PROSPERITY THROUGH TECHNOLOGY

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EI8553 PROCESS CONTROL

(III YEAR / V SEM)

Academic year (2019 -2020)

DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

ENGINEERING
 SRISAIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SAI LEO NAGAR, WEST TAMBARAM
CHENNAI-44
NBA Accredited and ISO Certified Institution

VISION
To emerge as a “Centre for excellence” offering Technical Education and Research
Opportunities of very high standards to students, develop the total personality of the individual,
and instill high levels of discipline and strive to set global standards, making our students
technologically superior and ethically strong, who in turn shall contribute to the advancement of
society and humankind.

MISSION
We dedicate and commit ourselves to achieve, sustain and foster unmatched excellence in
Technical Education. To this end we will pursue continuous development of infrastructure and
enhance state-of-the art equipment to provide our students a technologically up-to-date and
intellectually inspiring environment of learning, research, creativity, innovation and professional
activity and inculcate the students in ethical and moral values.

QUALITY POLICY
We at Sri Sai Ram Engineering College are committed to build a better nation through
Quality Education with team spirit. Out students are enabled to excel in all values of Life and
become Good Citizens. We continually improve the System, Infrastructure and Services to
satisfy the Students, Parents, Industry and Society.
 SRISAIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SAI LEO NAGAR, WEST TAMBARAM
CHENNAI-44
NBA Accredited and ISO Certified Institution

DEPARTMENT OF INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

ENGINEERING

VISION
To Pioneer in Providing Technical Education and to develop competent Engineers who are
technically proficient in the field of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, ethically stronger
contributing to the growth of Society and Nation.

MISSION
M1:To Provide Quality Education in both theoretical and applied foundations of Instrumentation
and Control Engineering.

M2:To Enhance Problem Solving capabilities through design Project, Industrial and In- house
Projects

M3:To inculcate strong professional and Ethical Values among the students.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’s)

PEO1:Graduates will have solid and sound basics in Mathematics, Electronic and
Instrumentation fundamentals and advancements to solve technical problems.

PEO2:Graduates will have the capability to work productively as Instrumentation and Control
Engineers, including supportive and leadership roles in multidisciplinary domain.

PEO3:Graduates will have the potential to participate in life-long learning through the successful
completion of advanced degrees, continuing education, certifications and/or other
Professional developments.

PEO4:Graduates will have the ability to apply the gained knowledge to improve the society
ensuring ethical and moral values.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)

PSO1: To apply the fundamentals of mathematics and physical sciences in the field of
Instrumentation and Control Engineering

PSO2:To apply appropriate techniques to formulate and analyze engineering problems in

Instrumentation, Control Theory and Automation.
 EI8553
Process Control
III year / V Semester / EIE

COURSE OBJECTIVES by Anna University

 To introduce technical terms and nomenclature associated with process control domain.
 To familiarize the students with characteristics, selection, sizing of control valves.
 To provide an overview of the features associated with industry type PID controller.
 To make students understand the various PID tuning methods.
 To elaborate different types of control schemes such as cascade control, feed forward control
and Model based control schemes.

COURSE OBJECTIVES by Faculty

To impart knowledge on the following Topics

1 To introduce technical terms associated with process control, to obtain the

mathematical model for various processes and to understand the linearization of
nonlinear systems.
2 To familiarize the students with characteristics, modelling, selection, sizing of control valves.
3 To understand the characteristics of ON-OFF, PID controller and the implementation
issues related to it.
4 To understand the various tuning methods of PID controller and different control schemes
such as cascade control and feed-forward control.
5 To learn and apply model based control schemes for various applications.

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will have the
 Ability to understand technical terms and nomenclature associated with process control
domain.
 Ability to build models using first principles approach as well as analyze models.
 Ability to design, tune and implement PID controllers to achieve desired
 Performance for various processes.
 Ability to analyze systems and design and implement control schemes for various
processes.
 Ability to identify, formulate and solve problems in the process control domain.

No of hours required to complete the syllabus :60 periods

Prerequisite knowledge
Basics of Measurements and Instrumentation
Control System

Outline of five units

Unit 1: Process Modelling and Dynamics
Unit 2: Final Control Elements
Unit 3: Control Actions
Unit 4: PID Controller Tuning
Unit 5: Model Based Control Schemes
 SYLLABUS
UNIT I PROCESS MODELLING AND DYNAMICS 6+6
Need for process control – Mathematical Modeling of Processes: Level, Flow, Pressure and
Thermal processes – Continuous and batch processes – Self regulation – Servo and
regulatory operations – Lumped and Distributed parameter models – Heat exchanger –
CSTR – Linearization of nonlinear systems.
UNIT II FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS 6+6
Actuators: Pneumatic and electric actuators – Control Valve Terminology - Characteristic of
Control Valves: Inherent and Installed characteristics - Valve Positioner – Modeling of a
Pneumatically Actuated Control Valve – Control Valve Sizing: ISA S 75.01 standard flow
equations for sizing Control Valves – Cavitation and flashing – Control Valve selection

