1984) where high
frequency tones facilitated long duration judgments and low
frequency tones facilitated short duration judgments.
There were two primary goals in the current study.
Initially, we examined the possibility of auditory kappa
effects when a series of tones were manipulated in intensity
in a manner reinforcing an auditory motion trajectory—a
continuously increasing or decreasing intensity path
(Experiment 1). Additionally, we were interested in pro-
viding an extension of the auditory motion hypothesis to
include auditory intensity motion. To do so, we examined
the impact of a three-tone context sequence on kappa effect
strength (see also MacKenzie, 2007). In Experiment 2,
participants were presented with kappa-cells preceded by
null intensity context sequences (composed of tones with
unchanging intensity levels). According to the auditory
motion hypothesis, these sequences should significantly
diminish the strength of the kappa effect when compared to
Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, participants listened to
context sequences, which smoothly transitioned into the
kappa-cell. These sequences enhance kappa effects when
compared to Experiment 1.
Experiment 1: auditory-intensity kappa effect
Method
Design
Experiment 1 implemented a 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4
(Intensity Difference) 9 8 (Timing) mixed design. Inten-
sity Direction (Decreasing vs. Increasing intensity
sequences) acted as a between-participants variable, while
the four target tone intensities (67, 64, 61, and 58 dB SPL)
were combined with the eight different levels of timing
(see Fig. 1). The complete interval (T) separating the
onsets of the first and third bounding tones were 1,200 ms,
with a 600 ms temporal bisection point (T/2). The timing of
the target (middle occurring tone) corresponded to eight
locations, these locations are referred to throughout as the
percentage of interval change relative to a base
IOI = 600 ms (±3.33, 6.67, 10 and 13.33 %). This cor-
responded to four possible long–short interval durations
(620–580, 640–560, 660–540, and 680–520 ms, respec-
tively), and four short–long IOI durations (the reverse of
the long–short patterns).
Participants
There were 16 University of Manitoba undergraduates (8
male, 8 female) with a mean age of 22.07 who were randomly

Fig. 1 Task diagram for

Experiment 1 (AXB sequence)
depicting both increasing and
decreasing intensity sequences.
The target tone position in the
sequence (dashed line circles)
was manipulated along intensity
(depicted on the Y axis) and
time (depicted on the X axis)
scales. The four different levels
of intensity difference (between
tones A and X) are also depicted
on the scale

