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Ei8553 Process Control Question Bank
Ei8553 Process Control Question Bank
QUESTION BANK
VISION
To emerge as a “Centre for excellence” offering Technical Education and Research
Opportunities of very high standards to students, develop the total personality of the individual,
and instill high levels of discipline and strive to set global standards, making our students
technologically superior and ethically strong, who in turn shall contribute to the advancement of
society and humankind.
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We dedicate and commit ourselves to achieve, sustain and foster unmatched excellence in
Technical Education. To this end we will pursue continuous development of infrastructure and
enhance state-of-the art equipment to provide our students a technologically up-to-date and
intellectually inspiring environment of learning, research, creativity, innovation and professional
activity and inculcate the students in ethical and moral values.
QUALITY POLICY
We at Sri Sai Ram Engineering College are committed to build a better nation through
Quality Education with team spirit. Out students are enabled to excel in all values of Life and
become Good Citizens. We continually improve the System, Infrastructure and Services to
satisfy the Students, Parents, Industry and Society.
SRISAIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SAI LEO NAGAR, WEST TAMBARAM
CHENNAI-44
NBA Accredited and ISO Certified Institution
VISION
To Pioneer in Providing Technical Education and to develop competent Engineers who are
technically proficient in the field of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, ethically stronger
contributing to the growth of Society and Nation.
MISSION
M1:To Provide Quality Education in both theoretical and applied foundations of Instrumentation
and Control Engineering.
M2:To Enhance Problem Solving capabilities through design Project, Industrial and In- house
Projects
M3:To inculcate strong professional and Ethical Values among the students.
PEO1:Graduates will have solid and sound basics in Mathematics, Electronic and
Instrumentation fundamentals and advancements to solve technical problems.
PEO2:Graduates will have the capability to work productively as Instrumentation and Control
Engineers, including supportive and leadership roles in multidisciplinary domain.
PEO3:Graduates will have the potential to participate in life-long learning through the successful
completion of advanced degrees, continuing education, certifications and/or other
Professional developments.
PEO4:Graduates will have the ability to apply the gained knowledge to improve the society
ensuring ethical and moral values.
PSO1: To apply the fundamentals of mathematics and physical sciences in the field of
Instrumentation and Control Engineering
Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will have the
Ability to understand technical terms and nomenclature associated with process control
domain.
Ability to build models using first principles approach as well as analyze models.
Ability to design, tune and implement PID controllers to achieve desired
Performance for various processes.
Ability to analyze systems and design and implement control schemes for various
processes.
Ability to identify, formulate and solve problems in the process control domain.
Prerequisite knowledge
Basics of Measurements and Instrumentation
Control System
2. Define process.
It defines as a series of operations during which some materials are placed in more
useful state. It also refers to method of changing or refining raw materials to create end
product.
7. Define disturbance.
It is also known as load variable. It changes in an unpredictable manner which can
affect process variable.
The load variables of a process are all other independent variables except the control
variable and manipulated variable.
13. A tank operating at 10ft head, 51pm outflow through a valve and has a cross section
area of 10 sq ft. calculate the time constant
T=R/A, R=H/Q=10/(5X5.885X10-4)
This method is desired by operator. This may happen any time in the system
Tracking of missiles and automatic machining Controlling of temperature and flow rate
are examples of this type.
In chemical plants minor set point change But here changes such as uncontrolled flow,
only occurs. temperature, pressure are frequent and cause
large errors.
Time constant for a process is defined as the process variable takes to move 63.32%
of its final value after a step change in valve position.
All steps are ongoing continuously in Production occurs in time sequential steps in
time. batches
Large scale production Small scale production
Regulatory is dominant than servo Servo is dominant
Eg: oil refining, chemical fertilizers, paper Eg: furnace, Hood annealing of steel rolled coils
and pulp and metal smelting Steel melting.
2. What is the function of an actuator? What are the different types of actuators?
An Actuator is used to translate the output signal of the automatic controller into a
position of a member exerting large power and often it is employed as a power amplifying
mechanism. Different types of actuators used in control valve are pneumatic actuators,
hydraulic actuators, electro-pneumatic actuators, and electric motor actuators.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic actuator over other
actuators?
The pneumatic actuator is used in wide range of pressure. The pneumatic signal is
easily available which can transmit quite long distance without and transmission losses. No
wear and tear problem is needed as in hydraulic actuators. The main drawback in pneumatic
actuators is it requires signal conversion when the process is automated. This type of
actuators is dependable and difficult in construction.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of rotary type motion valves over linear
stem motion type valves?
The rotary type stem motion valve is providing high capacity flow with minimum
pressure drop. They are used to handle slurries or fibrous materials. They require minimum
space for installation and they are used in low pressure services. The rotating type valves
have low leakage tendency and the range ability is limited.
7. What are the different types of factors to be considered in control valve sizing? or What is the
significance of the sizing of control valves?
The proper sizing of the control valve is important because of the effect on the
operation of automatic controllers. if the control valve is oversize, for eg, the valve must
operate at low lift and the minimum controllable flow is too large. In addition, the lower part
of the flow-lift characteristics is most likely to be non-uniform in shape. On the other hand if
the control valve is undersize, the maximum flow desired for a process may not be provided.
8. Differentiate flashing and cavitations in a control valve.
In a control valve when the pressure at venacontracta goes below the vapour pressure
and also at the pressure is below the liquid vapour pressure. So the fluid enters the port as a
liquid & comes out as a vapour. This phenomenon is called Flashing.
It occurs in a valve when the pressure drop across the orifice first results in the
pressure is being lowered to below the liquid‘s vapour pressure and then recovering to above
vapour pressure. This pressure recovery causes on implosion or collapse of the vapour
bubbles formed at the venacontracta. This Phenomenon is called Cavitation.
The flow lift characteristics of a control valve fall into three approximate categories
a. Decreasing sensitivity type
b. Linear type
c. Increasing sensitivity type.
16. What are I/P and P/I converter? State the stand and valves for P and I in
instrumentation practice.
I/P and P/I converter are signal converters which are use to convert current to
pneumatic and vise versa in process system. The standard Pneumatic value is 3 – 15 psi and
the current is 4 – 20 mA DC.
17. Why installed characteristics of control valve are different from inherent
characteristics?
The inherent characteristics of control valve are desired by the manufacture with
standards, but the installed characteristics are change when the control valve is in usage.
Because the control value may apply many applications its coefficient may not be same for
all conditions.
21. List the merits and demerits of using a positioner in a control valve?
Merits: Hysteresis is reduced and linearity is improved, Actuator can handle higher
static forces and speed of response is improved.
Demerits: Does not improve the ability of actuator to handle inertia or thrust forces. Requires
maintenance.
22. Derive the expression for flow through an equal percentage valve?
The expression for flow is, [ m / M] ={ R(x/X) - 1}
where,
m = outlet flow rate,
M = desired maximum outlet flow rate
R = rangeability , x / X = ratio of lift
24. The upstream pressure of control value is 4kg/cm² and the downstream pressure
varies 51kg/cm². The port diameter of the control value is 5 cm. Find the actuator force
required?
Given :
pı =4kg/cm² ,
p2= .51 kg/cm² ,
d= 5cm ,
a= π/4*d^2 ,
25.Merits and demerits of single seated and double seated control valve.
