Industrial Instrumentation II QB

PROSPERITY THROUGH TECHNOLOGY
QUESTION BANK
EI 2303–INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION II
V SEM
DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL ENGINEERING
PREPARED BY
R.IILAYARAJA
B.UMA MAHESWARI
Asst Prof/ICE
DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 1

Sri
SAI RAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL ENGINEERING
PART-A
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
UNIT I
VARIABLE HEAD TYPE FLOWMETERS
1. Define Laminar flow.

The velocity of flow particles at the centre and the theoretically zero at the wall of
conductis called Laminar flow.
2. Define Turbulent flow.

As the flow rate increases when the particle motion becomes random and complex. The
approximately velocity changes occur is called critical velocity & the flow rate is called turbulent
flow.
3. Define Reynolds number.

Re=ρvd/µ
where
V- Velocity ,d- Diameter, ρ- density
µ-Absolute viscocity.
4.State the Bernoulli’s equation.

In an ideal non compressibility fluid the flow is steady and continuous. The sum of the
pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy is constant. In a given flow system, there is a
relationship between pressure, fluid velocity, and elevation at any two points
P/w+v2/2g+z = constant.
5. What is meant by Vena contracta taps?

These taps use an upstream tap located one pipe diameter upstream of orifice plate and a
downstream tap located at the point of minimum pressure. Vena contracta taps normally limited to
pipe size 150mm or large depending upon the flange rating and dimension.
6. Define the Flow nozzle

Flow nozzle is nothing but the venturimeter without diverging cone. The flow nozzle is
used for flow measurement of high fluid velocities and more resistant erosion than the sharp edge
orifice plate.
7. Name different types of flow nozzle

Two types of flow nozzle:-
a) long radius flow nozzle
b) I.S.A (international federation of national standardizing Association.

8. Define Stagnation point in pitot tube.
The operating principle of pitot tube is based on the fact that when a solid body is kept
centrally and stationary in the pipe line with a fluid streaming down, the velocity of the fluid
diminishing due to the presence of the body till is reduced to the zero directly in front of the body
is called stagnation point.
9. What is the purpose of using Annubar in flow measurement?

An annubar flow sensor produces the differential pressure signal that is algebraic difference
the average value of high pressure difference (ph) and low pressure Difference signal (pl).
10. State the advantages and disadvantage of Annubar openings.

Advantages:-
a) no pressure loss
b) it is relatively simple
c) It is used for the flow measurement made in very large pipes or ducts. Disadvantage:-
a) poor accuracy
b) Not suitable for the dirty or sticky fluids.
c) Sensitive for the upstream disturbances.
11) What are the units of velocity?

Feet per second (fsp) Feet per minute (fpm) Meters per second (mps)
12) Define rational expansion factor.

It is the ratio of compressible flow to the incompressible flow
13) What are the different types of orifice?

1) Concentric orifice 2) Eccentric 3) Segmental 4) Quadrant edge
14) Define concentric orifice.

It has a circular hole in the middle and is installed in the pipe line with the hole concentric to the
pipe. Its thickness depends upon pipe line size.
15) Define eccentric.

It is installed in with the bore tangential to the upper surface of the pipe, it is used where the liquid
contains a relatively high % of dissolved gases.
16) Define segmental its hole diameter is 98% of pipe diameter.

It is installed with a curved section of the opening coincident with the lower surface of the
pipe.
17) Define quadrant edges is rounded to form a quarter circle.

It is used for the flow of heavy crudes and slurry and viscous flows.

18) What are the advantages of using venturi tube as a restriction element?
More suitable for slurry
Accurate
Calibrated easily
19) Define pitot tube.
It is an obstruction type primary element, used for fluid velocity measurement. Differential
pressure across these taps is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
20) Define rational expansion factor.

It is the ratio of compressible flow to the incompressible flow
21)Define Coefficient of discharge of a lead flow meter.

Cd is defined as the ratio between actual volumetric flow rate and ideal volumetric flow rate.
Cd = qactual /qideal
Where qactual = Actual volumetric flow rate
qideal = Ideal volumetric flow rate. (Theoretical)
22) Mention any two causes of error in static pressure measured in a pitot tube.
1. Misalignment
2. Two and three dimensional velocity field
3. Effect of viscosity
23) What is the relationship between the static, stagnation pressure and flow velocity in a pitot tube?
where:
 is fluid velocity;
 is stagnation or total pressure;
 is static pressure;
 is fluid density.
24) On what principle elbow taps operates?

Other name : Centrifugal taps
When the direction of the fluid changes through an elbow in a pipe line the resulting centrifugal
force produces a differential pressure in a pair of radial taps. This differential pressure can be measure of the
fluid flow.
Where
h is head developed inches or cm of water
D is pipe and elbow diameter (inches/cm)
Kv is flow coefficient
R is Central line radius of elbow inches/cm
q is amount of fluid flow rate

25) List the factors that affect the Cd of orifice plate.
1. Standard tables are not available

2. Sensitive to condition of the upstream edge of the hole
3. d/D ratio
4. Flow
5. Thickness
6. α=angle between inlet face and restriction
7. use of abrasive particles can cause change
26) Give the characteristics of flow nozzle.

1. High differential pressure
2. Low permanent pressure loss
3. Shorter length
4. Lower weight
27) Differentiate orifice plate, flow nozzle and venturi plate.

S Orifice plate Flow nozzle Venturi plate
no
1 Lower Cd value (0.6) High Cd value Higher Cd value(0.99)
2 Low cost More than orifice High cost
3 Less maintenance Maintenance is higher Maintenance is needed
4 Less space occupied Moderate space More space required
5 Pressure head loss (60-70%) Low pressure loss Low pressure loss (10%)
6 Inaccuracy due to erosion, More resistant to erosion More resistant to erosion and
corrosion and sealing corrosion
28) Mention the types of variable area flow meters.

1. Venturi tube
2. Orifice plate
3. Pitot tube
4. Dall tube
5. Flow nozzle
6. Annubar Pitot tube

PART B
1) Explain the principle of operation of and tapping of orifice meter.
Ans: Orifice Flow Meter

An Orifice flow meter is the most common head type flow measuring device. An orifice
plate is inserted in the pipeline and the differential pressure across it is measured.
Principle of Operation
The orifice plate inserted in the pipeline causes an increase in flow velocity and a
corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow pattern shows an effective decrease in cross section
beyond the orifice plate, with a maximum velocity and minimum pressure at the venacontracta.
The flow pattern and the sharp leading edge of the orifice plate (Fig. 1.3) which produces it are
of major importance. The sharp edge results in an almost pure line contact between the plate and
the effective flow, with the negligible fluid-to-metal friction drag at the boundary.
Types of Orifice Plates

The simplest form of orifice plate consists of a thin metal sheet, having in it a square
edged or a sharp edged or round edged circular hole.
There are three types of orifice plates namely o
Concentric
o Eccentric and o Segmental type.
Fig. shows two different views of the three types of Orifice plates.
The concentric type is used for clean fluids. In metering dirty fluids, slurries and fluids

containing solids, eccentric or segmental type is used in such a way that its lower edge coincides
with the inside bottom of the pipe. This allows the solids to flow through without any obstruction.
The orifice plate is inserted into the main pipeline between adjacent flanges, the outside diameters
of the plate being turned to fit within the flange bolts. The flanges are either screwed or welded to
the pipes.
Machining Methods of Orifices
Machining of the orifice plate depends on its specific use. Three types shown in Fig. 1.5
explains the machining methods.
Types 1 and 2 are very commonly used and F is known as the plater. These two are easier
to manufacture and are easily reproducible while type 3 is not. Thickness t as chosen to
withstand the buckling forces. Type 1 has also reduced pressure losses. Type 3, known as the
quadrant edged orifice, is used for more viscous fluids where corrections for low Reynolds
number and viscosity are necessary.
Materials Chosen For Orifices
The material chosen for orifice plate is of any rigid material of non-rusting and
noncorrodible. It is vital that the material should not corrode in the fluid being metered. Otherwise
the edge of the orifice will get damaged to a sufficient extend to interfere with the character of the
flow and the accuracy of the measurement. We should choose a material whose coefficient of
Thermal expansion is known. The common materials used are Stainless steel, Monel, Phosphor
bronze, Glass, Ceramics, Plastics, Brass, Copper, Aluminium and Tantalum.
Position of Taps in Orifice
There

are five common locations for the differential pressure taps:

Flange taps
Venacontracta taps

Radius taps

Full flow or pipe taps and

Corner taps.
Flange taps.
They are predominantly used for pipe sizes 50 mm and larger and the centerlines are 25

mm from the orifice plate surface. They cannot be used for pipe size of less than 35 mm diameter.
Since the venacontracta may be closer than 25 mm from the orifice plate.
Venacontracta taps.
These taps use an upstream tap located one pipe diameter upstream of the orifice plate,
and a downstream tap located at the point of minimum pressure. Venacontracta taps normally
limited to pipe size 150 mm or large depending upon the flange rating and dimensions.
Radius taps.
d1 = D and d2 = 1/2 D. These are similar to venacontracta taps except that downstream
tap is located at one half pipe diameter. These are generally considered superior to the
venacontracta tap because they simplify the pressure tap location dimensions and do not vary
with changes in orifice β ratio.
Pipe taps.
Pipe taps are located 2.5 pipe diameters upstream (d1 = 2.5D) and 8diameters downstream
(d2 = 8D) from the orifice plate. Because of the distance from the orifice, exact location is not
critical, but the effects of pipe roughness, dimensional inconsistencies and so on are more severe.
Corner taps.
These taps are similar in many respects to flange taps, except that the pressure is
measured at the ‗Corner‘ between the orifice plate and the pipe wall. These are used for
diameters of less than 50 mm.
2. Discuss in detail the installation and piping arrangements of different fluids in head flow
meters.
Ans: Installation of Head Flow meters:-

The head flow meter consists of a primary element such as an orifice, venturi, or pitot
tube used with a differential pressure meter to measure the differential head caused by the
flowing fluid at the primary element. The differential pressure meter may be any of the various
meters such as the enlarged leg-mercury manometer, the bell gauge, the hollow gauge, the
diaphragm gauge, the tilting U-type gauge or electronic differential pressure flow transmitters.
The differential-pressure meter and the primary element require careful connection
and installation. It must be remembered that the meter is used for the purpose of measuring
differential pressure. Any extraneous or false head introduced by the connecting piping cause
a serious error.
Pressure Pipe Layout
Pressure piping is the pipe which connects the pipe tapping of the head producers to the
meter or the differential pressure transducers. The important points to be carefully noted in laying
the pressure piping in order to avoid the false readings are :
o Condensation of water vapour in the case of air or gas, and
o Air or vapour locks in the case of liquids and steam.
The following rules should be strictly followed in laying the pressure pipe, so as to avoid
the above difficulties.
Meter below the pipe
If the meter or the differential transducer is to be located below the level of the main or
pipe line in which the orifices is installed, the pressure pipe should be laid as follows.

(a) Liquids and Steam
Pressure pipes should fall continuously from orifice to meter at a slope of not less than
1/10 as shown in Fig. 1.13. If the horizontal distance is too high to allow this slope by direct
connection between the orifice and the meter, then pressure pipes may be first taken below the
meter and then risen to the meter.
(b) Air and Gases

The pressure pipe must first be raised above 0.5 m vertically up from the orifice as
illustrated in Fig. 1.14 and then continuously fall at the slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter.
(b) Air and Gases

The pressure pipe must first be raised above 0.5 m vertically up from the orifice as illustrated in
Fig. 1.14 and then continuously fall at the slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter.