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Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491
assigned to the intensity increasing condition, and 17 Uni-
versity of Manitoba undergraduates (8 female, 9 male), with
a mean age of 19.24 who were randomly assigned to the
intensity decreasing condition. All participants in the study
self-reported normal hearing, and were awarded partial
course credit for participating in the study. One participant
was dropped from the intensity increasing condition due to
an inflated JND score, and a mean accuracy of 50 %.
Materials
Computer and sound system
Experiment 1 and all subsequent experiments were run on a
Dell Precision 390 Intel Core 2 Duo computer connected to
a 17-inch color monitor. The sounds were presented
through Sony Dynamic Stereo MDR7506 Professional
large diaphragm headphones, with a frequency response
range between 10 Hz and 20 kHz and 106 dB/mW sensi-
tivity. The computer was installed with a SoundMAX
Integrated Digital High Definition Audio sound card. All of
the experiments were conducted using E-prime system
software (Psychology software tools Inc., 2002).
Sounds
The stimuli were presented as three-tone (AXB) sequences
consisting of 100 ms, 500 Hz pure tones. The auditory
sequences were synthesized using Adobe Audition 1.5
(Adobe Systems Incorporated, 2004) at a sampling rate of
22,050 Hz. All sounds were generated with 10 ms ramps to
eliminate onset and offset clicks. The intensities of the
boundary tones A and B were set at 70 and 55 dB SPL,
respectively, for the decreasing intensity condition, and the
reverse for the increasing intensity condition. There were
two key independent variables. The first was the intensity
level the target tone (X), which could assume decibel levels
of: 67, 64, 61, and 58 dB SPL. These intensity levels were
further classified according to the degree of decibel change
across the first IOI (the difference in intensity level
between tones A and X). This resulted in intensity differ-
ences of: 3, 6, 9 and 12 dB SPL. The second independent
variable was the timing of the sound sequence, there were 8
levels of timing, defined by the temporal placement of X in
the sequence (four of which were short–long and four of
which were long–short in duration). All sequences were
1,300 ms in total duration.
Procedure
The participants were instructed to attend only to the
timing of the target tone (X), which changed with respect
to the boundary tones. To illustrate the experimental task, a
483
visual diagram was displayed to the participants. All of the
participants reported understanding the experimental task,
eliminating the need for practice trials. Participants were
informed to make their judgments by pressing keys labeled
short–long (located on the left side of the key-board or S
key) and long–short button (located on the right side of the
key-board or L key), and were told that there were equal
proportions of long–short and short–long pattern types
throughout the experiment. Each trial was self-initiated
through pressing the space-bar; this was followed by a
500 ms fixation cross and an auditory pattern. Immediately
following each sequence, a prompt was displayed, reading:
‘‘Was the pattern Short–Long or Long–Short?’’ After a
response was made, the next trial was self-initiated through
pressing the space-bar. Participants completed 10 blocks
consisting of 32 experimental trials where each block was
composed of a randomly distributed presentation order of
each of the four intensity differences (3, 6, 9, 12 dB SPL)
at each of the eight levels of timing (±3.33, 6.67, 10 and
13.33 %). Experiment 1 lasted approximately 30 min. The
dependent measure of interest was the proportion of long–
short responses.
Data analysis
The proportion of long–short responses was determined
for each participant across the eight levels of timing
averaged across the 10 experimental blocks. Estimates of
the Point of Subjective Equality (PSE) and Just Noticeable
Difference (JND) were then calculated for the resulting
psychometric curves using the z-transformation method
(Macmillan & Creelman, 1991; Henry & McAuley, 2009;
Henry, McAuley, & Zaleha, 2009). The PSE corresponds
to the interval timing at which a participant would respond
‘‘long–short’’ 50 % of the time. The JND corresponded to
half the distance between the 25th and 75th percentiles of
the cumulative response function. A relative constant error
(CE) score was subsequently defined by subtracting each
participant’s PSE from the sequence’s temporal bisection
point (T/2 = 600 ms) at each Intensity level. This metric
provides information regarding the direction and magni-
tude of any response bias occurring at each Intensity level.
A mean relative CE score of 0 indicates no systematic
distortion or biases on response rates, while positive CEs
indicate a rightward shift in the PSE corresponding to a
tendency to overestimate the duration of the first IOI
(A–X), negative CEs indicate a leftward shift in the PSE,
corresponding to a tendency to underestimate the duration
of the first IOI. In all cases where Mauchly’s test indicated
a violation to the assumption of sphericity, Greenhouse–
Geisser estimates were used to correct the degrees of
freedom. Throughout the text, wherever means are pro-
vided, standard errors are indicated in brackets.
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484 Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491