Single -seated control value
Merits:
It has only one port opening between seat and plug
Simple in construction.
Can be shut-off to provide zero flow.
Demerits :
Large force acts a value because of differential head acting across port and seat area.
Advantages:
Net force acting on value stem is small
Disadvantages:
Cannot be shut off tightly because of differential pressure and temperature expansion
of value plug and valve body.
where:
Cv = Flow coefficient or flow capacity rating of valve.
F = Rate of flow (US gallons per minute).
SG = Specific gravity of fluid (Water = 1).
ΔP = Pressure drop across valve (psi).
UNIT-III
CONTROL ACTIONS
15. Why derivative control cannot be used alone? Or Under what circumstances
derivative control action is added or removed in a controller.
The derivative action is recommended for temperature and composition control where
there is a sluggish and Multi capacity processes. When the error is constant the derivative
action is zero.
The derivative action Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate Action.
When the process has noise the derivative control amplifies the noise and makes the noisy
one. It introduces a stabilizing effect on the Closed –loop control response of a process.
16. Why derivative mode of control is not recommended for a noisy process?
The derivative control mode is not recommended for a noisy process because even
when the pv settles down at the set point the derivative control gives the control action for
noises that are at higher frequencies, so the pv moves around the set point.
17. What is meant by neutral zone in an on off controller
The neutral zone is an interval of a signal domain or band where no action occurs (the
system is dead). Neutral zone is used in voltage regulators and other controllers. The purpose
to prevent oscillation or repeated on/off cycles.
Direct Reverse
Error=PV-SP Error=SP-PV
The output signal from direct controller goes The output signal will be opposite response
in same direction of its PV signal as does a change in PV.
As PV increase the controller output also As PV increase the Controller output has to
increase. decrease.
22) Define Anti reset windup.
Anti-reset windup is an implementation issue while using an Integral controller. Due
to the accumulation of the error values of the past by the integral controller, the manipulated
variable becomes too large and hence the final control element remains saturated in the on or
off state and does not respond for the error for an interval of time. This is known as Anti reset
windup.
P Lower than Highest Highest More than Lowest Lower than Highest
I Zero Highest Highest
PI Highest Zero More than Lowest Highest
PD Lowest Lowest Lowest Lowest
PID More than Lowest Zero More than Lowest More than Lowest
RESPONSE OF P CONTROL
Response OF PID
P
Fast Closed Loop Response , Non Zero Steady State Error
I
It Eliminates the offset , The Overshoot and Decay Ratio Will Be More
Increasing The Integral Action Makes the response More Sensitive
D
The derivative action Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate
Action.
When the process has noise the derivative control amplifies the noise and
makes the noisy one.
It introduces a stabilizing effect on the Closed –loop control response of a
process.
PI
It Has No Offset
I Action may induced Closed Loop In stability
If Offset is in tolerable use this mode
PID
Zero Offset ,Smaller Max Deviation
Reduces the Oscillation ,Good For Sluggish Process and those with small
measurement
UNIT IV
PID CONTROLLER TUNING
5. Give the optimum controller settings for a PID controller based on Zeigler-Nicholas
method.
The optimum controller settings for a PID controller based on Zeigler-Nicholas
method is the proportional gain Kc = Ku / 1.7,
Integral timeI = Pu / 2 & Derivative time D = Pu / 8
where the Ultimate gain Ku = inverse of the amplitude ratio
Ultimate period of oscillation Pu = 2π / phase cross over frequency
10. Why is it necessary to choose controller settings that satisfy both gain margin and
phase margin?
It is necessary to choose controller settings that satisfy both gain margin &phase
margin in order to avoid unstable behavior by the closed loop of a process
14. When do you go Process reaction curve method for controller tuning.
1. For the multi capacity processes whose response is sigmoid
2. Process with very short time delay
3. The process whose response is overdamped
UNIT V
MODEL BASED CONTROL SCHEMES
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of feedback and feed forward
controllers?
Advantages :
1. Acts before the effect of a disturbance has been felt by a system.
2. Good for slow systems.
3. Does not introduce instability in closed loop response.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires identification of all possible disturbances and their direct measurement
2. Cannot cope with unmeasured disturbance.
3. Sensitive to process parameter variations.
4. Requires good knowledge of the process model.
9. The combination of feed forward and feedback is more effective than feed forward or
feedback control. Say true or false.
True. The feed forward control take care of all disturbances affecting the system and
the feedback control, controls the measured parameters.
10. Ratio control is a specific case of feed forward control. Say true or false.
True. The Ratio control is a special type of feed forward control.
18. Explain how the quality of control is improved when Feed forward control is added
with feed back control
The combined form of the two will retain the superior performance of feed forward
control and the insensitivity of the feed back control to uncertainties and inaccuracies .The
deviations caused by the feed forward control will be corrected by the Feed back controller as
it directly monitors the behavior of the controlled processes.
21. Discuss the situations to select a cascade control and discuss when it will become
effective.
Cascade control is useful in reducing the effect of a load disturbance that moves
through the control system slowly since the inner loop has the effect of reducing the lag in the
outer loop with the result that the cascade system results more quickly with a higher
frequency of response. For cascade control process of the inner loop should be faster than the
outer loop. For cascade control to be effective the control action of the inner loop is often
proportional with the gain set to a high value. The action of the primary controller is
generally PI or PID.
22. Why are fuel and air sent at a specified ratio into a combustion chamber?
Fuel & air are sent at a specified ratio into a combustion chamber in order to obtain
complete combustion. (i.e., if the inflow increases the air ratio also increases & hence the
input is min. & o/p is max).
30. List some of the variables which can be manipulated when controlling a distillation
column.
a. Column pressure
b. Feed flow rate
c. Feed composition (or feed quality)
d. Heat added (boil-up)
e. Bottom product flow rate
f. Heat removed (reflux)
g. Distillate product flow rate
31. What is the different ways in product composition control in distillation column?
The different ways in product composition control in distillation column are feed
forward control, feedback control, and inferential control.
b. Determine the cross –over frequency from the bode plot using the settings of the
secondary controllers.
UNIT V
PART –B
UNIT –I
1. Derive the mathematical model for the given process?
To connect the electrical signal from controller to the pneumatic control elements, we
use I/P converter. The current-to-pressure converter, or simply I/P converter, is a very
important element in process control. Often, when we want to use the low -level electric
current signal to do work, it is much easier to let the work to be done by a pneumatic signal.
The I/P converter gives us a linear way of translating the 4—20 mA current into a 0.2 to 1
Kg/cm2 signal (3 to 15 psi signal). The basic principle involves the use of a flapper/nozzle
system. Fig. 3.1 illustrates a simple way to construct such a converter. Notice that the current
through a coil produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down and close off the gap. A
high current produces a high pressure so that the device is direct acting. The back pressure is
amplified in pneumatic amplifier to standardize the output. Adjustment of the springs and
perhaps the position relative to the pivot to which they are attached allows the unit to be
calibrated so that 4 mA corresponds to 0.2 kg/cm2 (or 3 psi) and 20 mA corresponds to 1
kg/cm2 (or 15 psi).