Meter above the pipe
(a) Liquids and Steam
It may be noted that the special requirement for steam metering is the necessity of
interposing cooling chambers for the purpose of condensing the steam and providing an adequate
volume of water for supplying the meter displacement for all variations of load. With cooling
chambers, the piping remains full of water and the steam does not act on the meter.
In this case, the pipe is first laid vertically downwards to a distance of about 0.5 m in
order to minimise the possibility of entrance of air or gas from the main, and the pipe is raised
continuously at a slope of not less than 1 : 10 to the meter. The meter is fitted with air vessels as
shown in Fig. 1.15

(b) Air and Gases
The impulse pipe is continuously raised at a slope of not less than 1 : 10 from orifice
to meter as shown in Fig. 1.16. The pressure pipes should be fitted with sumps at the lowest
points, and the sumps should be drained at suitable intervals, which is already shown in the
Fig. 1.14.
Installation of condensation Pots

Condensation pots should be used when flow rate of steam is to be measured by means of
differential pressure transmitters. The condensation pots secure smooth column of
in both the impulse lines connecting the differential pressure transmitters.Four types of
condensation pots are manufactured to suit the various pressure ranges.
(i) Made of cast iron for pressure upto 16 kg/cm2
(ii) Made of carbon steel for pressure upto 64 kg/cm2
(iii) Made of stainless steel for pressure above 64 kg/cm2 and below 100 kg/cm2.
(iv) Made of molybdenum steel for pressure upto 200 kg/cm2.
In the case of vertical steam mains, it is essential that both the condensation pots placed at
the level of the upper orifice connection. Its installation is illustrated in Fig. 1.17

A leg of large bore is used to convey the pressure from the lower connection to the
appropriate condensation pot. The bore should not be less than 14 mm throughout. If possible,
for obtaining better results, this pipe may be run in contact with the main within the main
lagging.
Installation of Sealing Pots
Sealing pot is intended for protecting primary instruments like, pressure gauges, pressure
or differential pressure transmitters etc. from the influences of chemically aggressive medium
under measurement.
They are also used in the metering of oils or tarry liquids, which are of low viscosity in the
mains due to high temperature; but owing to atmospheric cooling in pressure pipes these become
viscous and as such make meter sluggish in response.
The sealing pots transmit the orifice pressures to a second and less viscous liquid, the
separating surfaces occurring in parallel bore of the sealing vessels and serving as friction less
pistons. These are usually connected very close to the mains. The sealing liquid must be
noncorrosive and immiscible with the fluid to be metered. It should preferably be of moderately
low viscosity such as transformer oil, spindle oil, kerosene, paraffin oil, glycerine etc.
The sealing pots transmit the orifice pressures to a second and less viscous liquid, the
separating surfaces occurring in parallel bore of the sealing vessels and serving as friction less
pistons. These are usually connected very close to the mains.
The sealing liquid must be noncorrosive and immiscible with the fluid to be metered. It
should preferably be of moderately low viscosity such as transformer oil, spindle oil, kerosene,
paraffin oil, glycerine etc.
Fig. 1.18 shows how installation of sealing pot is being made.
Factors to be Considered in Piping Arrangement:

The factors for selecting proper piping arrangement are listed below considering only the
important ones :
1. The piping arrangement must be absolutely free of leaks.
2. The connecting lines must be clean and free from obstructions. Use as few fittings as
possible.
3. The connecting lines must pitch a 50 mm to prevent gas packets and drainage.
4. The connecting lines should not be more than 15 m long, preferably less.

5. The connecting lines must be maintained at a temperature between 0 and 50°C.
6. The differential—pressure meter should be installed below the level of the primary element
if possible.
3. Explain the installation of operation of the pitot tube with neat sketch
Ans:Pitot Tube
An obstruction type primary element used mainly for fluid velocity measurement is the
Pitot tube.
Principle:
Consider Fig. 1.20 which shows flow around a solid body. When a solid body is held
centrally and stationary in a pipeline with a fluid streaming down, due to the presence of the body,
the fluid while approaching the object starts losing its velocity till directly in front of the body,
where the velocity is zero. This point is known as the stagnation point. As the kinetic head is lost
by the fluid, it gains a static head. By measuring the difference of pressure between that at normal
flow line and that at the stagnation point, the velocity is found out. This principle is used in pitot
tube sensors.
The simplest pitot tube consists of a tube with an impact opening of 3.125 mm to 6.35mm
diameter pointing towards the approaching fluid.
This measures the stagnation pressure.

An ordinary upstream tap can be used for measuring the line pressure. The simplest pitot
tube consists of a tube with an impact opening of 3.125 mm to 6.35mm diameter pointing towards
the approaching fluid. This measures the stagnation pressure
A common industrial type of pitot tube consists of a cylindrical probe inserted into the
air stream, as shown in Fig. 1.21.
Fluid flow velocity at the upstream face of the probe is reduced substantially to zero.
Velocity head is converted to impact pressure, which is sensed through a small hole in the
upstream face of the probe.
A corresponding small hole in the side of the probe senses static pressure. A pressure
instrument measures the differential pressure,which is proportional to the square of the stream
velocity in the vicinity of the impact pressure sensing hole.
The velocity equation for the pitot tube is given by v = Cp 2gh ...(1.26) where Cp is the pitot tube
constant.Fig. 1.22 shows a typical pitot tube which also shows the taps for sensing static pressure.
The total pressure developed at the point where the flow is stagnated is assumed to occur
at the tip of a pitot tube or at a specific point on a bluff body immersed in the stream. The pitot
tube causes practically no pressure loss in the flow stream. It is normally installed through a
nipple in the side of the pipe. It is frequently installed

through an isolation valve, so that it can be moved back and forth across the stream to
establish the profile of flow velocity.
Certain characteristics of pitot tube flow measurement have limited its industrial
application.For true measurement of flow, it is essential to establish an average value of flow
velocity. To obtain this with a pitot tube, it is necessary to move the tube back and forth across
the stream to establish the velocity at all points and then to take an average.
For high-velocity flow streams, it is required to provide necessary stiffness and
strength.A tube inserted in a high-velocity stream has a tendency to vibrate and get broken.
As a result, pitot tubes are generally used only in low-to-medium flow gas applications where
high accuracy is not required.
Averaging Pitot Tube (Annubar)
To obtain a better average value of flow, special two-chamber flow tubes with several pressure
openings distributed across the stream are available, as shown in Fig. 1.23. These annular
averaging elements are called annubars. They consist of a tube with high-and low pressure
holes with fixed separations.
An annubar flow sensor produces a differential pressure (ΔP) signal that is the
algebraic difference between the average value of the high-pressure signal (Ph) and low-
pressure single (Pl) as shown in the above Fig. 1.23.
A high-pressure profile is produced by the impact of the flow velocity profile on the
upstream side of the sensing tube. Inside the high-pressure chamber, an average high-pressure
signal is obtained by correctly placing the sensing ports in the tube. The flow that passes
through the sensor creates a low-pressure profile. This pressure profile is sensed by
downstream ports directly behind the high-pressure ports. Working on the same principle as the
high-pressure side, an average low pressure signal is produced in the low-pressure chamber.
Advantages
1. No pressure loss.
2. It is relatively simple.
3. It is readily adapted for flow measurements made in very large pipes or ducts.

Disadvantages
1. Poor accuracy.
2. Not suitable for dirty or sticky fluids and fluids containing solid particles.
3. Sensitive to upstream disturbances.
4. Explain the principle of operation of flow nozzle.

Flow Nozzle:
i) Flange Type Flow Nozzle
The Flow nozzle is a smooth, convergent section that discharges the flow parallel to the axis of
the downstream pipe.
The downstream end of a nozzle approximates a short tube and has the diameter of the
venacontracta of an orifice of equal capacity. Thus the diameter ratio for a nozzle is smaller or
its flow coefficient is larger.
Pressure recovery is better than that of an orifice. Fig. 1.10 shows a flow nozzle of flange type.
Different Designs of Flow Nozzle

There are different standard designs differing in details of the approach section and
the length of the throat. Fig. 1.11 shows two accepted designs of flow nozzles.
Flow nozzles are usually made of gun metals, stainless steel, bronze or monel metal.
They are frequently chromium plated. Sometimes slettite coating is provided to have
abrasion resistance.
The pressure tappings may take the form of annular rings with slots opening into the
main at each side of the flange of the nozzle or of single holes drilled through the flange of the
main close to the nozzle flange.
It is not suitable for metering viscous liquids. It may be installed in an existing main
without great difficulty.

Advantages
1. Permanent pressure loss lower than that for an orifice plate.
2. It is suitable for fluids containing solids that settle.
3. It is widely accepted for high pressure and temperature steam flow.
Disadvantages
1. Cost is higher than orifice plate.
2. It is limited to moderate pipe sizes.
3. It requires more maintenance. (It is necessary to remove a section of pipe to inspect or install)
5. Explain the principle and operation of Dall tube with neat sketches.
Ans: Dall Tube:
Construction And Working

It is a modified version of venturi tube. It produces large differential pressure with low pressure
less than the conventional venturi tube. The photographic view and schematic sketch of the dall
tube are shown in Fig. 1.12.

It consists of a flanged spool piece body with a short, straight inlet section terminating in
an abrupt decrease in diameter or inlet shoulder. This is followed by a conical restriction and a
diverting outlet separated by a narrow annular gap.
The high pressure tap is a hole drilled through the body tangent to the inlet shoulder.
The low pressure tap is drilled through the body so as to connect with an annular slot in the
throat. The inlet shoulder immediately proceeding the restriction has little effect on permanent
pressure loss.
The outlet cone causes a decrease in flow velocity that provides an increase in pressure
recovery It is not suitable for measuring the flow of fluids containing solids which could settle
out in the throat slot. The Dall tube is used for water, sewage, air and steam flow measurement.
The Dall tubes are normally cast in gun metal. But for 450 mm and larger sizes, high
grade cast iron is used. When it is required to protect the tube from corrosion, it may be
lithcote lined.
Advantages
1. Low head loss
2. Short lying length
3. It is available in numerous materials of construction.
Disadvantages
1. Pressure difference is sensitive to up-stream disturbances.
2. More straight pipe required in the approach pipe length.
3. It is not considered for measuring flow of hot feed water.
6. Explain the principle of operation Variable Head Type Flow meters.
Ans:In the variable head type flow meters, a restriction of known dimensions is generally
introduced into pipeline, consequently there occurs a head loss or pressure drop at the restriction
with increase in the flow velocity. Measurement of this pressure drop is an indication of
the flow rate.
Head—type flow measurement derives from Bernoulli‘s theorem which states that in a
flowing stream, the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head and the elevation head at on a
point is equal to their sum at another point in the direction of flow plus the loss due to friction
between the two points.
Velocity head is defined as the vertical distance through which a liquid would fall to
attain a given velocity.
Pressure head is the vertical distance which a column of the flowing liquid would rise in
an open-ended tube as a result of the static pressure.
In general, a one—dimensional flow system is assumed. The schematic representation of
such a system with a restriction in the pipeline is shown in Fig. 1.1.

UNIT II
QUANTITY METERS, AREA FLOW METERS AND MASS FLOW METERS
1. What are the different types of positive displacement meters?

Reciprocating piston type
Rotating vane type
Nutating disk type
Lobed impellar type
Oscillating piston type
2. What are the major three methods of flow meters?

Area flow meter
Mass flow meter
Quantity meters
3. What are the different types of thermal flow meters?

Heat transfer flow meters
Hot wire flow meters
4. Name the different types of weighing methods

semiconductor feed belt weighing ( Batch weighing)
continuous conveyor scale
radio active transmission gauge
volumetric solid methods
5. Write any two points of calibration of flow meter

wet meter- manometer which is calibrated with mercury
dry meter- manometer which is calibrated with mercury
6.Explain the principle of turbine flow meter
When the liquid enter through inlet, due to the inflow, shaft rotates which cuts the
magnetic pickup, and produces the voltage which is proportional to inflow of water.
7. List the disadvantages of turbine flow meter
High cost
Limited use for slurry application
8. What are the different types of positive displacement meters?

Reciprocating piston type Rotating vane type Nutating disk type Lobed impellar type
Oscillating piston type
9. List the advantages of reciprocating piston type

High accuracy its construction material is not limited.
10. List the disadvantages of reciprocating piston type

High cost subject to leakage problems created by dirty particle high maintenance cost
restricted to moderate flow rates

11. What are the different types of mass flow meter?
Angular momentum type
Liquid bridge
Calorimeter type
12. List the disadvantages of heat transfer flow meter

Heat is directly placed in the fluid stream and easily damaged by corrosion large input
power is required
13. List the advantages of turbine flow meter

Good accuracy excellent repeatability low pressure drop & easy to maintain good
pressure & temperature range compensation of viscosity variation
14. List the disadvantages of turbine flow meter

High cost limited use for slurry application
15. List the advantages of rotary vane type

No pressure loss high temperature & pressure rating good accuracy available numerous
construction material
16. List the disadvantages of rotary vane type

High cost accuracy decreases in increase of flow
17. List the advantages of lobed impellor type

Increase accuracy at higher flow rate leakage is decreased can be used for corrosive solids
good capacity range
18. List the disadvantages of lobed impellor type

Cost high & require frequent maintenance
19. List the disadvantages of glass Rotameter subject to breakage

It must mounted vertically It limited to low temperature Less accuracy If pressure is
greater than 35 kg/cm3 tube get damage
20. List the advantage of oscillating piston type

Good accuracy can be easily applied to automatic liquid batching system good
repeatability moderate cost
21. List the disadvantage of oscillating piston type

Available in small size suitable for clean fluids
22. What is the principle of densitometer?