Results and discussion

A 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Difference) 9 8

(Timing) mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run,
treating Intensity Direction as a between-participants factor
and Intensity Difference and Timing as within-participants
factors using the proportion of long–short responses (see
Fig. 2) as the dependent measure. This analysis revealed a
significant main effect of Timing F(2.06, 63.92) = 131.44,
p \ .001, gp2 = 0.81 characterized by a significant linear
trend Flin (1, 31) = 201.74, p \ .001, gp2 = .87, in which
the proportion of long–short responses systematically
decreased as patterns shifted in their timing from 13.33 %
[M = .79 (.02)] to -13.33 % [M = .23 (.02)]. This indi-
cates that participants were successful at detecting varia-
tions in pattern timing.
The analysis revealed a significant main effect of Intensity
Difference on long–short responses F(1.52, 47.22) = 18.14
p \ .001, gp2 = .37. This effect was characterized by a
significant linear trend [Flin (1, 32) = 23.31, p \ .001,
gp2 = .43], in which the proportion of long–short responses
systematically increased as the intensity difference between
tones A and X shifted from 3 dB SPL [M = .44 (.02)] to
12 dB SPL [M = .60 (.02)]. This finding suggests that the
degree of intensity difference between sequential tones
impacts the perceived duration of the interval separating
them. No significant interactions were found (all p C .249)
and the between-participants effect of Intensity Direction
(increasing vs. decreasing intensity) was non-significant
F(1, 31) = 1.35, p = .255, gp2 = .04.
A 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Difference)
mixed ANOVA was run on the mean relative CE scores to
measure the degree of under- and overestimation response
bias occurring at each Intensity Difference level. A sig-
nificant main effect was found for Intensity Difference
F(1.92, 59.51) = 16.69, p \ .001, gp2 = .35 characterized
by a significant linear trend Flin (1, 31) = 26.52, p \ .001,
gp2 = .46. In a set of planned comparisons in which CE
scores were analyzed across the Intensity Difference levels,
it was found that CEs shifted from negative values
(underestimations of the first IOI relative to the second) at a
3 dB SPL intensity difference between tones A and X
[M = -30.94 (7.70)] to positive values (overestimations of
the first IOI relative to the second) at a 12 dB SPL dif-
ference between tones A and X [M = 34.94 (5.21)]. The
Intensity Direction 9 Intensity Difference interaction was
non-significant F(3, 93) = .865, p = .462, gp2 = .027, and
the between-participants effect of Intensity Direction
(increasing vs. decreasing intensity) was also non-signifi-
cant F(1, 31) = .79, p = .381, gp2 = .025.
The analysis applied to relative CE scores was also Fig. 2 Mean proportion ‘‘long–short’’ responses (with standard error
applied to JND scores. This analysis revealed no main bars) for participants in Experiments 1, 2 and 3 as a function of the
effect of Intensity Difference F(1.60, 49.48) = 1.00, eight different levels of interval timing

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Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491 485

Table 1 Estimated Relative

Experiment Intensity Difference
Just Noticeable Differences
(SEM) reported as a percentage 3 dB SPL 6 dB SPL 9 dB SPL 12 dB SPL
for the four Intensity Difference
levels in Experiments 1, 2 and 3 1 (No Context)
Intensity Increasing 19.37 (7.58) 11.56 (1.62) 16.25 (3.74) 14.01 (2.50)
Intensity Decreasing 11.07 (1.40) 11.33 (1.97) 15.05 (2.26) 11.39 (1.70)
2 (Null Intensity)
Intensity Increasing 3.68 (1.64) 14.16 (1.60) 10.13 (0.49) 8.75 (0.35)
Intensity Decreasing 7.60 (0.28) 8.04 (0.34) 8.09 (0.35) 7.95 (0.48)
3 (Coherent Intensity)
Intensity Increasing 9.84 (1.42) 9.63 (1.00) 10.50 (1.83) 8.24 (1.21)
Intensity Decreasing 9.57 (1.86) 9.09 (1.63) 8.63 (2.03) 7.85 (0.90)

p = .395, no significant Intensity Direction 9 Intensity Materials

Difference interaction F(3, 93) = .80, p = .495 and no
significant between-participants effect of Pattern Direction
F(1, 31) = .93, p = .342. The mean JNDs for both
increasing and decreasing intensity conditions are provided
in Table 1.
Two primary results emerged from this experiment: (1)
variations in the intensity levels between sequential tones
have an influence on how the timing of that interval is
perceived; (2) the kappa effect is not modulated by the
overall direction of the sequence (increasing vs. decreasing
intensity). A finding similar to one demonstrated for
auditory pitch kappa effects, in which the pitch direction
within the sequence had no significant impact on kappa
effect strength (Henry & McAuley, 2009).
Sounds
Sounds were synthesized using the procedure detailed in
Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, AXB kappa-cells were
preceded by three 100 ms duration context tones. The
context tones had identical intensity levels to the first tone
of the kappa-cell. For example, in the decreasing intensity
condition the context tones were all 75 dB SPL; while in
the increasing intensity condition, the context tones were
all 55 dB SPL (see Fig. 3). The context tones were sepa-
rated by 600 ms IOIs. The total duration of each context
sequence was 1,800 ms, while the total duration of each
trial (context ? kappa-cell) was 3,100 ms.