2. With neat diagram explain the characteristics of ctrl valve?
The different types of control valves ae classified by a relationship between the valve
stem position and the flow rate through the valve. Control valves exhibit an ‗inherit
characteristic‘ and an installed or effective characteristic.
Inherent characteristics: This control valve characteristic is assigned with the assumptions
that the stem position indicates the extent of the valve opening and that the pressure
difference is determined by the valve alone.
Installed or effective characteristics: The control valve when installed in a process with pipe
lines, downstream and upstream equipment will exhibit a different flow rate—stem position
relation and is called installed or effective characteristics.
Inherent characteristics
Based on inherent characteristics, there are three basic types of control valves, whose
relationship between stem position (as percentage of full range) and flow rate (as a
percentage of maximum flow rates) is shown in Fig.
Quick opening valve
This type of valve is used predominantly for full on/full off control applications. The
valve characteristic in the Fig shows that a relatively small motion of valve stem results in
maximum possible flow rate through the valve. Such a valve, for example, may allow 90% of
maximum flow rate with only a 30% travel of the stem. Such a valve is also called as
‗decreasing sensitivity type valve. The valve sensitivity (\Q/AS) at any flow decreases with
increasing flow. The maximum port area is sufficiently large that pressure losses elsewhere
than at the valve port may restrict the maximum flow.
Linear valve
Here the flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position It represents the ideal
situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop The relationship is expressed as
Q / Qmax = S / Smax
Where Q = Flow rate (ms/sec)
Qmax = Maximum flow rate (m3/sec)
S = Stem position (m)
Smax = Maximum stem position (m)
The valve sensitivity (ΔQ/ΔB) is more or less constant at any flow.
Equal percentage valve
A very important type of valve employed in flow control has a characteristic such that
a given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent change in flow, that is, an
equal percentage. Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow completely in its
limit of stem travel. Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem is at one limit
(closing limit) of its travel At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow Qmax as its
maximum, open valve, flow rate For this type we define the rangability R as the ratio
R = Qmax / Qmin
The curve in the Fig shows a typical equal percentage curve that depends on the
rangeabihty for its exact form The curve shows that increase in flow rate for a given change
in valve opening depends on the extent to which the valve is already open This curve is
typically exponential in form and is represented by
Q = Qmin R s/smax
Such a valve is also called as ‗increasing sensitivity type valve‘ This is termed the equal
percentage, logarithmic, parabolic, or characterized type of valve because the flow-lift curve
plotted on semi logarithmic coordinates is approximately a straight line The valve sensitivity
QS) increases with increasing flow rate. The valve sensitivity at any given flow rate is a
constant percentage of the given flow rate Thus, the term equal-percentage.
Installed characteristics
The flow characteristic of a valve in a process control system depends on the inherent
characteristic and on the change in valve pressure drop with flow rate. When the control
valve is installed as part of a process plant, its flow characteristics are no longer independent
of the rest of the system. The fluid flow through the valve is subject to frictional resistances
in series with that of the valve. Consider a simple system with pump, valve and connected
pipe lines as shown in Fig and the consequence of distortion in the characteristics illustrated
both for linear and equal percentage valves in the curves below. From these curves, one can
conclude that the particular installation involved can have a very substantial effect on both
flow characteristics and ‗Rangeability‘. Clearance flow alone can increase as much as ten
fold, and equal-percentage characteristics can be distorted toward linear or even quick
opening under conditions of excessive distortion. The distortion coefficient Dc used here is
given by the equation
3. Explain the procedure for ctrl valve sizing for a flow ctrl system?
1. The valve shall be sized for the actual flow condition and not for the ultimate design
capacity of the system. Normal maximum flow rate is normally about 70% of the ultimate
design capacity.
2. Most of the pressure drop of the system should be across the control valve. As a general
rule around 70% of the system drop should be across the control valve.
3. When the pipe line is dimensioned with normal allowable velocities (low pressure loss) the
control valve will be a few sizes smaller than the pipeline. Only in extreme cases where very
high velocities have been used in the pipe line, the size of the control valve will be same as
that of the pipe line.
4. The final selection must be done such that the calculated Cv is attained at about 75 to 80%
of the full valve travel. In case of high pressure gases and steam where expansion takes place
after the control valve, calculated Cv must be attained at about 50 to 60% of the valve travel.
5. Regardless of the application such as flow control or pressure control the valve sizing is
done on the basis of flow coefficient Cv.
Solenoids move in a straight line and therefore require a cam or other mechanical
converter to operate rotary valves. These actuators are best suited for small, short-stroke on-
off valves, requiring high speeds of response. Solenoid—actuated valves can open or close in
8 to 12 milliseconds.
A practical solenoid valve consists of the valve body, a magnetic core attached to the
stem and disc, and a solenoid coil. The magnetic core moves in a tube that is closed at the top
and sealed at the bottom, allowing the valve to be packless. A small spring assists the release
and initial closing of the valve. The valve is electrically energized to open. The figure shows
both the deenergized and energized conditions of the valve.
5. When single & double seated valves used? List &compare advantage &
disadvantage?
Ref: Q No: 8
6. When a double seated valve is used in a system for a flowing liquid at a maximum
rate of 10gpm, its specific gravity being 0.9 & viscosity 36000cp, a drop across the valve
1psi. Obtain the valve size?
Ref: Control valve sizing
7. Write down the flow eqn of an equal %valve & sketch its inherent valve
characteristics?
Ref: Q No: 2
8. What are the different types of valves are commercially more used?
Valve body - Commercial valve bodies
The control valve is essentially a variable resistance to the flow of a fluid, in which
the resistance and therefore, the flow can be changed by a signal from a process controller.
The control valve itself is divided into the body and the trim. The body consists of housing
for mounting the actuator and flange connections for attaching the valve in a pipeline. The
trim, which is enclosed within the body, consists of a plug, a valve seat and a valve stem. The
actuator moves the valve stem and in turn the stem moves the plug in a valve seat in order to
change the resistance to flow through the valve. That is, the cross-sectional area between the
plug and the seat is changed to change the flow rate.
The bonnet assembly is attached to the valve body. The ‗body stem moves through
the bonnet which contains a means for sealing against leakage such as a stuffing box
assembly with suitable packaging or a sealing bellows. The blind head may be with or
without guide bushings. The valve plug has extensions on top and bottom which are the valve
plug guides. These guides keep the valve-plug motion in alignment. The yoke is the structure
which is supported rigidly on the bonnet assembly and carries the diaphragm actuator.
Valve trim consists of those internal components within the valve body which come
in contact with the process fluid passing through the valve. Valve trim includes components
such as seat rings, valve stems and valve plugs. Valve bodies are generally cast. The most
frequently used materials are cast iron, cast steel and bronze. For corrosion service, stainless
steel, nickel, carbon-molybdenum etc are used.
Sliding-Stem Control Valves:
The following types of such valves are available
1. Single-seat plug valves
2. Double-seat plug valves
3. Lifting gate valves
4. Weir valves
Single-seat plug valves:
The single-seat plug valve has only one
port opening between seat and plug and
the entire flow passes through this port.
The single seat plug valve has the
following features
1. It is simple in construction
2. It can be shut off to provide zero flow.
3. There is large force acting across the
port and seat area.