Float density less than the fluid density, level increases float moves up, resistance
connected float varies, so output varies. Voltage output is proportional to the density of the
fluid.

23. List the advantages of nutating disk type.
 Less cost
 Good accuracy High temperature
 pressure ratings
24. List the disadvantages of nutating disk type

Heavy accuracy decreases in increase in flow rate
25.What is Rotameter?
It is an example of variable area flow meter. When fluid enters lopped moves from the
bottom to top. Distance is proportional to the flow rate.
26. Explain the principle of calorimeter flow meter

It consist of two coil type resistance thermometer, difference of temperature between
the thermometers is maintained constant.
27. List some example of inferential flow meter.

Turbine flow meters
Target flow meters
Ultrasonic flow meters
PART B:
1) Explain the principle of operation of any four types of positive displacement type flow
meter with neat sketches.
Ans: Positive Displacement Meters
Positive displacement type flow meters are generally used for accurate measurement of
steady flow. These flow meters are working under the following principle. Positive
displacement meters split the flow of liquids into separate known volumes based on the physical
dimensions of the meter, and count them or totalize them. They are mechanical meters in that
one or more moving parts, located in the flow stream, physically separate the fluid into
increments. Energy to drive these parts is extracted from the flow stream and shows up as
pressure loss between the inlet and the outlet of the meter. The general accuracy of these meters
is dependent upon minimizing clearances between the moving and stationary parts and
maximizing the length of the flowing path. For this reason, accuracy tends to increase as size
increases.
Positive displacement meters may be divided into following categories :
(i) Nutating disc type

(ii) Reciprocating piston type.
(iii) Oval gear type and
(iv) Helix type

Nutating Disk Type
This meter, also known as disk meter, is used extensively for residential water
service. The moving assembly, which separates the fluid into increments consists of an
assembly of a radially slotted disk with an integral ball bearing and an axial pin.
Fig. 1.28 shows the nutating disk type meter.
This part fits into and divides the metering chamber into four volumes, two
above the disk on the inlet side and two below the disk on the outlet side. As the liquid
attempts to flow through the meter, the pressure drop from inlet to outlet causes the disk
to wobble or nutate, and for each cycle to display a volume equal to the volume of the
metering chamber minus the volume of the disk assembly.
The end of the axial pin, which moves in a circular motion, drives a cam that is
connected to a gear train and the totalizing register.
Inaccuracy: ± 1 to 2%.
Temperature range: – 150 to 120°C.
Max working pressure: 10 kg/cm2.
Reciprocating Piston Meter
In the reciprocating piston meter shown schematically in Fig. 1.29, the reciprocating piston
passes the liquid alternately through each end of the cylinder from the inlet to the outlet and also
the slide valve which controls the inlet and outlet ports and operates the counter. A number of
piston operations on a center crank are generally incorporated in this type of meter. For low
flow, the differential pressure is small, for which large diameter pistons and small piston strokes
are chosen with minimum of friction. Accuracy of this flow meter is within 0.5%.

Oval—Gear Flow Meters
A special variety of the rotating tube flow meter is the oval – geared metering elements.
These oval-geared meters are generally used on very viscous liquid, which is difficult to
measure using other flow meters. In this design, as shown in Fig. 1.30, a precise volume of
liquid is captured by the gap formed between housing and the gear.
In position A, uniform forces are applied equally on the top and bottom of oval gear B,
so that the gear does not rotate. Rotor A has entrapped a known volume of liquid between the
rotor and the meter body, and there is a balanced force on the bottom of the gear. However,
there is a force on the bottom of gear A, causing it to rotate clockwise (CW). This causes gear
B to rotate in a counter clock wise (CCW) direction to position B.
In position B, fluid enters the space between gear B and the meter body, as the fluid that
was entrapped between gear A and the body simultaneously leaves the area of entrapment. The
higher upstream pressure oppose the lower downstream pressure at the ends of gear A and gear
B, which makes gear A and gear B continue to rotate in CW and CCW directions respectively,
to position C.

In position C, a known amount of fluid has been entrapped between gear B and the meter
body. This operation is then repeated, with each revolution of the gears representing the passage
of four times the amount of fluid that fills the space between the gear and the meter body.
Therefore, the fluid flow is directly proportional to the rotational velocity of the gears.
If slippage between the oval-gears and the housing is small, and the flow rate and
viscosity are high, these flow meters can provide high accuracies. (0.1%).
These flow meters are available in the sizes suitable for 6 mm to 400 mm diameters
pipelines. Their materials of construction include brass, carbon steel, and 316 stainless steel.
Operating pressures are available up to 100 kg/cm2 and temperatures up to 300°C.
Helix Type Flow Meters

The Helix flow meter is a positive displacement device utilizing two uniquely
nested, radically pitched helical rotors as the measuring elements. Close machining
tolerances ensure minimum slippage and thus high accuracy. Fig. 1.32 illustrates the
photographic view of a helix type flow meter.

2) Discuss in detail the flow measurement using Inferential Flow Meters
Inferential Flow Meters
In the inferential type of flow metering techniques, the out quantity flow rate is
inferred from a characteristic effect of a related phenomenon. Turbine flow meters,
variable area flow meters and target flow meters are some of the types of inferential flow
meters.
Turbine Flow Meters
Principle
The turbine flow meter is mainly used for the purpose of measurement of liquid
and gas at very low flow rates. A simple turbine flow meter shown in Fig. 1.33, provides
a frequency output signal that varies linearly with volumetric flow rate over specified
flow ranges.
The entire fluid to be measured enters the flow meter, then passes through a
rotor. The fluid passing through the rotor causes it to turn with an angular velocity that
is proportional to the fluid linear velocity. Therefore, the volumetric flow rate is linear
within the given limits of flow rate.
Let us consider a typical Turbine flow meter shown in Fig. 1.34, which consists of
a multibladed rotor (turbine wheel) which is mounted at right angles to the axis of the
flowing fluid. The rotor is supported by ball or sleeve bearings on a shaft which is retained
in the flow meter housing by a shaft-support. The rotor is rotating freely about its axis.

Working
The flowing fluid impinges on the blades of turbine (rotor), imparting a force to the
blade surface which causes the rotation of the rotor. At a steady rotational speed, the speed of
the rotor is directly proportional to the fluid velocity, and hence to volumetric flow rate. The
speed of rotation is monitored in most of the meters by a magnetic pick-up coil, which is fitted
to the outside of the meter housing.
The magnetic pick-up coil consists of a permanent magnet with coil windings which is
mounted in close proximity to the rotor but external to the fluid channel. As each rotor blade
passes the magnetic pick-up coil, it generates a voltage pulse which is a measure of the flow
rate, and the total number of pulses gives a measure of the total flow. By digital techniques, the
electrical voltage pulses can be totaled, differenced and manipulated so that a zero error
characteristic of digital handling is provided from the electrical pulse generator to the fluid
readout.

Advantages
1. Better Accuracy [± 0.25% to ± 0.5%].
2. It provides excellent repeatability [± 0.25% to ± 0.02%] and rangeability (10 : 1 and 20: 1).
3. It has fairly low pressure drop.
4. It is easy to install and maintain.
5. It has good temperature and pressure ratings.
6. It can be compensated for viscosity variation.
Disadvantages
1. High cost.
2. It has limited use for slurry applications.
3. It is not suitable for non-lubricating fluids.
4. They cannot maintain its original calibration over a very long period and therefore periodical
recalibration is necessary.
5. They are sensitive to changes in the viscosity of the liquid passing through the meters.
6. They are sensitive to flow disturbances.
7. Due to high bearing friction is possible in small meters; they are not preferred well for low
flow rates.
Applications
The turbine meters are widely used for military applications. They are particularly useful in
blending systems for the petroleum industry. They are effective in aerospace and air borne
applications for energy-fuel and cryogenic flow measurements.
3) Describe with neat sketch the construction and working Variable area Flow meter
Ans: Variable Area Flow Meters
Basic Principle
In the orifice meter, there is a fixed aperture and flow is indicated by a drop in
differential pressure. In area meter, there is a variable orifice and the pressure drop is
relatively constant. Thus, in the area meter, flow is indicated as a function of the area of

the annular opening through which the fluid must pass. This area is generally readout as
the position of a float or obstruction in the orifice.
The effective annular area in area meter is nearly proportional to height of the
float, plummet or piston, in the body and relationship between the height of float and
flow rate is approximately linear one with linear flow curve as well as scale
graduations.
Types of Variable Area Flow Meters

Area meters are of two general types :
1. Rotameters and
2. Piston type meter.
Rotameters. In this meter, a weighted float or plummet contained in an upright tapered tube, is
lifted to the position of equilibrium between the downward force of the plummet and the
upward force of the fluid in addition to the buoyancy effect of the fluid flowing past the float
through the annular orifice. The flow rate can be read by observing the position of the float.
Piston Type Meter. In this meter, a piston is accurately fitted inside a sleeve and is lifted by
fluid pressure until sufficient post area in the sleeve is uncovered to permit the passage of the
flow. The flow is indicated by the position of the piston.
Fig. 1.35 shows the types of Variable area flow meter (a) Rotameter and (b)
Piston Type meter.

Performance Characteristics
1. Linearity. The flow rate (volume) through a variable area meter is essentially proportional to
the area and, as a result, most of these meters have essentially equal-scale increments. A typical
indicating rotameters scale is non linear by about 5%.
2. Differential. An important characteristic of the variable area meter is that the pressure loss
across the float is a constant. The overall differential across the meter will increase at higher
flow rates because of friction losses through the fittings.
3. Accuracy. The most common accuracy is ±2% of full scale reading. This increases
considerably with individual calibration and scale length. Repeatability is excellent.
4. Capacity. Variable area flow meters are the most commonly used means for measuring low-
flow rates. Full scale capacities range from 0.5 cm3/min of water and 30 std cm3/min of air in
the smallest units to over 1200 litres/min of water and 1700 m3/h of air in 8 cm height meters.
5. Minimum Piping Requirement. An area meter usually can be installed without regard to the
fittings or lengths of straight pipe proceedings or following the meter.
6. Corrosive or Difficult to handle liquid. These can often be handled successfully in an area
meter. They include such materials as oil, tar, refrigerants, sulphuric acid, black liquor,
beverages, aqua regia and molten sulphur. In general, if the nature of the fluid does not permit
the use of a conventional differential pressure type meter because the fluid is dirty, viscous or
corrosive, certain area meters have an advantage over other types of meters.
7. Pressure Drop. By placing very light floats in over sized meters, flow rates can behandled
with a combination of very low pressure loss (often 2.5 cm of water column or less) and 10 : 1
flow range.
Basic Equations
The following flow equations are developed based primarily on liquids. However, the
resultant working equations can be used equally well on gas service. The variable area meter
shown in Fig. 1.36 consists of a tapered metering tube and a Float which is free to move up and
down within the tube.
The metering tube is mounted vertically with the small end at the bottom. The fluid to be
measured enters at the bottom of the tube, passes upward around the float, and out at the top.
With upward movement of the float towards the larger end of the tapered tube, the annular
opening between the tube and the float increases. As the area increases, the pressure differential
across the float decreases. The float assumes a position, in dynamic equilibrium, when the
pressure differential across the float plus the buoyancy effect balances the weight of the float.
Any further increase in flow rate causes the float to rise higher in the tube; a decrease in
flow causes the float to drop at a lower position. Every float position corresponds to one
particular flow rate and no other for a fluid of a given density and viscosity.
It is merely necessary to provide a reading or calibration scale on the tube and flow rate

can be determined by direct observation of the position of the float in the metering tube.
Definitions of the terms in the following analysis are written reference to Fig. 1.36.
According to Bernoulli‘s theorem :
Rotameter-Elements
The term ―Rotameter‖ was derived from the fact that floats originally were produced
With slots to give them rotation for the purpose of centering and stabilizing the float. The
essential elements of any rotameter are listed as follows. In addition to suitable inlet and outlet
connections, they comprise (1) a metering tube and (2) a float.
1. Metering Tubes. In modern practice, they are formed on a mandrel and annealed to
prevent internal stresses so that strong, uniform tubes result. This method also permit the
forming of tubes with greater reproducibility and interchangeability and forming special
shapes, such as non conical tubes with curved elements designed to spread out the
graduations at the lower end of the range. It is possible to modify the conical form
slightly in order to give the exact linear relationship between apertures and float position
which is not quite achieved with a purely conical tube.
The most important special shape is a modified conical section having internal
beading or lands which serve to guide the float. Fig. 1.37 shows some types of glass
rotameter tubes with ribs or beads for float guides.