Procedure
Experiment 2: null intensity context sequences
The procedure consisted of ten test blocks of 32 experi-
In Experiment 2 each AXB kappa-cell was preceded by a mental trials in which each block contained one randomly
null intensity, three-tone serial context sequence. The presented combination of each Intensity Difference (3, 6, 9,
auditory motion hypothesis (MacKenzie, 2007; MacKenzie 12 dB SPL differences) at each level of timing (±3.33,
& Jones, 2005) predicts that a static, unchanging context 6.67, 10, 13.33 %). Participants were instructed to attend to
sequence will disrupt the spatial trajectories formed on a
later kappa-cell, reducing the strength of the kappa effect.
The goal of Experiment 2 was to extend this prediction to
motion-based trajectories driven by intensity change.

Method

Participants

The experiment included 26 participants who were ran-

domly assigned to increasing and decreasing intensity
conditions. The increasing condition included 13 Univer-
sity of Manitoba undergraduates (3 male, 10 female) with a
mean age of 18.61. The decreasing condition included 13
Fig. 3 Task diagram for Experiment 2, depicting the null intensity
University of Manitoba undergraduates (7 male, 6 female) context sequences and the following AXB sequences in both intensity
with a mean age of 20.42. increasing (grey circles) and decreasing conditions (black circles)