UNIT III CONTROL ACTIONS 6+6

Characteristic of ON-OFF, Proportional, Single speed floating, Integral and Derivative
controllers – P+I, P+D and P+I+D control modes – Practical forms of PID Controller – PID
Implementation Issues: Bumpless, Auto/manual Mode transfer, Anti-reset windup
Techniques – Direct/reverse action.
UNIT IV PID CONTROLLER TUNING 6+6
PID Controller Design Specifications: Criteria based on Time Response and Criteria based
Frequency Response - PID Controller Tuning: Z-N and Cohen-Coon methods, Continuous
cycling method and Damped oscillation method, optimization methods, Auto tuning –
Cascade control – Feed-forward control
UNIT V MODEL BASED CONTROL SCHEMES 6+6
Smith Predictor Control Scheme - Internal Model Controller – IMC PID controller –- Three
element Boiler drum level control - Introduction to Multi-loop Control Schemes – Control
Schemes for CSTR, and Heat Exchanger - P&ID diagram.
TOTAL : 60 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES (COs)
Ability to understand technical terms and nomenclature associated with Process
control domain.
Ability to build models using first principles approach as well as analyze models.
Ability to Design, tune and implement PID Controllers to achieve desired
performance for various processes
Ability to Analyze Systems and design & implement control Schemes for various
Processes.
Ability to Identify, formulate and solve problems in the Process Control Domain.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Seborg, D.E., Edgar, T.F. and Mellichamp, D.A., “Process Dynamics and Control”, Wiley
John and Sons, 2nd Edition, 2003.
2. Bequette, B.W., “Process Control Modeling, Design and Simulation”, Prentice Hall of
India, 2004.
3. Stephanopoulos, G., “Chemical Process Control - An Introduction to Theory and
Practice”, Prentice Hall of India, 2005.
REFERENCES:
1. Coughanowr, D.R., “Process SystemsAnalysis and Control”, McGraw - Hill International
Edition,2004.
2. Curtis D. Johnson, “Process Control Instrumentation Technology”, 8th Edition, Pearson,
2006.
3. Considine, D.M., Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, Second Edition, McGraw,
1999.
4. Bela.G.Liptak., “Process Control and Optimization”., Instrument Engineers’ Handbook.,
volume 2, CRC press and ISA, 2005.
5. Ramesh C. Panda., T.Thyagarajan., “An Introduction to Process Modelling Identification
and Control for Engineers” Narosa Publishing house Pvt. Ltd, 2017.
 UNIT-I
PROCESS MODELLING AND DYNAMICS

1. List any four objectives of process control

 Suppressing the influence of external disturbances
 Optimizing the performance
 Increasing the productivity
 Cost effective.

2. Define process.
It defines as a series of operations during which some materials are placed in more
useful state. It also refers to method of changing or refining raw materials to create end
product.

3. Define Process control.

Process control technology is a tool that enables manufacturers to keep their
operations running within specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize
profitability, ensure safety and quality. It is the scheme that describes how much the
manipulated variable should change in order to bring the controlled variable back to the set
point.

4. Define process variable.

A process variable is a condition of a process fluid that can change the manufacturing
process in some way. Ex: pressure, temperature, flow and level.

5. What is manipulated variable?

It is a variable which is altered by the automatic control equipment so as to change the
variable under (control variable) and make it conform to the desired value.

6. Define Controlled variable.

It is the one that must be maintained precisely at the set point and it is the quantity of
control system which is directly measured and controlled.
Examples of controlled variables are temperature, pressure, flow rate, level, vacuum
pressure, concentration, density etc.

7. Define disturbance.
It is also known as load variable. It changes in an unpredictable manner which can
affect process variable.
The load variables of a process are all other independent variables except the control
variable and manipulated variable.

8. What do you mean by self regulation?

The output will move from one steady state to another for the sustained change in
input. This means that for change in some input variable the output variable will rise until it
reaches a steady state (inflow = outflow). It is the tendency of the process to adopt a specific
value of controlled variable for nominal load with no control operations.

9. Why do we need mathematical modeling of process?

The physical equipment of the chemical process we want to control has not been
constructed. Consequently we cannot experiment to determine how the process reacts to
various inputs and therefore we cannot design the appropriate control system. If the process
equipment needs to be available for experimentation the procedure is costly. Therefore we
need a simple description (MATHEMATICAL MODEL) of how the process reacts to various
inputs, and this is what the mathematical models can provide to the control designer.