2. Floats
Floats can be made from several materials to obtain corrosion resistance or capacity
modification. Ratings are generally in terms of meter capacity, using a stainless steel float. It has
been found that the float shape determines to a large extend of how much a rotameter will be
influenced by changes in the viscosity of the measured fluid. Floats having sharp edges have
been found to be relatively insensitive to viscosity changes over a considerable viscosity range.
Some typical float shapes are shown in Fig. 1.38.
Fig. 1.38 Partial representation of typical rotameter float shapes
Advantages
1. Low cost.
2. Low pressure drop.
3. Rangeability is better.
4. It is suitable for small flow rates.
5. It is easily equipped with alarms and switches or any transmitting devices.
6. It also measures the flow rate of corrosive fluids.
7. There is an availability of viscosity-immune floats.
8. It can be used in some light slurry services.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to handle the glass tube type.
2. It must be mounted vertically.
3. It is not suitable for pulsating services

4. Explain about the Target flow meters.
Ans: Target Flow Meters
Principle of Working:
Material buildup in front of orifice plates can cause both measurement errors and plugging
when the process stream is liquid slurry or a gas carrying wet solids. The annular orifice, which is
illustrated in Fig. 1.39, was introduced to solve this problem by providing an annular opening for
the solids to pass through. Target flow meters are similar in design except that the pressure taps
have also been eliminated and the detection of differential pressure been replaced by force
measurement. Both of these designs are suited for dirty or low turbulence flow metering
applications, if high precision is not required.
Construction.
The target meter combines in a single unit an annular orifice and a force-balance
transducer. Output is either an electric or pneumatic signal proportional to the square of the
flow. Target meters are available in sizes from 1/2 to 8 inch pipe diameter. The annular orifice
is formed by a circular disk supported in the center of a tubular section having the same
diameter. Flow through the open ring between disk and tube develops a force on the disk
proportional to velocity head (the square of the flow). The disk is mounted on a rod passing out
through a flexible seal. The force on the disk is measured from the rod outside the seal, using a
standard force-balance transducer integrally mounted on the flow tube.
Applications.
The target meter is applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids, vapours
and gases. It allows unimpeded flow of condensates and extraneous material along the bottom
of a pipe and at the same time allows unimpeded flow of gas or vapour along the top of the
pipe.
Operating temperature range : 300° C.
Operating pressures : 15 kg/cm2.

Targets with diameters of 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8 times tube diameter are available. Overall accuracy of
calibrated target meters is better than that of orifice-type systems.
5. Explain about the Mass Flow Meters

The knowledge of mass flow rates is necessary in combustion fuel control, in reactor
recipe formulations and in many other applications, from mining and dredging to food, pulp
and paper, pharmaceuticals and the chemical industry.
Angular-Momentum-Type Mass Flow Meters
The principle of angular momentum can be described by referring to Newton‘s second law of the
angular motion and the definition of angular momentum, using the following notation
Constant-Torque-Hysteresis Clutch
Another angular-momentum type mass flow meter eliminates the necessity of making a
torque measurement after imparting a constant torque to the fluid stream. The relationship between
mass flow and torque is

This relationship is used in designing a mass flow meter as follows: A synchronous motor
is placed in the center of the flow meter assembly. This motor is magnetically coupled to an
impeller which is located within the flowing process stream. The magnetic coupling between the
motor and the impeller is provided by means of a hysteresis clutch which transmits a constant
torque from the motor to the impeller. Thus, a measurement of the rotational speed of the impeller
is inversely proportional to the mass flow rate.
This relationship is used in designing a mass flow meter as follows: A synchronous motor is
placed in the center of the flow meter assembly. This motor is magnetically coupled to an impeller
which is located within the flowing process stream. The magnetic coupling between the motor and
the impeller is provided by means of a hysteresis clutch which transmits a constant torque from the
motor to the impeller. Thus, a measurement of the rotational speed of the impeller is inversely
proportional to the mass flow rate.
Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meters
Fig. 1.40 shows an impeller turbine mass flow meter.
The impeller, turbine-type mass flow meter uses two rotating elements in the fluid stream,
an impeller and a turbine. Both elements contain channels through which the fluid flows. The
impeller is driven at a constant speed by a synchronous motor through a magnetic coupling and
imparts an angular velocity to the fluid as it flows through the meter.
The turbine located downstream of the impeller removes all angular momentum from the
fluid and thus receives a torque proportional to the angular momentum. This turbine is restrained
by a spring which deflects through an angle which is proportional to the torque exerted upon it by
the fluid, thus giving a measure of mass flow.

6. Explain about the Thermal Mass Flow Meters Ans: Types of Thermal Mass Flow
Meters
Thermal flow meters can be divided into two categories : 1. Flow meters that measure the
rise in temperature of the fluid after a known amount of heat has been added to it. They can be
called heat transfer flow meters. 2. Flow meters that measure the effect of the flowing fluid on a
hot body. These instruments are sometimes called hot wire probes or heated-thermopile flow
meters. Both types of flow meters can be used to measure flow rates in terms of mass, a very
desirable measurement, especially on gas service.
Heat Transfer Flow Meters
The equation of the heat transfer flow meter is based on :

Thermal Flow Meter with External Elements and Heater
A flow meter using heat transfer principle described above has many
limitations. The temperature sensors and the heater must protrude into the fluid stream.
Thus these components (particularly the heater) are easily damaged by corrosion and
erosion.
Furthermore, the integrity of the piping is sacrificed by the protrusions into the fluid
stream, increasing the danger of leakage. To overcome these problems, the heater and the upstream
and downstream temperature sensors can be mounted outside of the piping, which is shown in Fig.
1.46.
In this type of construction the heat transfer mechanism becomes more complicated and the
relationship between mass flow and temperature difference becomes non-linear and to overcome
this non-linear relationship, heated tube type is introduced.
Heated Tube-Type Mass Flow Meter

Fig. 1.47 illustrates the non-linear shift in ΔT in a heated-tube-type flow meter, where the
asymmetricity of the temperature distribution increases with flow.

In this type of flow meter, when a fluid flows in a pipe, a thin layer (film)
exists between the main body of the fluid and the pipe wall. When heat is passing
through the pipe wall to the fluid, this layer resists the flow of heat. If the heater is
sufficiently insulated and if the piping material is a good conductor, the heat transfer
from the heater to the fluid can be expressed as
These types of flow meters are best suited for the measurement of
homogeneous gases and are not recommended for applications where the process fluid
composition or moisture content is variable. In order for these flow meters to be useful
in a system, both the thermal conductivity and the specific heat of the process fluid
must be constant.

UNIT III
ELECTRICAL TYPE FLOW METER
1. Explain Faraday’s law .

Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic field, an emf induced is equal to the rate at which
the magnetic lines of force changes.
2. List the advantages of electromagnetic flow meter?

It can handle slurries & corrosive fluids It has low pressure drop It can be used as bi-
directional meter Available in large pipe size & capacities
3. List the disadvantages of electromagnetic flow meter?

Expensive , Heavy and large size and Explosion
4. What are the different types of ultrasonic flow meters?
 Time difference type

 Doppler flow meter
5.Explain the principle of vortex flow meter

It is based on vortex sheding which occurs when a gas or liquid flows around a non stream
lined objects. When fluid flows pass an obstacle, boundary layers of slow moving fluid are formed
along the outer surface of the obstacle and the flow is unable to follow contours of the obstacle of
its downstream side.
6. What are the different methods of solid flow measurment?

Direct weighing system
Pneumatic method
Leakage flow technique
7.What are the advantages of solid flow measurment?

It is used for flow measurement upto 100 tonees/ hr Accuracy is ± to ±0.75 of full scale
deflection
8. What are the disadvantages of solid flow measurement?

For variation in size a correction factor is to be added.
9.List the applications of solid flow measurements
It is used in chemical & fertilizer industry used in paper industry mining & associated
industry for sand, rock, cement, lime etc food processing unit.

10. Explain the principle of hot wire anemometer
It is used for unsteady flow of gasses. Because of constant voltage wire gets heated. Heat
loss changes due to change in viscosity of fluid.
11.Write any guide lines for the selection of flow meters?
In order to cover reverse flow, pulsating flow, response time and so on Extreme
applications such as corrosive, non conductive liquid with large solid content the list will probably
consist of a single meter.
12. Explain the principle of leakage flow technique
To find the solid flow rate measurement electrode is used as the capacitance detector.
When a material flows this leakage field changes and the capacitance increases. This increased
capacitance detected at an interval depends on flow rate.
13.What are the advantages of using X- ray system?
It measures thickness with out contact with the material. Well suited to measure thickness
of sheet in rapid motion like rolling etc.
14.What are the uses of β-rays?
It is Used for thin metal sheets or foils, paper, rubber & plastics
15. What are the draw backs of using DC excitation in Electromagnetic flow meter?
It is Used for materials of low conductivity & flowing at slow speed DC amplifiers have
many inherent problems Output is quite small.
16.What are the advantages of using AC excitation in Electromagnetic flow meter?

High amplification can be more reliably, cheaply and easily done. High speed and high
conductivity.
17.What is laminar flow?
Fluid particles move in a smooth fashion and tend to stray in layers. This layer like
movement is called laminar flow.
18.What is turbulent flow?
Fluid velocity fast, particles also tends to have movement perpendicular to the over all the
direction of flow, which is called turbulent flow.

19. Define continuity equation.
It is the one of the most basic equation in flow calculations. It states that over all flow rate
in the system is not changing with time.
20.What are the causes of pressure loss?
Due to friction, either with in the fluid or between fluid and boundaries. Fluid imparting
(various fittings) on the objects.
21.What is faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in flow measurement?
As a magnetic field is applied to a tube through which the fluid is flowing,an electric potential is
generated.This electric potential is proportional to the velocity of the fluid flowing through the
pipe.
22. What are the three different types of excitation scheme used in electromagnetic flow
meter?
a) Dc excitation
b)50Hz AC excitation
c)Pulsed DC excitation
23. Name some shapes of Vortex shedder?

The shapes of vortex shedders are square, rectangular, t-shaped, and trapezoidal.

PART-B
1) Explain the principle, construction and operation of Electromagnetic flow meter.

Limitations of electromagnetic Flow Meters
 The substance being measured must be conductive. Therefore, it can‘t be employed for
metering the flow rate of gases and steam, petroleum products and similar liquids having
very low conductivity.
 To render the meter insensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid, the effective
resistance of the liquid between the electrodes should not exceed 1% of the impedance of
the external circuit.
 It is a very expensive device.
 As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any suspended matter in the
liquid will be included.
 To avoid any trouble which would be caused by entrained air, when the flow tube is
installed in a horizontal pipe-line, the electrodes should be on the horizontal diameter.
 As a zero check on the installation can be performed only by stopping the flow, isolating
valves are required and a bypass may also be necessary through which the flow may be
directed during a zero check.
 The pipe must run full, in case regulating valves are installed upstream of the meter.

Advantages of Electromagnetic Flow Meter
 The obstruction to the flow is almost nil and therefore this type of meters can be used for
measuring heavy suspensions, including mud, sewage and wood pulp.
 There is no pressure head loss in this type of flow meter other than that of the length of
straight pipe which the meter occupies.
 They are not very much affected by upstream flow disturbances.
 They are practically unaffected by variation in density, viscosity, pressure and
temperature.
 Electric power requirements can be low (15 or 20 W), particularly with pulsed DC types.
 These meters can be used as bidirectional meters.
 The meters are suitable for most acids, bases, water and aqueous solutions because the
lining materials selected are not only good electrical insulators but also are corrosion
resistant.
 The meters are widely used for slurry services not only because they are obstruction less
but also because some of the liners such as polyurethane, neoprene and rubber have good
abrasion or erosion resistance.
 They are capable of handling extremely low flows.
Disadvantages of EM Flow Meter

 These meters can be used only for fluids which have reasonable electrical conductivity.
 Accuracy is only in the range of ± 1% over a flow rate range of 5%.
 The size and cost of the field coils and circuitry do not increase in proportion to their size
of pipe bore. Consequently small size meters are bulky and expensive.
Applications of EM Flow Meters
This electromagnetic flow meter being non intrusive type, can be used in general for any
fluid which is having a reasonable electrical conductivity above 10 microsiemens/cm. Fluids like
sand water slurry, coal powder, slurry, sewage, wood pulp, chemicals, water other than distilled
water in large pipe lines, hot fluids, high viscous fluids specially in food processing industries,
cryogenic fluids can be metered by the electromagnetic flow meter.