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486
the last three sounds in each six-tone pattern, in which the
middle occurring tone (5th tone in the sequence) would be
presented closer to one of its boundary tones. Participants
were told to judge the durations of the final two IOIs using
the SL (short–long) and LS (long–short) response keys. Due
to the added complexity of the task, participants were
provided with eight practice trials with response feedback.
Experiment 2 lasted approximately 50 min.
Results and discussion
A 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Difference) 9 8
(Timing) mixed ANOVA on the proportion of long–short
responses (see Fig. 2) revealed a significant main effect of
Timing F(2.37, 56.87) = 151.33, p \ .001, gp2 = .86
characterized by a significant linear trend Flin (1, 24) =
274.07, p \ .001, gp2 = .92, in which the proportion of
long–short responses systematically decreased as the pattern
timing shifted from 13.33 % [M = .85 (.02)] to -13.33 %
[M = .15 (.02)]. As in Experiment 1, there was also a sig-
nificant main effect of Intensity Difference on long–short
responses, F(1.69, 40.46) = 10.30, p \ .001, gp2 = .30.
This effect was characterized by a linear trend Flin (1, 24) =
13.77, p = .001, gp2 = .37, in which the proportion of long–
short responses systematically increased as the Intensity
Difference between tones A and X shifted from 3 dB SPL
[M = .46 (.02)] to 12 dB SPL [M = .56 (.02)]. There was
also a marginally significant between-subjects effect con-
cerning the intensity direction of the sequence F(1, 24) =
4.65, p = .041, gp2 = .16. This effect was characterized by
a larger proportion of long–short responses for decreasing
intensity sequences [M = .53 (.01)] when compared to
increasing intensity sequences [M = .50 (.01)]. Since this
result was not replicated in either Experiment 1 or in
Experiment 3, it will not be further discussed. Additionally,
no interactions achieved significance (all p C .370).
A 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Difference)
mixed ANOVA on the mean relative CE scores at each of the
levels of Intensity Difference (3, 6, 9, 12 dB SPL) revealed a
significant main effect of Intensity Difference F(1.77,
42.34) = 9.07, p \ .001, gp2 = .27. This effect was char-
acterized by a significant linear trend operating across the
levels of Intensity Difference Flin (1, 24) = 13.10, p = .001,
gp2 = .35. This effect occurred due to a systematic shift in
CEs from negative values at a 3 dB SPL difference [M =
-13.69 (5.20)] to positive values at a 12 dB SPL difference
[M = 17.61 (5.14)]. The between-participants effect of
Intensity Direction (increasing vs. decreasing intensity) was
non-significant F(1, 25) = 1.24, p = .252, gp2 = .05.
To test whether the presence of a null intensity context
sequence (Experiment 2) reduces the strength of the kappa
effect over a condition in which no context sequence is
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Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491
presented (Experiment 1); an additional 2 (Sequence
Type) 9 4 (Intensity Difference) mixed ANOVA was
completed on the mean relative CE scores. The critical
finding was a significant Sequence Type (No Context vs.
Null Context) 9 Intensity Difference (3, 6, 9 and 12 dB
SPL) interaction F(3, 165) = 2.64, p \ .05, gp2 = .05.
Post hoc comparisons revealed a marginally significant
decrease in kappa effect strength at an Intensity Difference
of 12 dB SPL. This decrease was illustrated by a larger
overestimation bias in the no context condition [M = 34.94
(5.21)] when compared against the null intensity context
sequence condition [M = 17.61 (6.08)] F(1, 57) = 3.62
p = .06. Pairwise comparisons between the Sequence
conditions at the other 3 levels of Intensity Difference were
non-significant (all p C .219).
To investigate the discrimination thresholds in Experi-
ment 2, a 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Difference)
mixed ANOVA was run on the JND scores (see Table 1).
In this analysis there was no main effect of Intensity Dif-
ference on JND scores F(1.94, 46.66) = 1.22, p = .304. In
addition to that finding, the Intensity Direction 9 Intensity
Difference interaction was non-significant F(3, 72) = 1.02,
p = .389 and the between-participants main effect of
Intensity Direction was non-significant F(1, 24) = .21,
p = .648.
Three primary results occurred in Experiment 2: (1) it
was found that auditory kappa effects occurred despite the
presence of intensity-stable context sequences; (2) the
degree of under- and overestimations were statistically
similar in both increasing and decreasing intensity con-
figurations; and (3) there was a marginally significant