Double-seat plug valves:
The double-seat valve has two port openings and two seats and two plugs. The port
openings are not usually identical in size. Two types of double-seat valve plugs are shown in
Fig. This type has the following features
(a) Net force acting on the valve stem is generally small and therefore pressure balanced.
(b) It cannot be shut off tightly because of differential temperature expansion of valve plug
and valve body.
Lifting gate valves:
presents an open area directly to the flow
of fluid and does not involve a change of
direction of flow stream. A gate valve can
usually be shut-off tightly by wedging into
the seat. The chopping action at shut-off is
very useful for stringy materials such as
paper pulp.
Weir valve
This is particularly suited to certain
chemical fluids, because it has a smooth
contour inside the body with no ‗pockets‘
for solid matter, and because it has no
packing gland around the stem. The
flexible diaphragm of rubber or other non
metallic material is positioned by the
plunger and stem. Fluid pressure inside the
valve body holds the diaphragm smoothly
against the plunger. This valve is also
referred to as ‗Saunders Diaphragm
Valve‘.
2. Butterfly valves:
projects through the casing and operated
externally. The total rotation of the vane is
restricted to about 60 degrees, because the
additional 30 degrees does not produce
much further increase in flow (Theoretical
rotation of a butterfly vane is 90 degrees).
The V-port butterfly valve incorporates a
V-slot in the body so that rotation of the
vane opens a portion of the V-slot. The
rangeability of butterfly valves may vary
from 5 to 50 and tight shut-off may be
obtained with special design. The butterfly
valve is most often employed for the
control of air and gas.
The butterfly valve consists of a
single vane rotating inside a circular or
rectangular pipe or casing. The shaft
Louvers:
The louver consists of two or more rectangular vanes mounted on shafts one above
the other and interconnected so as to rotate together. The vanes are operated by an external
lever. In the uni rotational louver the vanes remain parallel at all positions. In a counter
rotational louver alternate vanes rotate in an opposite direction. Flow guides are sometimes
installed between adjacent vanes in order to improve the effectiveness of throttling. A louver
cannot provide tight shut-off because of the long length of seating surfaces. Louvers are used
exclusively for control of air flow (draft) at low pressure.
9. What are the factors that should be known for selecting a control valve?
Selection of a control valve for a particular application is a very important function
for a design engineer. It is really a complex process as there are lot of things to be considered
before selecting a suitable control valve. Load changes, pressure drop, rangeability, process
gain, flow capacity and characteristic, process itself, surroundings, safety and hazardous
conditions, cavitation and flashing details, valve sizing, trim material and cost are some of the
important parameters which will finally decide the selection of a control valve.
1. Need for a control valve: Before proceeding through the steps of selecting a control
valve, one should evaluate if a control valve is really needed in the first place, or if a simpler
and more elegant system will result through some other means. (e.g., variable speed
centrifugal pump can be used instead of constant speed pump and a control valve).
2. Collection of process data: One must fully understand the process that the valve controls.
It means not only understanding normal operating conditions, but also the requirements that
the valve must live upto during start-up, shut-down, and emergency conditions. Therefore all
anticipated valves of flow rates, pressures, vapour pressures, densities, temperatures,
viscosities etc must be identified in the process of collecting the data for valve sizing in
addition to quality and safety requirements
3. Assigning valve pressure drop: Assigning the sizing pressure drop for the valve is more
complex than picking a number like 25% of the total system drop or a number like 25 psi It
requires an understanding of the interrelationships that exist in pumping, fan or compressor
systems. The proper approach to the selection of valve pressure drop is to first determine the
total friction drop of the system at normal flow and assign 50% of that to valve pressure drop
Based on that assignment, one should next determine the resulting valve drop at minimum
and maximum flows and select a valve which can handle the required Cv rangeabiity.
4. Control valve performance: Good control valve performance usually means that the
valve is stable across the full operating range of the process, it is not operating near to one of
its extreme positions, it is fast enough to correct for process upsets or disturbances, nd it will
not be necessary to retune the controller every time the process load changes. In order to meet
the above goals one must consider the following factors:
(a) Valve characteristics: Inherent (quick opening, linear or equal percentage) and installed
characteristics.
(b) Gain of control loop components like process, sensor, controller and valve gain.
(c) Process nonlinearity.
(d) Valve rangeability.
(e) Control valve sequencing. (ñ Split-ranging or floating.
5. Control valve sizing: One should first determine both the minimum and maximum cv
requirements for the valve, considering not only normal but also start-up and emergency
conditions. The selected valve should perform adequately over a range of 0.8 [C,(min)] to 1.2
[Cv (max)]. If this results in a rangeability requirement which exceeds the capability on one
valve, use two or more valves.
6. Valve actuator selection: Knowing the applications and relative advantages of different
actuator designs, one should be able to select proper actuator for an application. The
following factors are to be kept in mind.
(a) Whether electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic.
(b) Actuator speed of response.
(c) Actuator power or torque.
(d) Valve failure position (Fail-safe operation).
7. Valve positioner : The following factors are to be considered with respect to valve
positioner.
(a) When not to use positioner : one should be clear.
(b) To eliminate dead band.
(c) Split range operation.
8. Process application considerations: In selecting control valves, the properties of the
process liquid must be fully considered. The following factors are to be taken into account.
(a) High-pressure service
(b) High differential pressure usage.
(c) Vaccum service
(d) High temperature service: Limitations of metallic parts, packing designs, jacketed valves
etc to be taken into account here.
(e) Low-temperature service: Cold box and cryogenic valves.
(f) Cavitation and erosion.
(g) Flashing and erosion.
(h) Viscous and slurry service.
(i) Leakage.
(j) Small-flow values.
(k) Control valve noise.
(l) Piping and installation considerations.
(m) Climate and atmosphere corrosion.
9. Control valve specification form: Compiling the information necessary to specify a
control valve is best done with the aid of tabulation sheet. Many companies have their own
customized forms.
10. Test report and test certificate: This is to be obtained from the manufacturers of control
valves for future record, of course after selecting and getting a proper control valve for the
required application.
10. Explain the principle of working & construction of pneumatic actuator?
An actuator is that portion of a valve that responds to the applied signal and causes the
motion of the valve stem. For that purpose, the actuator often translates a control signal into a
large force or torque as required to manipulate the control element. The ‗pneumatic actuator‘
is most useful for such translation. The pneumatic actuators are capable of moving the valve
to any position from fully closed to fully open using compressed air for power. There are two
general types of pneumatic actuators:
(1) The spring and diaphragm actuator
(2) The piston actuator.
In a spring and diaphragm actuator, variable air pressure is applied to a flexible
diaphragm to oppose a spring. The combination of diaphragm and spring forces acts to
balance the fluid forces on the valve. In a piston actuator, a combination of fixed and variable
air pressures is applied to a piston in a cylinder to balance the fluid forces on the valve.
Sometimes springs are used, usually to assist valve closure.
Excluding springs, there are two variations of piston actuators: cushion loaded and
double acting. In the cushion-loaded type, a fixed air pressure, known as the cushion
pressure, is opposed by a variable air pressure and is used to balance the fluid forces on the
valve. In the double acting type, two opposing variable air pressures are used to balance the
fluid forces on the valve.