2) Explain the construction and operation of Laser Doppler Anemometer.
The disadvantage of this method is that the probability is small that the particles will pass
through both beams. On the other hand, the resulting measurement signal is stronger and has less
background noise. Both types of noncontact Doppler measurements are suitable for nearly all
hydrodynamic and aerodynamic velocity measurement applications.
Applications
The use of this non contact measurement method is suitable for nearly all hydro dynamical
and aero dynamical velocity measurement applications.

3) Explain the operation of target flow meter with neat diagram.
The drag-body target flow meter detects the impact forces produced by the flowing fluid by
means of strain-gauge circuitry. This unit is available in standard configurations and is also available
in retractable probe designs , which are used in larger pipe sizes in which it is desirable to withdraw
the sensor periodically for cleaning without opening the process line. The force on the target can be
expressed as
Where F = force on the target (N)

cd = overall drag coefficient obtained from empirical data
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
v = fluid velocity (m/s)
A = target area (m2)
The target meter is applied in a number of fields for measurement of liquids, vapors, and
gases. It allows unimpeded flow of condensates and extraneous material along the bottom of a pipe
while allowing unimpeded flow of gas or vapor along the top of the pipe. It has given consistent,
dependable service on ―difficult‖ measurements such as hot, tarry, sediment-bearing fuels to a pipe
still where no other head type meter has proved successful. There are no differential pressure
connections to ―freeze.‖ This is useful in steam flow measurement in exposed locations and for liquids
that congeal at ambient temperature in pressure connections. Units are available for service up to
700°F (371°C), which is useful in steam service up to 200 PSIG (14 bars) pressure.

4) Draw the different structure of a weir and flume and explain how flow is measured in
open channel method.
Open-channel flow can be measured by detecting level in front of primaries. Open channel
flows can also be measured without primaries by calculating flow from depth and velocity.
WEIRS
Weirs are apertures in the top of a dam, across a channel through which flows the liquid to be
measured. The aperture may be rectangular, trapezoidal, or V-notch. The special case of a trapezoidal
weir with side slopes of 1:4 is known as a Cippoletti weir ; this form leads to a simplified flow
calculation. V-notch weirs generally have a notch angle from 30 to 90°, depending on required flow
capacity.
Rectangular or Cippoletti weirs are used for larger flows. A rectangular weir with a crest 2 ft
(0.6 m) long develops a head of about 0.2 ft (60 mm) for 250 GPM (946 l/min) and 1.0 ft (305 mm)
for 2700 GPM (10,221 l/min). For this weir, flow is directly proportional to crest length and to the
three halves power of the head.
The weir plate may be located in a dam in a natural channel or in a weir box. The stilling basin
ahead of the weir should be large enough so that the upstream velocity does not exceed 0.33 ft/sec
(0.01 m/sec). Width and depth immediately ahead of the weir should be sufficient so that the wall

effect of the bottom and sides of the channel has negligible effect on the pattern of flow through the
notch.
It is important that the flow break clear from the sharp edge of the notch with an air pocket
maintained immediately beyond and below the weir plate. The channel downstream from the weir
must be sufficiently wide and deep so that, at maximum flow, there is ample clearance between flow
through the notch to downstream liquid level so that this air pocket is maintained.
FLUME
This device is a special type of venturi flume. The loss of head is about one-quarter of that for
a weir of equal capacity. Compared to weirs, approach velocity effects are practically eliminated so
that a large upstream stilling basin is not required. The relatively high velocities in the system tend to
flush away deposits of silt and other solids that might accumulate and alter measurement. There are no
sharp edges, no pockets, and few critical dimensions; also, the device can be locally fabricated from
available materials.
Calibration data based on physical dimensions are available from 3 in. (76 mm) throat width
with minimum range of 0.03 second-feet (13 GPM or 49 l/m) up to 50 ft (15.2 m) throat width with
maximum capacity of 3300 second-feet (1,485,000 GPM/5,619,900 l/m).
Flow is approximately proportional to the three- halves power of level with flow capacity of a
single unit covering a range of 35:1 or more, depending on size. Extreme accuracy is not claimed for
flow measurement using this device; however, measurement is very dependable with minimal

maintenance and good repeatability. Accuracy is adequate for most applications to irrigation, waste,
and sewage flows.
Parshall flumes are available in plastic construction. One variation of the plastic units is the
nested, dual-range configuration in which two flumes are nested inside each other. This configuration
is used in installations where the start-up conditions are substantially lower than the final operating
flow rates. With these units, the flow initially passes through the inner flume; then, when the flow
exceeds its capacity, the inner flume is removed while the outer flume remains in place permanently.
5) Discuss the method of solid flow measurement using belt type gravimetric meter.
Continuous determination of flow rate of dry materials such as coal, cement, powdered
chemicals, paper and fruits is necessary in many industrial processes. Meters for measuring flow of
dry materials are essentially of the weighing type, in that they determine the weight of material
passing a given point. Belt feeders are compact factory—assembled devices utilizing belts to transport
the material across a weight-sensing mechanism.
In the case of meters, an uncontrolled solids flow passes across a constant speed belt and the
belt load signal is thus a function of gravimetric flow rate. The feeder in its most basic form consists of
a meter to which a controller and volumetric solids flow regulator is added. The flow regulator is
normally a simple gate, but may be in the form of a rotary gate, screw or other volumetric control
device capable of being fitted with a suitable actuator.
Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder
It incorporates a constant speed belt coupled with a gate to modulate the solids flow rate such
that belt load is balanced by an adjustable poise weight. The feeder, which is still used in some
industrial applications today, is unique in its simplicity but includes number of disadvantages relative
to more modern designs as follows:

1. The entire feeder is weighed rather than only a portion of the belt; consequently, the low
ratio of live load to tare coupled with mechanical friction in the linkage pivots results in relatively low
sensitivity in the belt load detection system.
2. The position of the gate control element is proportional to the belt load error. In the same
manner that a float-operated level control valve cannot maintain the level at set point if valve supply
pressure vary, this feeder cannot maintain set gravimetric rate if the bulk density of the solids varies.
Belt Type Electromechanical Gravimetric Feeder
Here the belt load is balanced by a mechanical beam and poise weight system which energizes
one or other of two clutches via a pair of mercury switches energized by a magnet attached to the
beam. These clutches actuate and establish the direction of travel of the gate-positioning mechanism.

The gate modulates as required to maintain the desired belt load as established by the position
of the poise weight on the balance beam. It can be seen that this feeder will maintain belt load
regardless of changes in material density, subject to the volumetric control limits of the gate. Belt load
set point is indicated by a mechanical counter geared to the beam poise weight drive. A second counter
geared to the belt drive totalizes the length of the belt travelled. By varying drive gears, these counters
can be provided to read directly.
Total weight fed can thus be calculated by multiplying the readings of the two counters.
Remote belt load set point and readout functions are available as well as a belt travel contact switch
may be used to operate a remote counter or to shut down the feeder via a redetermining counter after
the desired total weight of material has been fed. Adjustable micro switches actuated by gate position
may be utilized to activate alarms indicating either a stoppage of the material supply to the feeder or
over travel of the control gate resulting from abnormal low material density.
Belt Type Gravimetric Feeder with Pneumatic system
In the case of the pneumatic version shown, the preliminary calibration procedure involves
adjustment of the tare weight with the beam in center position, and location of the nozzle relative to
the flapper.

This establishes a condition such that balance is achieved when balancing piston pressure is
0.2kg/cm2. When material crosses the belt, beam movement throttles the nozzle. Nozzle back pressure
is imposed on the pneumatic relay, which in turn increases its output pressure until the balancing
piston rebalances the beam. The balancing pressure is thus proportional to belt load and since the belt
speed is constant, balancing pressure is proportional to measured weight-rate. Also shown is an
optional ball and disc integrator.
The disc is driven by the front belt roll of the feeder and the ball is positioned by a pneumatic
positioner. This ball and disc type integrates continuously. It is especially recommended for user with
gravimetric meters in applications involving the measurement of rapidly varying instantaneous flow
rates. The integrator is supplied with a digital totalize and can be furnished with a pulse transmitting
switch to operate a remote counter.
6) Discuss the factors to be considered while selecting a flowmeter.

GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF FLOW METER
The selection of a flow meter for an industrial application is influenced by complex desired
data. While purchasing a flow meter, it is better to get advice from an expert on the selection based on
the availability of flow meter and draw out a complete specification of the flow metering application.
Factors to be considered
There are many factors which are to be considered before drawing up specifications for a flow
meter.
1. Measurement requirements
2. External conditions of the flow pipe
3. Internal conditions of the flow pipe
4. Properties of the flowing fluid
5. Installation and accessories and
6. Cost consideration.

The requirements of measurement can be addressed based on.
(i) The measured variable like point velocity, average velocity or volume rate.
(ii) The range of operation. For wide range of operation, electromagnetic, ultrasonic, cross-
correlation, turbine type etc. are suitable.
(iii) Cost computation. If it is for costing purpose, the meter should have low and consistent
uncertainty in measurement.
(iv) Pressure head loss and maximum pressure of flowing fluid. For high pressure fluids the
meter body and inner construction should be sturdy.
(v) Accuracy, Precision and facilities available for maintenance.
(vi) Speed of response. For fluctuating flow, response of the meter should be good with small
time constants.
(vii) Calibration facilities and Installation.
Desirable Characteristics
A partial list of characteristics that are desirable in a flow meter selection is given below:
(i) A wide operating temperature range.
(ii) A wide dynamic range of measurement.
(iii) Insensitivity to flow profit, viscosity, and other physical properties of the fluid.
(iv) Non-corrodible and non-degradable materials of construction.
(v) Small irrecoverable head loss.
(vi) Suitability for liquids and gases.
(vii) Availability in all practical sizes.
(viii) Safety in all practical sizes.
(ix) Immunity to pulsating flow effects.
(x) Immunity to vibration.
(xi) Fast response to flow changes.
(xii) Accuracy.
(xiii) Calibration.
(xiv) Low cost to purchase and maintain.

7) Explain in detail about the structure and principle of operation of Vortex shedding
flowmeter.
Features of Vortex Shedding Flow Meter
1. The vortex shedding meter provides a linear digital output signal without the use of separate
transmitters or converters, simplifying equipment installation.
2. Meter accuracy is good over a potentially wide flow range, although this range is dependent
upon operating conditions.
3. The shedding frequency is a function of the dimensions of the bluff body and it ensures
good long term stability of calibration and repeatability of better than 0.15% of rate.
4. There is no drift because this is a frequency system.
5. The meter does not have any moving or wearing components, providing improved reliability
and reduced maintenance.
6. The calibration of the meter is virtually independent of the operating conditions (viscosity,
density, pressure, temperature and so on) whether the meter is being used on gas or liquid.
7. The vortex shedding meter also offers a low installed cost, particularly in pipe sizes below 6
inch diameter.
8. The limitations include meter size range. Meters below 12 mm diameter are not practical.
As a vortex is shed from one side of the bluff body, the fluid velocity on that side increases
and the pressure decreases. On the opposite side, the velocity decreases and the pressure increases,
thus causing a net pressure change across the bluff body. The entire effect is then reversed as the next
vortex is shed from the opposite side. Consequently, the velocity and pressure distribution adjacent
to the bluff body change at the same frequency as the vortex shedding frequency.
Various detectors can be used to measure one of the following:
1. The oscillating flow across the face of the bluff body.

2. The oscillating pressure difference across the sides of the bluff body.
3. A flow through a passage drilled through the bluff body.
4. The oscillating flow or pressure at the rear of the body.
5. The presence of free vortices in the downstream to the bluff body.

A flow-sensitive detector can be either a heated thermistor element or a spherical magnetic
shuttle. Detectors that are sensitive to pressure use either metal diaphragms or vanes. Pressure exerted
on diaphragms can be converted into variable capacitance or variable strain or can be converted into
an electrical signal through any of the sensor. Depending on the characteristics of the sensing system,
the flow meter will be suitable for liquid or gas or both. The earliest detector designs were highly
sensitive to plugging and required frequent maintenance.

UNIT- IV
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
1.List the direct level measuring methods.

Float type level indicator
Displacer type detector
Sight glass type.
2. List the indirect level measuring methods.

Hydrostatic measurement
Air purge system
Boiler drum system.
3.What are the advantages of sight glass level instrument?

Direct reading is possible.
Special designs are available.
Glass less devices are available in numerous material for corrosion resistance.
4.What are the advantages of displacer level instrument?

High accuracy
Reliable to clean liquids
Mounted internally or externally
Adaptable to liquid interface measurement.
5.Write short notes on displacer level system.