interaction between the Intensity Difference and Sequence
Type factors. This finding demonstrates that overestima-
tion biases were stronger in the No Context condition
(Experiment 1) than they were in the Null Intensity
condition (Experiment 2), in particular on patterns
exhibiting a 12 dB SPL difference between tones A and
X. This finding provides some evidence suggesting that
null intensity context sequence may inhibit kappa effect
strength.
Experiment 3: coherent intensity context sequences
In Experiment 3, three-tone context sequences coherently
transitioned into the kappa-cell in steps of 3 dB SPL.
Experiment 3 was intended to extend the predictions of the
auditory motion hypothesis by reinforcing a gradually
increasing or decreasing intensity trajectory prior to the
presentation of a kappa-cell, which should enhance the
strength of the kappa effect relative to the no context
condition.
Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491
Method
Participants
A total of 33 participants were randomly assigned to
increasing and decreasing intensity conditions. The increasing
condition included 16 University of Manitoba undergraduates
(4 male, 12 female) with a mean age of 19.63. The decreasing
condition included 17 University of Manitoba undergraduates
(9 male, 8 female) with a mean age of 22.71.
Materials
Sounds
The sounds used in Experiment 3 were identical to those used
in Experiment 2 with one key difference, the context sequence
preceding each kappa-cell was composed of three tones that
transitioned in their intensity levels to conform to a single
spatial trajectory, either gradually increasing or decreasing
across the entire sequence. In the increasing condition, the
context tones were raised by 3 dB SPL per sound (46, 49 and
52 dB SPL, respectively). In the decreasing condition, the
context tones were successively reduced by 3 dB SPL per
sound (84, 81 and 78 dB SPL) (see Fig. 4 for a diagram).
Procedure
The procedure was identical to Experiment 2. The task was
to attend to the timing of the two IOIs of the AXB
sequence, classifying them as either short–long or long–
short by pressing the SL and LS keys, respectively.
Results and discussion
The mean proportion of long–short responses in Experiment
3 (see Fig. 2) were submitted to a 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4
Fig. 4 Task diagrams for
Experiment 3 depicting
coherent intensity context
sequences and the following
AXB sequences in both
increasing (grey circles) and
decreasing (black circles)
conditions
487
(Intensity Difference) 9 8 (Timing) mixed ANOVA. This
analysis revealed a significant main effect of Interval Timing
F(2.32, 71.97) = 155.39, p \ .001, gp2 = .83. This effect
was characterized by a significant linear trend Flin (1,
31) = 270.10, p \ .001, gp2 = .90, in which the proportion
of long–short responses decreased as patterns shifted in their
timing from 13.33 % [M = .84 (.02)] to -13.33 %
[M = .16 (.02)]. There was also a significant main effect of
Intensity Difference on long–short responses F(1.93,
71.97) = 12.83, p \ .001, gp2 = .29. This effect was char-
acterized by a significant linear trend Flin (1, 31) = 19.12,
p \ .001, gp2 = .38, in which the proportion of long–short
responses systematically increased as the Intensity Differ-
ence between tones A and X shifted from 3 dB SPL [M = .45
(.01)] to 12 dB SPL [M = .54 (.01)]. In addition to these
findings, none of the interactions achieved significance (all
p C .217). The between-participants effect of Intensity
Direction was also not significant F(1, 31) = .88, p = .356,
gp2 = .03.
A 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Difference)
mixed ANOVA was used to compare mean relative CE
scores across the levels of Intensity Difference for increasing
and decreasing intensity patterns. This analysis revealed a
significant main effect for Intensity Difference F(1.99,
61.76) = 6.53, p \ .01, gp2 = .17. This effect was charac-
terized by a significant linear trend operating across the
intensity levels Flin (1, 31) = 10.507, p \ .01, gp2 = .253,
in which CEs shifted across the levels of Intensity Differ-
ence, from negative values at 3 dB SPL [M = -11.77
(4.45)] to positive values at 12 dB SPL [M = 9.38 (3.23)].
The Intensity Direction 9 Intensity Difference interaction
was non-significant F(1.99, 61.76) = 1.162, p = .319,
gp2 = .04. In addition to these findings, the between-par-
ticipants main effect of Intensity Direction was also found to
be non-significant F(1, 31) = .31, p = .585, gp2 = .01.
Another goal of the analysis was to determine how the
presence of context sequences may modulate the strength
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488 Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491