Spring and Diaphragm Actuator
The popularity of the spring/diaphragm actuator, also called diaphragm motor, is due
to its low cost, its relatively high thrust at low air supply pressure, and its availability with
fail safe springs. It is available in springless designs, double diaphragm designs (for higher
pressures), rolling diaphragm design (for longer strokes), and tandem designs (for more
thrust). These actuators are ideal for use on valves requiring linear travel, such as globe
valves. A linkage or other form of linear-to-rotary motion conversion is required to adapt
these actuators to rotary valves, such as the butterfly valve.
The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. If we imagine
that a net pressure difference is applied to a diaphragm of surface area ‗A‘, then a net force
acts on the diaphragm is given by
F= (P1-P2) A
Where P1 P2 pressure difference (Pa)
A = diaphragm area (m2)
F = force (N)
If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is merely necessary to double
the diaphragm area.
Direct Action Pneumatic Actuator
The action of a ‗direct‘ pneumatic actuator is shown in Fig. The air transmitted from a
pneumatic controller (or a valve positioner) or from an electronic controller via I/P converter
enters the upper diaphragm case, while the lower diaphragm case is vented to the atmosphere
by the open hole H. When the top pressure increases the force acting downward also
increases. This starts the valve closing. As it does so, the valve spring is compressed and the
spring force increases. The valve movement will continue until the spring force is equal to the
force due to the increased air pressure. Similarly, when the air pressure decreases, the valve
moves upward and the spring expand until a new force balance is attained. Thus the valve
stem moves through a definite distance for each change in air pressure applied to the
diaphragm.
𝐴
∆𝑋 = ∆𝑃
𝐾
The double-acting piston actuator shown in Fig. is employed for large thrust forces
than can be handled by the single acting actuator, and the piston is used in order to obtain
long stroke. The pilot is generally a spool-type diverting valve and requires an air supply of
30 to 100 psi (2 to 7 Kg/cm2). When the input pressure increases, the bellows moves to the
right and pushes the pilot spool upward. This action opens the upper side of the cylinder to
the air supply and opens the lower side to the atmosphere; thus the action is to return the
piston to the neutral position. Thus the position of the piston is proportional to the input
pressure. A double-acting piston actuator can handle a thrust force equal to about 80 % of the
supply pressure times the area of the piston.
When choosing between piston actuators and the spring diaphragm type, the
fail-safe consideration may be the reason for the final selection. If properly designed, the
spring is the best way of achieving fail-closed action. Fail-open action is normally less
critical. Piston actuators depend upon air lock systems to force the valve closed on air failure.
Such systems may work well initially, but there are many possibilities for leaks to develop in
the interconnecting tubes, fittings, and check valves and such piston actuator systems are not
considered reliable. Air lock systems also add to the actuator‘s cost. Piston actuators may also
be specified with closure springs to provide positive failure positions.
11. Explain the characteristics of ctrl valve sizing?
The proper sizing of control valve is important because of the effect on the operation
of the automatic controller. If the control valve is over size, for example, the valve must
operate at low lift and the minimum controllable flow is too large. In addition, the lower part
of the flow-lift characteristic is most likely to be non uniform in shape. On the other hand if
the control valve is undersize, the maximum flow desired for operation of a process may not
be provided.
Factors that influence sizing of control valves: Pressure drop across the control valve,
flow rate through the valve and specific gravity (or specific weight) are the main determining
factors in selecting a suitable size for control valves. Other factors such as type of fluid, gas
or liquid, critical flow conditions for gases and vapours, and viscosity of liquids influence
valve size. Before selecting valve size, valve and process characteristics must match to
compensate for non linearities in the control valve and process.
Flow coefficient: One of the most useful factors to determine the size of a control valve is the
‗flow coefficient‘ or Cv factor (or Kv factor). Practically all control valve manufacturers
supply Cv factors for their valves. These factors form the basis for all calculations. The flow
coefficient indicates the amount of flow the control valve can handle under a given pressure
drop across the control valve.
Cv factor: The flow coefficient (Cv) is defined as the flow rate of water in gallons per minute
at 60°F through a valve at maximum opening with a pressure drop (or pressure differential)
of 1 psi measured in the inlet and outlet pipes directly adjacent to the valve body
K factor Whenever the flow coefficient is mentioned in metric units, it is denoted by the
symbol v which is defined as the flow rate of water in m3fhour at about 30°C flowing
through the fully opened control valve at a pressure drop of 1 kg/cm2 across the control.
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Cv = 1.17 Kv
Kv = 0.86 Cv
The flow coefficient is determined by the manufacturer for various types and sizes of
valves by actual experiments with water The flow coefficient for 100% valve opening is
termed asCv (or Kv) of the particular valve size and the variation of Cv (or Kv) at different
valve openings is given in the form of a graph which is termed as valve characteristic.
Fluid flowing though a control valve obeys the basic laws of the conservation of mass
and energy. The pressure profile through a typical control valve is illustrated in Fig. P1
P1 = Upstream pressure
P2 Downstream pressure
PVC = Pressure at vena contracta (The minimum pressure point down stream from the
throttling point is known as the ‗vena contracta‘)
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In addition, the positioner can be used for split-ranging the control signal between
more than one valve, for increasing the actuator speed (by increasing the air pressure/volume
in case of pneumatic actuators) for modifying the valve characteristics by cams or electronic
function generators. But these reasons do not necessitate the use of positioners as they can be
achieved by other means without using positioner also.
When the valve is remote manual (open loop) operation, it will always benefit from
the addition of a positioner, because it will reduce the valve‘s hysteresis and dead band while
increasing its response. When the valve is under automatic (closed loop) control, the
positioner will be helpful when the loop response is not very fast (analysis, temperature,
liquid level, blending, slow flow, large volume gas flow etc), while the positioner will
degrade loop response, contribute to proportional offsets, and limit cycling in fast loops (fast
flow, liquid pressure, small volume gas pressure etc). Pneumatic actuators without springs
always require valve positioners.
The valve positioner is a high-gain plain proportional controller which measures the
valve stem position, compares that measurement to its set point (the controller output signal),
and, if there is a difference, corrects the error. The open-loop gain of positioners ranges from
10 to 200 (proportional band of 10 % to 0.5%), and their periods of oscillation range from 0.3
to 10 seconds (frequency response of 3 to 0. 1 Hz). In other words, the positioner is a very
sensitively tuned proportional only controller.
The positioner in effect is the cascade slave of the loop controller. In order for a
cascade slave to be effective, it must be faster than the speed at which its set point, the master
output signal, can change.
The rules of thumb used in this respect suggest that the time constant of the slave
should be ten times shorter (open-loop gain ten times higher) than that of the master and the
period of oscillation of the slave should be three times shorter (free response three times
higher) than that of the primary. It is recommended not to use positioners if the positioned
valve is slower than the process variables it is assigned to control.
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also the point of minimum pressure (vena contracta).and then gradually slows down as it
again expands back to the full pipe area.
The static pressure also recovers but part of it is lost due to friction. If the static
pressure head drops below the liquid vapour pressure (Pr) at that temperature, then vapour
bubbles will form downstream of the restriction. As the static pressure recovers to a point
greater than the vapour pressure, the vapour bubbles collapse back into their liquid phase.