A DISPLACER LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is a liquid level
measuring system consisting of a buoyant cylindrical object, heavier than the liquid, immersed in
the liquid and connected to a spring or torsion device that measures the buoyancy of the cylinder
6. How CONDUCTIVITY PROBES provide a point level measurement of liquid level?

CONDUCTIVITY PROBES provide a point level measurement of liquid level
through the electrical conductivity of a liquid. The liquid has to be conductive to be able to
provide this level measurement.
CONDUCTIVITY PROBES consist of an electrical circuit of two or more probes
(electrodes) inserted in a metal conductive tank where the metal in the vessel completes the
circuit as the liquid level rises to immerse the electrode(s)
7. Write short notes on ultrasonic methods level measurement

Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of sending a sound wave from a peizo
electric transducer to the contents of the vessel. The device measures the length of time it
takes for the reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A successful measurement
depends on reflection from the process material in a straight line back to the transducer

8.Discuss about continuous level measurement of liquids
CONTINUOUS LEVEL MEASRURMENT is a method to track the changes of a level

over a range of values to monitor inventory or for determining when to add or remove material
from containers.
Examples of CONTINUOUS LEVEL MEASRURMENT could include maintaining a
level at a safe level when transferring material, or the water level of a boiler must be known at all
times to prevent a low-water condition that could result in boiler damage or an explosion. These
are examples of maintaining levels at a safe limit at all times and if these levels cannot be
maintained a system shut down must be initiated to prevent equipment damage, injury to
personnel, or unsafe releases to the environment.
9. How liquid level is measured using float and displacer sensor?

A FLOAT is a point level measuring instrument consisting of a hollow ball that floats
on top of a liquid in a tank. Floats are attached to the instrument by a lever to an On/Off Switch
activated by the movement of the float.
A DISPLACER LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is a liquid level
10. Write short notes on bubbler system.

A LEVEL BUBBLER SYSTEM for a non pressurized vessel consists of a tube extending to
the bottom of a vessel, a pressure gauge, single-leg manometer, transmitter, or recorder; a flow meter
to adjust the flow rate of air or nitrogen through the tube; and a pressure regulator to limit the inlet
pressure.
11.What is Archimedes’s principle?
It states that a body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid is lifted up by a force, which is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
12.What the purging fluids used in air purge system?
The common purging fluid is air, but if air reacts with the tank or is absorbed, different
gases are chosen depending on liquid properties.
13.What are the piezoelectric crystals used in ultra sonic sensors?
Piezo electric crystals such as quartz or barium titanate are used with a frequency range
from 30 to 300 KHz. An electronic switch is used for changing the mode.

14.Define liquid level
It means the height of a liquid from a reference datum
15.What are the applications for the float gauges?
 It can be used both in closed and open tanks to measure liquid level
 It can be used to measure levels of liquids and semi liquids
16.Which type of maintenance problem occurs in air purge system?
In this, the plugged bubble tubes are the primary maintenance problem. The bubble tubes
should be replaced in exactly the same position or as closed to the bottom of the tank as possible
for accurate level measurement.
17.What is the method to measure liquid level of too corrosive or too viscous liquids?
By weighing the tank
18.What are the liquids used in capacitive type level measuring device?
 Oils
 Gasonline or liquid gases
 High pressure process liquids
19.What are the basic considerations in the choice of the gauge glass?
 Enough strength for withstanding the vessel pressure

 Simple glass or plastic materials have been used up to 30 Kg/cm2 pressure and 200C
20.What are the design considerations of float?
 AS the liquid might contain suspensions which are likely to settle on top of the float and
changes the weight of the float, it has its sides sloping from the top.
 The float is generally made of copper with nickel plating for avoiding rusting etc
21.What are the sources of Y rays used for liquid level measurement
Sources used are 60Co,137 Cs and sometimes 226Ra
22.What are the important considerations in the use of float for level measurement and
control?
 Whether liquid will cling to the float or react with it chemically ,are of travel, and the
possibility of mechanical interference

 If there are significant changes in the specific gravity of the liquid, then the float will not
always indicate the correct level.
23.What are the limitations of sight glass?
 It does not lend itself readily to automatic reading. It cannot be used with certain viscous
liquids, with liquids, which will attack the glass.
 Generally these are fragile
 Its length is limited up to 900mm and there fore for tanks whose height is is much, one has
to go for large number if sight glasses
 A ladder has also to be provided to take readings at high levels.
24.What method do you suggest to measure the level of molten metal at temperature of
about 500c in a mould?
The best method in this case is to install a large number of thermocouples in the mould
depending on the resolution of level required. The temperature of all the thermocouples in the
mould submerged will be very high and above the level very low. Where steep difference of
temperature exists between two thermocouples , there the level stands.
25.List some hydrostatic pressure methods to measure the liquid level
 Pressure gauge method

 Air bellows
 Air burge system(or)bubbler system
 Liquid purge system
 Diaphragm box type
 Force balance type
26.What is the purpose of condensing vessel in the boiler drum level measurement?
 This condenses all the steam and does not allow the steam to come in direct contact with
the differential pressure sensing transducer
 It offers reference fixed head on the transducer and the reading of level are detected with
reference to their fixed level.
27. What are the difference between traditional and hydra step boiler drum level method?
Traditional methods of measuring drum water level are costly, difficult to maintain, and limited
and differing accuracies. The hydra step system overcomes these disadvantages economically and
can fulfill all the functions of the present diversity of indication, alarm and control instruments.

28.What are the advantages of ultrasonic sensors
 More accurate
 Easy to use
 In expensive
29.What are the applications of ultrasonic sensors
 Liquid phase type is used in storage tanks of oil and chemicals and for aircraft or marine
equipment tanks
 Vapour phase method is used in mines, oil wells, shaft etc
30.What are the applications of resistive level measurement
Measurement of level is done for high conductivity liquids such as city supply water,
sewage or sea water
31.What are the advantages of hydra step gauge?
Realiability is greater
When an electrode fails, it is easy and quick to replace
Maintenance cost is reduced
More accurate
High and low water level alarms are available without using any other system

PART B
1. DESCRIBE how GAUGE GLASSES are used to measure liquid level.

Ans:
GAUGE GLASSES are devices used to provide a visual indication of a liquid level that
consist of a glass tube connected above and below the liquid level in a tank that allows the liquid
level to be observed visually.
GAUGE GLASSES are used as a visual indication right at the tank location. As the level
of the tank increases or decreases, the liquid level is observed inside the glass tube. The liquid
level is the same as the level inside the tank.
The gauge glass occupies the vertical space between the gauge cocks. The gauge cocks
include ball check valves to prevent the loss of process fluid if the gauge glass should break.
The gauge class is a thick-walled glass tube fastened to the gauge cocks with a compression
fitting. The gauge glass assembly is attached to the vessel using upper and lower flanges or
fittings.
A guard rod is attached above and below the gauge glass tube to help protect the tube. In
some cases, a thicker plastic tube encloses the glass tube for added protection against breakage.
Because of a limited choice of materials for gauge cocks, gauge glasses are usually used for non
corrosive solutions that can discolor the glass tube or damage the gauge cock materials.
An armored gauge glass assemble is also available for high pressure systems like boilers.
These assemblies use a thick flat gauge glass inside an armored enclosure to provide high
pressure protection and safety protection against breakage in high pressure vessels or boilers. If a
very high tank uses armored gauges, they will use several of them at overlapping locations so all
levels can be visible.

2. How liquid level is measured using float and displacer sensor?
Ans:
Level devices using FLOATS are dependent of the buoyancy of an object to measure
level. A floating object determines the surface of a liquid, whereas a solid object lowered down
to top of material in a silo determines the level of a that product.
A FLOAT is a point level measuring instrument consisting of a hollow ball that floats on
top of a liquid in a tank. Floats are attached to the instrument by a lever to an On/Off Switch
activated by the movement of the float as depicted below:

Floats are used to indicate a specific tank level, actuate alarms or shutdown switches, or
even mechanically control valves. Switches can start a pump when the float is at one position
and stop the pump at another position.Floats can be located inside of a tank or enclosed in an
attached cage or in a stilling well to minimize turbulence and could also include alarm contacts.
Tape Flow Level Instruments using cables, pulleys, and a float with the float located
inside of a vessel, as the level raises or lowers, the float attached to a cable will cause an
external indication on the outside of a tank to indicate the level of the solution in that vessel.
Tape Floats are typically used as indication devices only, but they can be used with a
transmitter for continuous level measuring. Both examples are depicted below

TAPE FLOATS are continuous level measuring instruments consisting of a floating
object connected by a chain or cable or tape to a counterweight which is the level pointer. The
float rides up and down on two guide wires that keep the float in a specific position.
A scale fastened to the outside of the tank shows the reversed tank level with 100%
being at the bottom and 0% being at the top. When Float is at the top, the tank if full and when it
is at the bottom the tank is empty. The counterweight keeps tension on the tape and the pointer
moves up or down to indicate the level.
Tape Floats are subject to mechanical problems due to corrosion and buildup of
solutions on the tape causing the device to hang up and give a false indication. Sometimes

the float actually develops a leak and falls to the bottom of the tank providing a false
indication.
Float and Dial Level Instruments are used with horizontal tanks. A float attached to a
long arm, long enough for the float to reach the top and bottom of the tank, and is coupled
through a seal to a dial level indicator as depicted below:
These devices are used for measuring clean non corrosive liquids stored under
pressure such as ammonia or methyl chloride, and must be ordered for each specific tank
application.
The major problem with all float devices is that they are subject to mechanical problems
due to moving parts that become worn and are subject to breakage or defects over time.

3. Describe what a displacer liquid level measurement system is and how it measures level.
Ans: A DISPLACER LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is a liquid level
as depicted below:
The advantage of using the Displacer Level Instrument is that the movement from the
torque tube assembly can easily be transmitted via a pneumatic 3-15 psig or a 4-20 mA signal for
remote level indication and control of the liquid level.
A DISPLACER LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM is a liquid level measuring
system consisting of a buoyant cylindrical object, heavier than the liquid, immersed in the liquid
and connected to a spring or torsion device that measures the buoyancy of the cylinder as level
increases or decreases.The Displacer Level system is a Continuous Level Measuring

Instrument. The Displacer Level Instrument Using the Torque Tube Assembly can easily be
transmitted via a pneumatic 3-15 psig or a 4-20 mA signal for remote level indication and control
of the liquid level.
4. DESCRIBE how ULTRASONIC SENSORS provide a continuous level measurement.

Ans: An ULTRASONIC SENSOR is a continuous level measurement device consisting of two
electrically energized crystals mounted above the maximum level of the material in the vessel,
with one crystal used as a transmitter and the other used as a receiver.
The transmitter crystal generates a high-frequency sound directed at the surface of the
material in the vessel or tank. Transit Time is the time it takes for a transmitted ultrasonic signal
to travel from the ultrasonic level transmitter to the surface of the material to be measured back
to the receiver. The electronic circuitry in the receiver measures the Transit Time and calculates
the distance as depicted below:

This type of sensor is primarily used for granular solids, but is also used with non
corrosive liquids and slurries. Industrial noise and dust can create false signals with
Ultrasonic devices. Ultrasonic Sensors can also be used to provide a point level
measurement.
The design for point level measurement uses two similar crystals, one being the
transmitter and the other being the receiver. Both crystals are enclosed in a probe, but are
separated by a small integral air gap. This ultrasonic sensor is called a Gap Switch as depicted
below:
A Gap Switch measures the strength of an ultrasonic signal across a small gap to
determine when material in the tank has reached the switch.
When the gap is exposed to air or vapor, the ultrasonic signal is not able to pass through
in sufficient strength to be received; however, when the liquid rises and fills the gap, the
ultrasonic signal from the transmitter is received. This is due to the fact that liquids carry sound

waves more efficiently than air or vapor.
If liquid is in a slurry state or is sticky, a wider gap permits it to drain more readily from
the gap.
The disadvantage to Gap Switches is that the material used for these devices are not
suitable for corrosive liquids.
5. DESCRIBE how NUCLEAR LEVEL INSTRUMENTS provide point and continuous level
measurement.
Ans: A NUCLEAR LEVEL INSTRUMENT is a level measuring system consisting of a
radioactive source that directs radiation through a vessel to a detector, such as a GEIGER
COUNTER on the other side of a vessel.
Nuclear level sensors are used for process materials that are extremely hot, corrosive,
toxic, or under very high pressure and so are not suitable for intrusive level detectors.
Radioactive elements such as cesium 137 or cobalt 60 provide the radioactive source in the
form of gamma rays. The amount of radioactive energy required is calculated based upon a
vessel or tanks wall thickness and distance between source and detector.
Nuclear level sensors are relatively expensive to purchase, install, and operate. However,
they are sometimes the only way to measure level under extreme conditions.
POINT LEVEL measurement is achieved with a radioactive source mounted externally
on one side of a vessel at the selected level. The source must be enclosed in a protective housing
with a window allowing the radiation to be directed toward the detector on the opposite side of
the vessel. The nuclear energy source produces a beam of radiation whose frequency is
proportional to the strength of the radiation.
When the material level blocks the Radiation Beam Path, the detected radioactive energy
is reduced enough to cause an electrical relay to change its state and provide a level indication or
alarm. This relay can start or stop a feeder, light a lamp, or sound an alarm as depicted below for
Point Level Measurement:

Nuclear Continuous Level Measurement differs from Point Level Measurement in that it
will have several receiving elements instead of just one as depicted below:
Notice in the picture above, the indicator receiving its signal from the receiver is an
indication of a continuous level as all times and the device receiving its signal from the receiver is
providing a level reading of 0 to 100 % level and it is not an on or off device.
For continuous level measurement, the difference from a point level device is that the
receiver is a scintillation counter that detects and measures nuclear radiation as it strikes a sensitive
material, know as a phosphor, producing tiny flashes of visible light. Phosphors include Zinc,
Sulfide, Sodium Iodide and some liquids and organic substances. The attenuation of the source is
used to determine the level.