of kappa effects. To accomplish this a series of ANOVAs

were run treating Sequence Type as a between-participants
variable composed of three levels (No Context, Null Con-
text, Coherent Context). Mean CE scores were compared
using a 3 (Sequence Type) 9 4 (Intensity Difference) mixed
ANOVA.
The auditory motion hypothesis predicts under- and
overestimation biases to be inflated with the addition of a
coherent context sequence to an AXB pattern. The critical
finding was a significant Sequence Type 9 Intensity Dif-
ference interaction F(1.99, 177.44) = 4.09, p \ .01, gp2 =
.08. The source of this interaction, however, was not in-line
with the auditory motion hypothesis. It was found that kappa
effect strength was attenuated with the addition of context
tones prior to an AXB pattern regardless of whether they
were null intensity or coherent intensity sequences (see
Fig. 5). Post hoc comparisons were carried out on the mean
relative CE scores comparing Sequence Type at each level of
Intensity Difference. This analysis revealed a significant
difference between Sequence Type groups on patterns
exhibiting a 12 dB SPL Intensity Difference F(2, 92) =
6.26, p \ .01, gp2 = .12. This between-participants main
Fig. 5 Mean relative CE values (with standard error bars) across the
effect was characterized by the No Context group exhibiting
4 Intensity Difference levels (between tones A and X in the kappa-
the largest degree of overestimation bias [insert stats], fol- cell) for each of the three experimental conditions (No context
lowed by the Null Intensity [insert stats] and Coherent sequences, null intensity context sequences and coherent intensity
Intensity [insert stats] context sequence groups. None of the context sequences). CE constant error
other comparisons at the other levels of Intensity Difference
achieved significance (all p C .073). sounds can impact the perceived interval timing. When two
An additional 2 (Sequence Type: Coherent Context vs. sequential sounds were experimentally manipulated to be
Null Context) 9 4 (Intensity Difference) mixed ANOVA more divergent in their intensities, IOI durations were
on the mean CE scores revealed no significant interaction systematically overestimated. This result replicates previ-
between groups F(1.90, 108.21) = 1.22, p = .30, gp2 = ous work on the auditory kappa effect in which sound
.02. This finding suggests that the inherent properties of the frequency was the primary feature manipulated.
context sequence itself (null intensity vs. coherent inten- Secondly, the study expands on the present auditory
sity) are non-influential in modulating the effect, rather, motion hypothesis in finding that kappa effect strength is
that it is the mere presence of context tones itself that modulated by the presence of isochronous context
attenuate auditory-intensity kappa effects. sequences. The auditory motion hypothesis predicts that
To investigate the discrimination thresholds for Exper- coherent context sequences, which emphasize the spatial
iment 3, a 2 (Intensity Direction) 9 4 (Intensity Differ- trajectory of the kappa-cell, should enhance kappa effect
ence) mixed ANOVA was run on the JND scores (see strength over manipulations where no context tones are
Table 1). In this analysis, there was no main effect of presented. However, when intensity was the primary vari-
Intensity Difference on JND scores F(3, 93) = 1.45, able, the results ran contrary to this prediction. Both null
p = .234. In addition, the Intensity Direction 9 Intensity intensity and coherent context tones were found to reduce
Difference interaction was non-significant F(3, 93) = .34, the strength of the kappa effect. This effect appears to have
p = .794, and the between-participants main effect of occurred because the mere presence of context tones
Intensity Direction was non-significant F(1, 31) = .16, inhibited the extrapolation of auditory motion within the
p = .689. sequence. There are several reasons why this may have
occurred: (1) the intensity changes between the coherent
context tones were not salient enough for auditory motion
General discussion to be conveyed. This possibility, however, seems unlikely,
as the overall degree of intensity change conveyed within
The current study demonstrated that the amount of per- the coherent intensity context sequences were identical to
ceived intensity difference between sequentially presented those in the kappa-cell, which were capable of inducing