The collapse of the bubbles produces high-energy implosions which is called
‗Cavitation‘. These implosions generate noise, fluid shock cells, and gets that impinge upon
the trim metal parts. It is thought that this phenomenon generates a tremendous and
concentrated impact force that destroys the metal as it fractures out tiny metal particles.
Cavitation damage gives a very distinctive appearance which is like sandblasting.
Cavitation damage always occurs downstream of the vena contracta when pressure
recovery in the valve causes the temporary voids to collapse. Destruction is due to the
implosions, which generate the extremely high pressure shock waves in the substantially non
compressible stream. When these waves strike the solid metal surface of the valve or
downstream piping, the damage gives a cinderlike appearance. Cavitation is usually coupled
with vibration and a sound like rock fragments or gravel flowing through the valve.
15. How Cavitation can be eliminated and explain the available method?
Elimination of Cavitation
No known material will withstand continuous cavitation without damage and eventual
failure. The length of time it will take is a function of the fluid, metal type and severity of the
cavitation. Without special trim geometry, some of the mitigating actions possible were to
use extremely hard trim materials or overlays to increase the downstream back pressure, or to
limit the pressure drop by installing control valves in series to distribute the drop and to
reduce the vena contracta pressure in each valve.
Cavitation damage also varies greatly with the type of liquid flowing. The greatest
damage is caused by a dense pure liquid with high surface tension (water, mercury etc).
Density governs the mass of the microjet stream, and surface tension governs the most
important jet velocity. Because no known material can remain indefinitely undamaged by
severe cavitation, the only sure solution is to eliminate cavitation completely. Some of the
methods by which cavitation can be reduced or eliminated are listed below.
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1. Revised process conditions: A reduction of operating temperature can lower the vapour
pressure sufficiently to eliminate cavitation. Similarly, increased upstream and downstream
pressures, with AP unaffected, or a reduction in the ΔP can both relieve cavitation. Therefore,
control valves that are likely to cavitate should be installed at the lowest possible elevation in
the piping system and operated at minimum ΔP. Moving the valve closer to the pump will
also serve to elevate both upstream and downstream pressures. If cavitating conditions are
unavoidable, then it is preferred to have some permanent vaporization (Flashing) through the
valve.
2. Revised valve: The valves most likely to cavitate are the high recovery valves (ball,
butterfly, gate etc) having low liquid pressure recovery factor (FL) and low cavitation
coefficient (Kc). (The cavitation coefficient Kc is the ratio between the valve pressure drop at
which cavitation starts and the difference between the inlet and the vapour pressure of the
application. The liquid pressure recovery factor FL is related to the ratio between the valve
pressure drop and the difference between the inlet and the vena contracta pressure.)
3. Gas injection: Another valve design variation that can alleviate cavitation is based on the
introduction of non-condensible gases or air into the region where cavitation is expected. The
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presence of this compressible gas prevents the sudden collapse of the vapour bubbles as the
pressure recovers to values exceeding the vapour pressure, and, instead of implosions, a more
gradual condensation process occurs. The gas or air may be admitted through the valve shaft
or through downstream taps on either side of the pipe, in line with the shaft and as close to
the valve as possible as shown in Fig. Since the fluid vapour pressure is usually less than
atmospheric pressure, the gas or air need not be under pressure.
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UNIT-III
1. With neat diagram explain the single speed floating control?
Single speed floating controller
Generally the output was uniquely determined by the magnitude of the error input. If
the error exceeded some preset limit, the output was changed to a new setting as quickly as
possible. But in floating control, the specific output of the controller is not uniquely
determined by the error. If the error is zero the output will not change but remains (floats) at
whatever setting it was when the error went to zero. When the error moves off zero, the
controller output again begins to change.
Actually, as with the two-position mode, there is typically a neutral zone about zero
error where no change in controller position occurs. In the single-speed floating mode of
control the manipulated variable changes at a constant rate in one direction when the
deviation is positive and in the opposite direction at a constant rate when the deviation is
negative. That means the output of the control element changes at a fixed rate when the error
exceeds the neutral zone. The action can be represented by an equation:
where P(0) = controller output at t = 0 ,Which shows that the present output depends on the
time history of errors that have previously occurred. Because such a history is usually not
known, the actual value of ‗p‘ floats at an undetermined value. If the deviation persists, then
equation shows that the controller saturates at either 100% or 0% and remains there until an
error drives it toward the opposite extreme.
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Single speed floating controller action. The ordinate is the rate of change of controller output
with time.
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This relation shows that when the measured value is less than the set point, full
controller output results. When it is more than the set point, the controller output is zero.
Example:
The Iron box or water heater is a common example. If the temperature drops below a
setpoint, the heater is turned on. A liquid level control using two-position controller is shown
in fig.
A float in the vessel operates an electric switch which controls power to a solenoid
valve. When the liquid level raises, the switch contacts are closed, the solenoid valve closes,
and the inflow is cut off. When the liquid level falls, the switch contacts are opened, the
solenoid valve opens, and the inflow resumes. If the float level has no bearing friction and the
electrical contacts draw no arc, the action is sharp or ‗knife-edge‘. In virtually any practical
implementation of the two-position controller, there is an overlap as ep increases through
zero or decreases through zero. In this span, no change in ‗controller output occurs.
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This is shown in Fig., (which plots p versus ep for a twoposition controller. We see
that until an increasing error changes by Δep above zero, the controller output will not change
state. In decreasing, it must fall Δep below zero before the controller changes to the 0%
rating. The range 2 Δep, which is referred to as the ‗neutral zone‘ or ‗differential gap‘ is often
purposely designed above a certain minimum quantity to prevent excessive cycling. The
existence of such a neutral zone is an example of desirable hysteresis in a system.
The ‗differential gap‘ in two-position controller causes the manipulated variable to
maintain its previous value until the controlled variable has moved slightly beyond the set
point. A differential gap is caused in the two-position controller if small static friction exists
at the bearing on the float arm. The liquid level must then rise slightly above the desired
value to create sufficient buoyant force to overcome friction when the level is rising. Also,
the liquid level must fall slightly below the desired value when the level is falling so that the
weight force may overcome the friction. This kind of differential gap may be caused by
unintentional friction and lost motion.
Generally, the two-position control mode is best adapted to large-scale systems with
relatively slow process rates. Thus, in a room heating or air-conditioning system, the capacity
of the system is very large in terms of air volume, and the overall effect of the heater or
cooler is relatively slow. Other examples of two-position control applications are liquid bath
temperature control, level control etc.
The process under two-position control must allow continued oscillation in the
controlled variable because, by its very nature, this mode of control always produces such
oscillation. For large systems, these oscillations are of long duration, which is partly a
function of the neutral-zone size.
Ref: ―Automatic Process Control‖ by Donald P Eckman.
5. Consider a household heating system with On-Off controller .there is a dead band of
2degF (i.e) temperature must drop to 1degF below the set point before the heater kicks
on & must got to 1degF above the set point before the kicks off. The heater has periodic
behavior with periods where the heater is ON followed by the periods where it is OFF.
Discuss the effect of dead band on this periodic behavior. Sketch the expected heater
(ON-OFF) & temp profiles (has a function of time)as the dead band is changed?
6. A PI controller has PB of 20% & Integral time of 10s.for a constant error of
5%.Determine the controller output after 10s.The controller offset is 25%.