UNIT V
MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY, HUMIDITY AND MOISTURE
1)Define Viscosity.
It is a measure of fluidity of the system. Many fluids undergo continuous deformation with
the application of shearing stress.
2)Define Newtonian fluids

If the force flow relation is linear then the fluid is Newtonian .
3) Define Non Newtonian fluids

If the force flow relation is non linear then the fluid is Newtonian .
4) Define Kinematic Viscosity.

Ratio of absolute viscosity to the density of the fluid. V= µ cm2 /ς sec
5) Define Specific Viscosity.

Ratio of absolute viscosity of the fluid to the absolute viscosity of a standard fluid at the
same temperature.
µs = µ / µh
6) Define Relative Viscosity.

Ratio of absolute viscosity of the fluid at a given temperature to the absolute viscosity of a
standard fluid at 20°c.
7) Define Viscosity index

It is an empirical number that indicates the effect of change of temperature on viscosity if a fluid.
8) Define fluidity.
It is the reciprocal of viscosity. It is unit is 1/ poise.
9) Define Humidity.
It is basically moisture content in air or it is the quantity of water vapour retained by gas.
10) Define Absolute Humidity.

Weight of water vapour in unit wait of gas. H=Wr / Wg
11) Define Specific Humidity.

It is weight of vapors in unit weight of mixture.
12) Define Relative Humidity.

This is the ratio of moisture content of gas to maximum moisture content of the gas at that
temperature.
13) Define dew point.

This is the saturation temperature of the mixture at the corresponding vapour pressure.

14) Define various units of Humidity.
Vppm = parts per million / volume. G/ kg = weight concentration Relative humidity = in %
Dew point in °C.
15) Define Hygrometer.

Used to measure the moisture content in air. It also used to measure humidity.
16) What is the basic principle of Hygrometer.

It consist of mechanical device measuring the dimension change of humidity sensitive materials
like animal hair, animal membrane , paper etc.
17) Define Moisture.

Defined as the amount of water absorbed by solids or liquids.
18) What are the various methods of measurement of moisture.

Based on the weight of the particle Based on the resistance, capacitance
19) How will you find the % moisture present in the substances.
% Mp = ( Wwet - Wdry ) / Wwet * 100
20) What are the different types of viscometer?

Say bolt viscometer Rotameter type Consistency meters.
21) What is Psychrometer?

Psychrometer is a device that uses the bulb thermometers to measure humidity. It is also used in
air conditioning systems for maintaining humidity.
22) What are the different types of hygrometer?

Hair hygrometers
Wire electrode hygrometers
Electrolysis type hygrometers
Resistive type
Capacitive type
Microwave reflector
23) Explain the principle of saybolt viscometer.

As the viscosity of the fluid varies, the flow rate and hence time taken to drain the fluid
through the capillary tube varies. The time indicates the viscosity and is denoted by say bolt
number.
24) What is meant by consistency?

General term for viscosity and more often used in connection with Non-Newtonian fluids
.
25) Explain the principle of oscillating type consistency meters.
When the inner cylinder is given an axial sinusoidal motion through a mechanical drive rod,
the fluid in the annular space gets a shearing force and the motion in the inner cylinder well to
transmitted the magnitude of this transmission will depend on the consistency of fluid.

Part-B
1. Explain the construction and principle of operation of dry bulb Psychrometer with neat
diagram.
Principle of measurement
When water or ice covers the bulb of a thermometer (wet-bulb), latent heat is removed
from the surface of the bulb as the water evaporates, and the wet-bulb temperature becomes
lower than the air (dry-bulb) temperature.
At a lower humidity, water evaporates more actively, so that the wet-bulb temperature
lowers sharply. The aspirated psychrometer measures humidity by measuring the difference
between the dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature.
Structure and composition
The psychrometer consists of two thermometers of the same specifications, which are
suspended side by side in the air. One of them measures the actual air (dry-bulb) temperature
while the other, whose bulb is covered with a wet-bulb temperature.
Psychrometers are classified into the non-aspirated type psychrometer (portable aspirated
psychrometers and sling psychrometers) and the aspirated type psychrometers (Assuman type
aspirated psychrometer and JAM type aspirated psychrometers). Aspirated psychrometers are
designed to keep the constant flow of air over around the bulbs. The structure and composition of
the Assuming type aspirated psychrometer, which is commonly used in Japan, and described
below. Figure 3.1 shows the structure of the Assuman type aspirated psychrometer.

It consists of two enclosed scale type mercury thermometers, which can read
temperature in increments of 0.1.One of them is called a dry-bulb thermometer, which
measures actual air temperature and the other is called a wet-bulb thermometer, which is
measures the temperature of wet-bulb which covered with a wet sleeve. The wet sleeve is a
white thin cotton cloth soaked with water.
The external and internal cylinders of a metal aspiration tube protect the bulbs
from precipitation and radiation of direct sunlight.
As shown in figure 3.1, air floe with a velocity of 2.5 m/s enters from the bottom with an
electromotive fan or a spring fan. The time constant of the psychrometer is about 40 seconds. A
squirt is used to feed water to the wet sleeve of the wet-bulb or to suck excess water from it.
(3) Psychrometric formula and psychrometric table
When the air steadily flows around the wet-bulb, the wet-bulb temperature falls below the
air temperature by water evaporation from the surface of the wet-bulb. When the heat flow moving
into the wet-bulb from the ambient air has reached equilibrium with the latent heat flow removed
from the wet-bulb by evaporation, the following equation, called the Sprung psychrometric
formula, is derived with the Assuman type aspirated psychrometer,
e= ew- (A/755) p (t-tw) ...................................(1)
where,
Psychrometer constant, A is 0.50 when the wet-bulb is not frozen and 0.44 when it is
frozen. e: Vapor pressure hPa
ew: Saturation vapor pressure hPa
p: Atmospheric pressure hPa
t: Dry-bulb temperature ℃
tw:Wet-bulb temperature ℃
Vapor pressure is calculated with this equation (1). Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 show
the saturation vapor pressure for water and ice as a function of temperature.
The second term on the right side of the equation (1) is calculated a function of p and (t-
tw), which is tabulated as the vapor pressure table in Table 3.3 and Table 3.4 for the unfrozen and
frozen wet-bulb.
Calculations of vapor pressure, dewpoint temperature, and relative humidity
The vapor pressure, dewpoint temperature, and relative humidity are calculated from the

measurement with the aspirated psychrometer using the tables described above.
Calculation of vapor pressure
1)Make correction of the instrumental error of the dry-and wet-bulb thermometer.
2)Using Table 3.1 or 3.2, determine the value of the saturation vapor pressure for water (ew)
or ice (ei) as a function of the wet-bulb thermometer temperature (tw).
3)Using Table 3.3 and 3.4 calculate the second term on the right side of the equation as a function
of atmospheric pressure (p) and (t-tw), where t is the dry-bulb thermometer temperature. The vapor
pressure e is obtained by making a subtraction between the above two values.
Precautions for using the aspirated psychrometer

1) Supply water to the wet-bulb with distilled water or soft water, using the squirt.If the air
temperature is 0℃ or less, the water of the wet-sleeve may be frozen. In that case, make the icy
membrane around the wet-bulb as thin as possible, using warmed water.
NOTE: Do not supply the wet-bulb with too much water. If too much water is supplied to the bulb
suck excess water by squirt or by attaching a brush to the bottom of the bulb. Do not wet the inside
of the aspiration tube. Use water of the air temperature.
In the case that the air temperature is high and the humidity is low, the wet-bulb
may dry up by the time when the observer reads the temperature. In such a case, supply water to
the wet-bulb repeatedly.
2) Operate the fan for aspiration to make the air flow around the bulbs.
3) Before reading a wet-bulb temperature, it is necessary that the indication is stable.
When the wet-bulb temperature is slightly below 0℃, the water of the wet-sleeve may not
freeze but be super cooled. Thus when the temperature is around or less than 0℃, see carefully the
state of the wet-bulb to find whether the wet-bulb is frozen or super cooled and use the appropriate
saturation vapor pressure table. To determine whether the wet-bulb is frozen or super cooled,
gently touch the surface of the wet-bulb with something like a needle. Degree of gloss on the
surface of the wet-bulb is also useful to check if the wet-bulb is frozen.
The time for aspiration required to stabilize the reading is typically five minutes if the
temperature is 0℃ or higher. If the temperature is less than 0℃, an aspiration time longer than
five minutes will be needed.
Sources to cause errors
a) The psychrometer constant A in the psychrometric formula varies, depending on

whether the wet-bulb is frozen or not and the incorrect determination of the wet-bulb leads to
errors. So the state of the wet-bulb should be checked especially in cold conditions before the
calculation.
b) As the temperature becomes lower, air contains less vapor, and the saturation pressure
becomes lower. So the wet-bulb temperature reading error affects the vapor pressure calculations
more significantly. Because of this, much care is needed with reading the psychrometer at low
temperatures.
c) A portable aspirated psychrometer which is not subjected to forced aspiration is

significantly affected by the natural wind. When a portable aspirated psychrometer is used in a
thermometer shelter and the natural wind speed ranges from 0.3 to 4.0 m/s, the error in humidity
may become as high as 7% because the aspiration velocity in the shelter is lower than the wind
speed out of the shelter.
d) The wet-bulb temperature is affected by oil on the wet sleeve as well as by any
impurities, such as salt dissolved in the water. A dirty wet sleeve also prevents correct
measurement. Deposits of dirt on the wet-bulb after the prolonged use may cause errors.
e) Generally, the dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometers have the same size and shape.
Because the wet-bulb has higher thermal conductivity, it responds to changes in air temperature a
little more quickly than the dry-bulb. Normally, when the air temperature changes, the wet-bulb
firstly responds, causing a temporary change of humidity indication. On the other hand, the wet-
bulb responds less quickly when a thick icy membrane is formed on the bulb.
2. Write short notes on dew point and explain in detail about the commercial dew point
meter.
Ans: DEW POINT:
The dew point is the temperature below which the water vapor in a volume of humid air at
a given constant barometric pressure will condense into liquid water at the same rate at which it
evaporates. Condensed water is called dew when it forms on a solid surface.
The dew point is a water-to-air saturation temperature. The dew point is associated with
relative humidity. A high relative humidity indicates that the dew point is closer to the current
air temperature. Relative humidity of 100% indicates the dew point is equal to the current
temperature and that the air is maximally saturated with water. When the dew point remains

constant and temperature increases, relative humidity decreases.[1]
General aviation pilots use dew-point data to calculate the likelihood of
carburetor icing and fog, and to estimate the height of the cloud base.
This graph shows the maximum percentage, by mass, of water vapor that air at sea-level
across a range of temperatures can contain.
At a given temperature but independent of barometric pressure, the dew point is a

consequence of the absolute humidity, the mass of water per unit volume of air. If both the
temperature and pressure rise, however, the dew point will increase and the relative humidity will
decrease accordingly. Reducing the absolute humidity without changing other variables will bring
the dew point back down to its initial value.
In the same way, increasing the absolute humidity after a temperature drop brings the dew
point back down to its initial level. If the temperature rises in conditions of constant pressure, then
the dew point will remain constant but the relative humidity will drop. For this reason, a constant
relative humidity (%) with different temperatures implies that when it's hotter, a higher fraction of
the air is water vapor than when it's cooler.
At a given barometric pressure but independent of temperature, the dew point indicates the
mole fraction of water vapor in the air, or, put differently, determines the specific humidity of the