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Psychological Research (2013) 77:480–491
auditory motion, (2) Anticipating the start of a kappa-cell
following a context sequence could pose an additional
demand on attentional resources that may overshadow the
processing of intensity change, thus reducing kappa effect
strength. Research on auditory stream segregation indicates
that sounds are grouped according to perceptual similarities
in their loudness (Thorpe, 1985; Thorpe & Trehub, 1989)
and frequency (Bregman, 1990). Auditory stream segre-
gation based on frequency differences has been demon-
strated as an automated process, resulting in separate pitch
streams for alternating sounds differing by as few as 3
semitones. Bregman (1990, pp. 126–127) further noted that
auditory stream segregation based on intensity difference
(i.e., consciously discriminating a sequence of soft sounds
from a sequence of loud sounds of the same frequency)
requires selective attention, and is not automated. If audi-
tory motion is driven by perceptual grouping principles
similar to those involved in stream segregation, a sequence
of intensity manipulated sounds may require controlled
processes for auditory motion to arise. As a result, the
presence of context tones may be more disruptive in the
processing of auditory motion resulting from intensity
change than that resulting from frequency change.
Alternatively, even if attentional requirements are stable
across the experiments, the presence of an initial context
sequence separated by equal duration IOIs may improve
the discrimination of interval durations as the number of
stimulus repetitions increase (McAuley & Jones, 2003;
Jones & Yee, 1993; McAuley & Kidd, 1998). While
auditory kappa effects for intensity change are similar to
frequency-based kappa effects, there is a discrepancy
regarding the prevalence of auditory motion. In the case of
frequency change, the generation of auditory motion-based
expectancies is likely an automated process. In the case of
intensity change, auditory motion is driven by selective
attention, and can be disrupted when attention is diverted
away from variations in loudness by the rhythmic nature of
the pattern. To test this possibility, auditory motion via
intensity change could be reinforced prior to the presen-
tation of a kappa-cell using a continuous, changing inten-
sity tone exhibiting no rhythmic structure (J. Neuhoff,
personal communication, November 21, 2011).
Future directions for the auditory motion perspective
The most current version of the auditory motion hypothe-
sis—the modified auditory motion hypothesis (MacKenzie,
2007; reviewed by Hoopen, Miyauchi, & Nakajima, 2008)
proposes that increasing the saliency of change within a
sequence (by increasing total pitch interval size) will allow
motion to be more readily imputed into a sequence, thus
increasing kappa effect strength. A future direction for this
489
research would be to test this hypothesis for intensity
change. The modified auditory motion hypothesis predicts
that kappa effects will be strengthened by increasing the
total degree of pitch change across the AXB sequence. It
may therefore be of interest to determine if the auditory-
intensity kappa effect is also strengthened by increasing the
degree of intensity change across the kappa-cell (In the
current study intensity increased/decreased by a total of
20 dB SPL across an entire AXB sequence).
The experiments in this study have demonstrated that a
sequence of pure tones varying in intensity can bias dura-
tion judgments in a manner similar to pitch change. This
indicates one major limitation of the auditory motion
hypothesis; it makes no predictions for interactions
between concurrently changing auditory dimensions (i.e.
pitch and intensity scales) focusing entirely on variations in
pitch distance. For example, if intensity and frequency
variation were combined across an AXB sequence, it is
unknown whether shifting the saliency of change across
one dimension (pitch [ loudness) over the other would
result in participants switching from reliance on one
dimension to the other when judging duration (frequency-
kappa [ intensity-kappa). There is already sufficient
evidence to suggest that people combine intensity and
frequency information in forming motion-based expectan-
cies. The Doppler illusion, for instance, is a perceptual
distortion where a change in the physical location of a
sound emitter induces illusory changes in the loudness and
pitch of the accompanying sound. Research on the Doppler
illusion has found that approaching sounds, despite being
manipulated to decrease in frequency, are perceived by
listeners as increasing in pitch (Neuhoff & McBeath,
1996). The auditory motion hypothesis therefore should
take into account the possibility that kappa-cells congruent
with the Doppler illusion, simultaneously increasing in
loudness and pitch, may give rise to imputed-motion more
readily resulting in stronger kappa effects. Similarly,
Neuhoff, McBeath and Wanzie (1999) demonstrated that
an increase in sound frequency is accompanied by an
increase in loudness, while a decrease in frequency
accompanies a perceived decrease in loudness. It is there-
fore plausible that pitch kappa effects are determined, in
part, by perceived variations in intensity change.
Current neuropsychological and neuroimaging research
has demonstrated strong evidence for common cortical
metrics representing spatial and temporal dimensions
(reviewed by Oliveri, Koch, & Caltagirone, 2009). For
example, the right hemisphere posterior parietal cortex has
been linked to the integration of spatio-temporal informa-
tion (Coull & Nobre, 2008). Current evidence suggests that
inferring the velocity of a moving object over an occluded
interval is associated with activation in regions of the
posterior cerebellum (O’Reilly et al., 2008). Further
123
490
experiments using rTMS have confirmed the necessary
function of the cerebellum in the reproduction of short
duration intervals (400–600 ms) (Koch et al., 2007). It
therefore seems likely that auditory kappa effects for both
pitch and intensity could be attributed to activation in the
cortical regions involved in estimating visual velocity.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by a grant from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada to TAM.
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