Ref: ―Process Control Instrumentation Technology‖ by Curtis D Johnson Pg No:483-493
7. How are P&I actions realized in a pneumatic controller? How are these actions
varied in magnitude? Obtain the TF of such a controller?
Ref:‖ Process Control and its Applications‖ by Surekha Bhanot, Pg No: 136-137
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UNIT-IV
1. Explain the procedure for tuning & the eqn for Controller settings in the following
methods Z-N method.
Ziegler and Nichols have developed another method of controller setting assignment
that has come to be associated with their name. This technique, also called the ‗Ultimate
Cycling Method‘, is based on adjusting a closed loop until steady oscillations occur.
Controller settings are then based on the conditions that generate the cycling. This method is
based on frequency response analysis. Unlike the process reaction curve method which uses
data from the open-loop response of a system, the Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique is a
closed-loop procedure. It goes through the following steps
1. After the process reaches steady state at the normal level of operation, remove the integral
and derivative modes of the controller, leaving only proportional control. On some PID
controllers, this requires that the integral time (τi) be set to its maximum value and the
derivative time (τd) to its minimum value. On modern controllers (microprocessor-based), the
integral and derivative modes can be removed completely from the controller.
2. Select a value of proportional gain (K), disturb the system, and observe the transient
response. If the response decays, select a higher value of Kc, and again observe the response
of the system. Continue increasing the gain in small steps until the response first exhibits a
sustained oscillation. The value of gain and the period of oscillation that correspond to the
sustained oscillation are the ultimate gain (K) and the ultimate period (Pu).
3. From the values of Ku and Pu, found in the previous step, use the Ziegler- Nichols rules
given in Table to determine controller settings (Kc, τI, τD).
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2. Determine the optimum controller settings for the given transfer function 1/(s+1)^3
using Z-N method?
Ref: Apply ZN closed loop method
3. Explain the damping oscillation method for tuning the controller?
Tuning Damped oscillation method
The disadvantages of the closed-loop tuning method are that when tuning unknown
processes. The amplitudes of undampened oscillations can become excessive (unsafe) and the
test can take a long time to perform. One can see that when tuning a slow process (period of
oscillation of over an hour), it can take a long time before a state of sustained; undampened
oscillation is achieved through this trial-and-error technique. For these reasons, other tuning
techniques have also been developed.
4. Discuss the procedure for settling controller parameters by using frequency response
method?
Ref: ―Chemical Process Control‖ by George Stephanopoulos. Pg no: 344-355
5. Explain how to find the controller settings using Process Reaction Curve (PRC) with
an eg?
Process reaction curve method: (Cohen and Coon Method)
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Procedure:
1. After the process reaches steady state at the normal level of operation, switch the controller
to manual. In a modem controller, the controller output will remain at the same value after
switching as it had before switching. (This is called ―bumpless‖ transfer.)
2. With the controller in manual, introduce a small step change in the controller output that
goes to the valve and record the transient, which is the process reaction curve.
3. Draw a straight line tangent to the curve at the point of inflection, as shown in Fig. The
intersection of the tangent line with the time axis is the apparent transport lag (Td); the
apparent first-order time constant (T) is obtained from T = Bu/S where Bu, is the ultimate
value of B at large t and S is the slope of the tangent line. The steady-state gain that relates B
to M is given by Kp = Bu / M.
4. Using the values of Kp, TI, and Td from step 3, the controller settings are found from the
relations given in Table.
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Consider the block diagram of a general closed-loop system shown in Fig. above.When the
load or the set point changes, the response of the process deviates and the controller tries to
bring the output again close to the desired set point.
Fig. shows the response of a controlled process to a unit step change in the load when
different types of controllers have been used. We notice that different controllers have
different effects on the response of the controlled process. It clearly demands that we should
us some performance criterion for the selection and the tuning of the controller.
There are a variety of performance criteria we could use, such as
1. Keep the maximum deviation (error) as small as possible.
2. Achieve short settling times.
3. Minimise the integral of the errors until the process has settled to its desired set point and
so on.
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7. What are different tuning schemes proposed for a PID controller? How have they
been evolved?
Tuning: - After the type of feedback controller has been selected, we still have to set the
values to use for its adjusted parameters (PID). This is known as ‗Controller Tuning‘
problem. There are three general approaches we can use for tuning a controller.
1. Use simple criteria such as the one-quarter decay ratio, minimum settling time, minimum
largest error, and so on. Such an approach is simple and easily implementable on an actual
process. Usually, it provides multiple solutions. Additional specifications on the closed-loop
performance will then be needed to break the multiplicity and select a single set of values for
the adjusted parameters.
2. Use time integral performance criteria such as ISE, IAE or ITAE. This approach is rather
cumbersome and relies heavily on the mathematical model (transfer function) of the process.
Applied experimentally on an actual process, it is time consuming.
3. Use semiemprical rules which have been proven in practice.
8. A cascade ctrl system is shown in fig. Calculate the max gain & critical frequency of
the primary controller? Eliminating the inner loop compare these values with the single
loop system. Use bode plot technique?
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UNIT-V
1. With neat diagram explain the cascade control scheme with an example?
In a cascade control configuration we have one manipulated variable and more than
one measurement. In the scheme there will be two controllers namely Primary controller and
Secondary controller. The output of the primary controller is used to adjust the set point of a
secondary controller, which in turn sends a signal to the final control element (may be control
valve) The process output is fed back to the primary controller, and a signal from an
intermediate stage of the process is fed back to the secondary controller. The block diagram
of such a cascade control system is shown in Fig.
Two measurements are taken from the system and each used in its own control loop. The
outer loop (primary controller) controller output is the set point of the inner loop (secondary
controller). Thus, if the outer loop controlled variable changes, the error signal that is input to
the controller effects a change in set point of the inner loop. Even though the measured value
of the inner loop has not changed, the inner loop experiences an error signal and thus new
output by virtue of its set point change. Cascade control generally provides better control of
the outer loop variable than is accomplished through a single variable system.
Advantages:
1. Disturbance affecting the secondary variable can be corrected by the secondary controller
before a pronounced influence is felt by the primary variable.
2. Closing the control loop around the secondary part of the process reduces the phase lag
seen by the primary controller, resulting in increased speed of response.
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We notice, therefore, that we can have two control loops using two different
measurements, T and Tc, but sharing common manipulated variable, Fc.The loop that
measures T (controlled variable) is the dominant, or primary, or master control loop and uses
a set point supplied by the operator. Whereas the loop that measures Tc, uses the output of
the primary controller as its set point and is called the secondary or slave loop.
2. Explain the 3 element ctrl scheme (Multi variable ctrl) in a boiler system?
The performance of the three-element control system during transient conditions
makes it very useful for general industrial and utility boiler applications. It handles loads
exhibiting wide and rapid rates of change. Plants which exhibit load characteristics of this
type are those with mixed, continuous, and batch processing demands. It is also
recommended where normal load characteristics are fairly steady; but upsets can be sudden,
unpredictable and/or a significant portion of the load.
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A most common ratio control is to control the ratio of two reactants entering a reactor
at a desired value. In this case, one of the flow rates is measured but allowed to float, that is,
not regulated, and the other is both measured and controlled to provide the specified constant
ratio. An example of this system is shown in Fig. The flow rate of reactant A is measured and
added, with appropriate scaling, to the measurement of flow rate B. The controller reacts to
the resulting input signal by adjustment of the control valve in the reactant B input line.