air. If the pressure rises without changing this mole fraction, the dew point will rise accordingly;
Reducing the mole fraction, i.e., making the air less humid, would bring the dew point back down
to its initial value. In the same way, increasing the mole fraction after a pressure drop brings the
relative humidity back up to its initial level.
Considering New York (33 ft elevation) and Denver (5,280 ft elevation),[2] for example,
this means that if the dew point and temperature in both cities are the same, then the mass of water
vapor per cubic meter of air will be the same, but the mole fraction of water vapor in the air will
be greater in Denver
3. Explain briefly about moisture measurement of various substances
Ans:
Moisture analysis covers a variety of methods for measuring moisture content in both high
level and trace amounts in solids, liquids, or gases. Moisture in percentage amounts is monitored as
a specification in commercial food production. There are many applications where trace moisture
measurements are necessary for manufacturing and process quality assurance.
Trace moisture in solids must be controlled for plastics, pharmaceuticals and heat treatment
processes. Gas or liquid measurement applications include dry air, hydrocarbon processing, pure
semiconductor gases, bulk pure gases, dielectric gases such as those in transformers and power
plants, and natural gas pipeline transport.
Chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometer
(1) Structure and composition sensor (mirror)
The basic structure of the sensor unit for a chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometer is shown in Figure
3.7.Sample air is drawn to the metallic mirror surface through piping to determine the dewpoint
temperature. As the mirror cools, condensation forms when its surface temperature falls below the
dewpoint temperature, but evaporates and disappears at higher temperatures.
The temperature of the metallic mirror when condensation forms are measured using a
platinum resistance thermometer, and the result is taken as the dewpoint temperature.
Condensation conditions are monitored using a photo-detector with the reflection of a
light-emitting diode (LED) on the mirror. Irradiated light is scattered when condensation is present,
and the amount of reflected light changes with the mirror‘s surface condition. A peltier element is
used to control the mirror‘s temperature.

(2) Structure
Chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometers consist of a sensor unit with a mirror, an indicator
to output the measurement results, and a pump to draw sample air into the sensor unit. The
sample flow can be adjusted using the pump, and a filter should be installed if the sample air has
a high contaminant content (Figure 3.8).With models to which a thermometer can be attached to
measure the temperature of the sample air, relative humidity can be calculated based on the
sample temperature and the dewpoint temperature.
(3) Error factor
Contaminants such as salt, dust and oil mist on the mirror may result in artificially
elevated dewpoint temperature readings or difficulties in stable condensation layer formation due

to temperature control malfunction. As absorbent piping will draw vapor from the sample and
create large errors, it is important to use stainless steel or fluoride-based resin pipes and to make
them as short as possible.
(4) Maintenance
As mirror contamination can cause errors, the mirror should be cleaned with a special
detergent before measurement. Leaving the unit on high temperature after measurement can also
result in the development of mold or corrosion. After measurement ends, the hygrometer should
be dried completely by blowing dry air through it.
(5) Calibration
If a humidity generator tank is attached, calibration should be conducted by connecting
piping in parallel from the tank to both the instrument to be calibrated and the standard instrument,
measuring the dewpoints at the same time and comparing them. Thermometers should also be
calibrated when relative humidity is to be determined.
(6) Repair
Severely corroded mirrors cannot be repaired and must be replaced. As the
procedures for identifying faults, replacing units and conducting similar work depend on the
model, the instruction manual should be followed.
4. Explain the construction and principle of operation of Say bolt Viscometer with neat
sketch.
Ans: Viscosity is a measure of fluidity of the system. Many fluids undergo continuous
deformation with the application of shearing stress.
Fig1 Saybolt viscometer.

Figure 3-2.–Various styles of glass capillary viscometers.3-2
5. Explain any two types of hygrometers used for Humidity measurement, with neat sketch.
Ans: Hair hygrometer
(1) Principle of measurement and structure
The hair hygrometer uses the characteristic of the hair that its length expands or shrinks
response to the relative humidity. the dimensions of various organic materials vary with their
moisture content. A humidity change takes an effect on the moisture content in such materials. The
length of human hair from which liquid are removed increases by 2 to 2.5% when relative humidity
changes by 0 to 100%. Different types of human hair show different changes in length. However,
there is still a relationship between the length of hair and relative humidity.
The hair hygrograph is a hair hygrometer to which a clock-driven drum is installed to
record humidity no a recording chart. When the humidity in the air changes, a hair bundle ⑪
expands or shrinks, so hair joint metal attached to a lever ⑩ moves, making a rotation of a main
can ③. The weight of a pen arm attached to the shaft ⑥ give a downward moment.

Indicator adjusting screw ②Weight ③Main cam
④Sub cam ⑤Rotation axis for main cam ⑥Rotation axis for sub cam
⑦Plate attaching sensor part of humidity , ⑧Screw attaching sub cam ⑨Connecting spring
⑩lever ⑪Hair bundle.The plumb ② of the main cam balances with momentand a small
change of the hair bundle ⑪ is magnified to the movement of the pen.
Since the length of the hair increases almost logarithmically with the increase of humidity,
changes in humidity are not indicated correctly when the elongation of hair is linearly recorded.
The hair hygrometer uses two special cams to put graduations on the hygrometer at equal intervals.
A spring ⑨ joints cams ③ and ④ to prevent them from each other. The movement of the main
cam ③ differ from that of the sub cam ④ depending on the position of the contact point of these
two cams. At low humidity, the movement of the sub cam ④ is less than that of the main cam ③.
As humidity increases, the movement of the sub cam ④increases. The hair hygrometer is designed
so that the two special cams cause the movement of the pen arm to be proportional to the change in
humidity. The hair hygrometer uses a recording chart with a humidity scale divided into 100 equal
segments. Each segment corresponds to 1%. So, humidity can be directly read from the recording
chart.
(2) Precautions for using the hair hygrograph
1) Before taking a reading of the hair hygrograph, gently tap the hygrometer to remove any

mechanical tension added to the hair bundle.
2) At every measurement with the hair hygrograph, the reading should be compared with the
humidity measured with the aspirated psychrometer at the same time. The difference of the
humidity between them is used as a correction value.
3) Time marks as well as the degree of clock accuracy should be recorded on the chart.
a) When making a time mark on the recording chart by moving the pen, take care to move
the pen arm downward. Moving the pen arm in the pen arm in the opposite direction
(upward)makes the hair bundle to expand, causing the hygrograph to become defective.
b) To determine the humidity from the recording chart, read the indication on the record
then correct it with correction values obtained by the procedure above.
(3) Sources to cause errors
a) Hair expands or shrinks due to changes in temperature as well as those in humidity. The
expansion or shrinkage of a hair corresponding to a temperature change of 1℃ is about 1/15 of the
expansion or shrinkage of a hair corresponding to a temperature change of 1% in usual air
temperatures. Thus no special temperature compensation is made in hair hygrograph. However, if
the temperature varies considerably, slight errors will occur. Because the hygroscopicity of hair
begins to decrease at around -15℃ and becomes almost nil at -40℃, the hair hygrometer does not
serve at extremely low air temperatures.
b) The response of hair to humidity has hysteresis. The hair length changes more when humidity
increases than when it decreases.
Electronic hygrometer (capacitive type)
(1) Structure and composition

Electronic hygrometers detect the change in the electrostatic capacity or electric
resistance of a sensor when it absorbs moisture. In this section, the electrical capacitive
hygrometer is described.
The electrical capacitive hygrometer uses a dielectric material made of high polymer
membrane, as a sensor.

Figure 3.4 Structure of hygrometer sensor with high polymer membrane
The sensor is fitted with a filter which protects the sensor from contaminants, such as
toxic gases, and has pores to tale moisture in it. Figure 3.6 shows an example of such a filter.
(2) Characteristics of the sensor
The measurement range of the electrical capacitive hygrometer is from 0 to 100%, and its
accuracy can be improved by calibration. By calibrating with the standard hygrometer, the
electrical capacitive hygrometer attains the error of 1% or less in the range from 0 to 90% and
error of 2% or less in the range from 90 to 100%.
The hysteresis becomes large when the humidity changes from high to low. It is within
1% at relative humidity of 60-80%. when relative humidity increases from 0 to 90% and the
sensor absorbs moisture, the time constant of the sensor is about six seconds. On the other hand,
when relative humidity decreases from 90 to 0% and the sensor releases moisture, the time
constant is about 10 seconds.
For meteorological purposes, the sensor is put in a ventilation shelter to protect the sensor
from precipitation and sunlight with the aspiration speed of 2 to 4 m/s around the sensor. The time
constant with the shelter from the saturation to the room humidity is about 20 minutes, which is
longer than that without the shelter, because of the shelter‘s large thermal capacity.
A high polymer membrane humidity sensor has temperature dependence of about 0.1%/℃
for the temperature range from 5 to 30℃ and 0.2%/℃ for the temperature range from –30 to 0℃.
Therefore, a temperature sensor is installed together with the humidity sensor to compensate its
temperature dependency.
(3) Sources to cause errors

a) Any difference between the ambient temperature and the sensor temperature causes an
error. For example, at 20℃ and 50%RH, a difference of 1℃ between the ambient temperature and
the sensor temperature results in an error of about 3%. At 90%RH, the error becomes up to about

6%. When the sensor temperature is lower than the ambient temperature in a low humidity
condition, dew may form on the surface of the sensor. This will make a large measurement error.
The sensor is housed in an ventilation shelter to reduce or eliminate the difference of temperature
between the sensor and the ambient air to prevent dew formation.
b) The electronic capacitive hygrometer can be used in any environment where the human can live.
However, do not use the hygrometer in the atmosphere containing oil mist, flammable gas, dust,
organic solvents, acid, alkaline or ammonia. Using the hygrometer in the atmosphere may cause its
sensor electrodes to corrode, thus the sensor life is shortened. To prevent the sensor electrode from
corrosion, a protection filter is used to keep out dust or organic solvents.
(4) Maintenance
Routine maintenance
Routine maintenance is not needed.
Periodic maintenance
a) Compare the electrical capacitive hygrometer with the aspirated psychrometer once three
months to observe time-dependent changes.
b) Replace the protection filter with a new one twice a year. In rural areas where little soot is
found , the interval between replacements may prolonged to a maximum of once a year.

Industrial Instrumentation II QB

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PROSPERITY THROUGH TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL ENGINEERING

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 1

1. Define Laminar flow.

2. Define Turbulent flow.

3. Define Reynolds number.

4.State the Bernoulli’s equation.

5. What is meant by Vena contracta taps?

6. Define the Flow nozzle

7. Name different types of flow nozzle

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 2

9. What is the purpose of using Annubar in flow measurement?

10. State the advantages and disadvantage of Annubar openings.

11) What are the units of velocity?

12) Define rational expansion factor.

13) What are the different types of orifice?

14) Define concentric orifice.

15) Define eccentric.

16) Define segmental its hole diameter is 98% of pipe diameter.

17) Define quadrant edges is rounded to form a quarter circle.

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 3

20) Define rational expansion factor.

21)Define Coefficient of discharge of a lead flow meter.

24) On what principle elbow taps operates?

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 4

1. Standard tables are not available

26) Give the characteristics of flow nozzle.

27) Differentiate orifice plate, flow nozzle and venturi plate.

28) Mention the types of variable area flow meters.

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 5

Ans: Orifice Flow Meter

Types of Orifice Plates

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 6

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 7

Ans: Installation of Head Flow meters:-

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 8

(b) Air and Gases

(b) Air and Gases

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 9

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 10

Installation of condensation Pots

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 11

Factors to be Considered in Piping Arrangement:

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 12

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 13

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 14

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 15

4. Explain the principle of operation of flow nozzle.

Different Designs of Flow Nozzle

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 16

Ans: Dall Tube:

Construction And Working

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 17

6. Explain the principle of operation Variable Head Type Flow meters.

DEPT OF ICE, SEC, CHENNAI-44 Page 18

1. What are the different types of positive displacement meters?

2. What are the major three methods of flow meters?

3. What are the different types of thermal flow meters?

4. Name the different types of weighing methods

5. Write any two points of calibration of flow meter

8. What are the different types of positive displacement meters?

9. List the advantages of reciprocating piston type

10. List the disadvantages of reciprocating piston type