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Consider the reactor shown in Fig., where a gas-phase reaction takes place. Two
control valves manipulate the flows of the feed and the reaction product. It is clear that in
order to control the pressure in the reactor, the two valves cannot act independently, but
should be coordinated. Fig. indicates the coordination of the two valves‘ actions as a function
of the controller‘s output signal.
Let the controller‘s output signal corresponding to the desired operation of the reactor
be 6 psi (8 mA). From the graph we see that valve V2 is partly open while valve V1 is
completely open. When for various reasons the pressure in the reactor increases, the
controller‘s output signal also increases. Then it is split into two parts, affects the two valves
simultaneously, and the following actions take place As the controller output increases from 6
psi (8 mA) to 9 psi (12 mA), the valve V2 open continuously, while valve V1 remains
completely open. Both actions lead to a reduction in the pressure. For large increases in the
reactor‘s pressure, the control output may exceed 9 psi (12 mA). In such a case, as we can see
from graph, valve is completely open while V starts closing. Both actions again lead to a
reduction in pressure until the reactor has returned to the desired operation.
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6. Explain Feed forward control with an eg? Compare FFC with FBC also bring out
merits & demerits?
Unlike the feedback systems, the feed forward control configuration reacts to
variations in disturbance variables (or set point), predict the disturbance‘s effects and take
corrective action to eliminate its impact on the process output. Therefore, the feed forward
controllers have the theoretical potential for perfect control. But, as it is difficult to measure
all possible disturbances variables and to predict their effect quantitatively, feedforward
control is generally used along with feedback control. In most cases, a combination of
feedforward and feedback techniques can correct process deviations in the shortest time. It
may also be said that feed forward loops are usually corrected by feedback trimming. With
feedforward, the feedback controller must only change its output by an amount equal to what
the feedforward system fails to correct.
Control action starts immediately after a change in the disturbance has been detected
(Ref Fig) that feedback acts after the fact, in a compensatory manner, whereas feedforward
acts ‗before hand‘ in an anticipatory manner.
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Example: CSTR
Consider the stirred tank heater
shown in Fig. The control objective is to
keep the temperature of the liquid in the
tank at a desired value (set point) despite
any changes in the temperature of the inlet
stream.
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The transfer functions in the block diagram indicate the relationships between the various
inputs and outputs, and they are assumed to be perfectly known. We can easily derive the
following input output relationships
From an equation we can solve with respect to d and find the following estimate of the
unmeasured disturbance:
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The equation provides the needed estimator which relates the unmeasured controlled output
to measured quantities like m and z Fig shows the structure of the resulting inferential control
system Notice that the estimated value of the unmeasured output t plays the same role as a
regular measured output; that is, it is compared to the desired set point and the difference is
the actuating signal for the controller.
It is understood in the previous chapters that task of controller design for a process is very
much domain specific. First the model of the process is linearized around a certain nominal
point and the controller is designed on the basis of that linearized model and finally
implemented on the process. Hence, the controller is applicable for certain domain around the
nominal operating point around which the model has been linearized. However, if the process
deviates from the nominal point of operation, controller will lose its efficiency. In such cases,
the parameters of the controller need to be re-tuned in order to retain the efficiency of the
controller. When such retuning of controller is done through some ―automatic updating
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scheme‖, the controller is termed as adaptive controller. The technique can be illustrated with
the following figure.
figure.
One of the most popular adaptive control techniques is gain scheduling technique. The
overall gain of an open loop process is usually given as
It is customary to keep the overall gain constant. In case of changes in the process (or valve
characteristics or measuring element), Kc should be tuned in such a manner that overall gain
remains constant.
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When the process is poorly known, one cannot rely much on the correctness of the value
of KÞ In such cases, the self-adaptive control may be helpful. A self adaptive controller
optimizes the value of certain objective function (criterion) in order to obtain updated
controller parameters. Two examples of self adaptive controllers are Model Reference
Adaptive Control (MRAC) and Self-Tuning Regulator (STR)
The following figure shows the schematic of a Model Reference Adaptive Controller.
It contains of two loops. The inner loop contains the regular feedback mechanism whereas
the outer loop contains an ideal reference model which the process needs to follow. The
process and model outputs are compared and the error function is minimized through a
suitable optimization routine in order to arrive at the re-tuned controller parameters.
Self-Tuning Regulator on the other hand estimates the model parameters by measuring
process inputs and outputs. The re-tuned model eventually guides the controller parameter
adjustment mechanism. Figure V.17 shows the schematic of Self Tuning Regulator.
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Inferential Control
Often the process plant has certain variables that cannot be measured on-line, however, needs
to be controlled on-line. In such cases, the unmeasured variables to be controlled can be
estimated by using other measurements available from the process. Consider the following
example:
The process has two outputs y1 (unmeasured) and y2 (measured). The disturbance d affects
the process adversely that needs to be nullified by manipulating input u. The open loop model
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In this case disturbance, which is usually not measured can be expressed in terms of
two measurable quantities
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MAN Diesel & Turbo
1655279-1.1
Page 1 (10) Symbols for piping I 00 25 0
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MAN Diesel & Turbo
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3.28 Cock, straight through, with bottom 4.10 Manual (at pneumatic valves)
conn.
3.29 Cock, angle, with bottom connec- 4.11 Push button
tion
3.30 Cock, three-way, with bottom con- 4.12 Spring
nection
3.31 Thermostatic valve 4.13 Solenoid
3.32 Valve with test flange 4.14 Solenoid and pilot directional valve
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5.17 Water trap with manual control 7.4 Distance level indicator
5.19 Silencer
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Pipe dimenesions
A : Welded or seamless steel pipes. B : Seamless precision steel pipes or Cu-pipes.
Normal Outside Wall Stated: Outside diameter and wall thickness i.e. 18 x 2
Diameter Diameter Thickness Piping
DN mm mm
: Built-on engine/Gearbox
: Yard supply
Items connected by thick lines are built-on engine/ gearbox.
15 21.3 In accordance
20 26.9 with classifica-
25 33.7 tion or other
32 42.4 rules
40 48.3
50 60.3
65 76.1
80 88.9
90 101.6
100 114.3
125 139.7
150 168.3
175 193.7
200 219.1
General
Pump, general DIN 2481 Ballcock
Centrifugal pump with electric DIN 2481 Double-non-return valve DIN 74.253
motor
Gear pump DIN 2481 Spectacle flange DIN 2481
Screw pump with electric DIN 2481 Spectacle flange, closed DIN 2481
motor
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General
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Where dublicated measurements are carried out, i.e. multiple similar devices are measuring the same parameter,
the ID specification is followed by a letter (A, B, ...etc.), in order to be able to separate the signals from each other.
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2229 Mass
Basic Symbol
Valves 584 585 593 588 592 590 591 604 605 579
L - bored
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2229 Mass
Basic Symbol
Valves 594 595 586 587 599 600 601 602 607 608 606
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6.25 Air venting to the outside 771 Tank with conical ends
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I 00 25 0 Symbols for piping Page 10 (10)
2015.11.17
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