10. Name different test inputs

 Step input.
 Ramp input.
 Impulse input.
 Sinusoidal input.
 Pulse input.

11. Name a process giving inverse response

Drum boiler system, in which the flow rate of the cold feed water is increased by a
step the total volume of the boiling water and consequently the liquid level , will decrease for
a short period and then it will start increasing.

12. Define interacting system and give an example

Load changes in first process affects the second process and vice versa when both are
connected in series nature is called interacting system. Ex: Two level tanks are connected in
series.

13. A tank operating at 10ft head, 51pm outflow through a valve and has a cross section
area of 10 sq ft. calculate the time constant
T=R/A, R=H/Q=10/(5X5.885X10-4)

14. What is meant by non-self regulation?

A system that grows without limit for a sustained change in input (constant outflow or
outflow independent of inflow condition). The example of the non self process is a simple
liquid level system with constant outflow.

15. Write any two characteristics of first order process modeling.

The smaller the value of time constant the steeper the initial response of the system. A
first order lag process is self regulating the ultimate value of the response equal to
Kp (steady state gain of the process) for a unit step change in the input.
16. Define continuous process and batch process.
A process in which the materials or work flows more or less continuously through a
plant apparatus while being treated is termed as continuous process. The problem of
continuous process is due to load changes. (Ex:) storage vessel control. A process in which
the materials or work are stationary at one physical location while being treated is termed as
batch process. (Ex:) furnace.

17. What is the function of the controller?

The element in a process control loop that evaluated error of the controlled variable
and initiates corrective action by a signal to the controlling variable.

18. What is the purpose of final control element?

The purpose of a final control element is it is a mechanical device that physically
changes a process in response to a change in control system set point. Eg. Actuators include
valves, dampers, fluid couplings, gates, and burner tilts. It allows an operator to achieve a
desired process variable output by manipulating a process variable set point.

19. List the two types of process control

 Direct process control – Controlled variable directly indicates the performance of
the process. Ex: Water heater system
 Indirect Process control – Controlled variable indirectly indicates the performance
of the process. Ex: Annealing

20. What is Servo operation and Regulatory operation?

If the purpose of the control system is to make the process follow the changes in set
point as quick as possible, then it is servo operation and changes in load variables is called
Regulatory.

21. What is mathematical behavior?

The Set of equations that characterize the process is termed as Mathematical
Modeling.

22. Define a non-interacting system

The dynamic behavior of one tank is affected by the other, but the reverse is not true,
then it is non-interacting system. Here the liquid heads are independent of each other.

23) Differentiate between Servo and regulatory operation with example.

Servo problem Regulator problem

The set point is variable and load disturbance The load disturbance is variable and set point is
are kept constant. kept constant

This method is desired by operator. This may happen any time in the system

Tracking of missiles and automatic machining Controlling of temperature and flow rate
are examples of this type.
In chemical plants minor set point change But here changes such as uncontrolled flow,
only occurs. temperature, pressure are frequent and cause
large errors.

25) Define dead time for a process.

Dead time is the amount of time it takes for the process variable to start changing after
changing output.

26) Define degrees of freedom.

The Degree of freedom is defined as the independent variable that must be specified
in order to define the process completely. The number of degree of freedom can be found by
the equation
f = V – E, Where
V = Number of independent variable describing a process
E - Number of independent equation physically relating the V variables.

27) Define time constant for a process.

Time constant for a process is defined as the process variable takes to move 63.32%
of its final value after a step change in valve position.

28) Differentiate between Continuous and Batch process.

Continuous process Batch Process

A process in which the materials or A process in which the materials or work are
work flows more or less continuously stationary at one physical location while being
through a plant apparatus while being treated is termed as batch process.
treated is termed as continuous process.

All steps are ongoing continuously in Production occurs in time sequential steps in
time. batches
Large scale production Small scale production
Regulatory is dominant than servo Servo is dominant
Eg: oil refining, chemical fertilizers, paper Eg: furnace, Hood annealing of steel rolled coils
and pulp and metal smelting Steel melting.

29) List the advantages of automatic process control.

1. Increased through output or productivity.

2. Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.
3. Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product.
4. Increased consistency of output.
5. Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses.
30) What are the major components of a process control system?

The basic components of a control system can be represented by:

1. reference input element which causes the command signal;
2. feedback element which produces the feedback signal;
3. error detector;
4. controller;
5. controlled system; and
6. Output signal, that is, the controlled output.
 UNIT II

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

1. What is the function of valve positioner?

The valve positioner are use to minimize the effect of lag in large-capacity actuators,
stem friction due to tight stuffing boxes, friction due to viscous or gummy fluids, process line
in pressure changes.

2. What is the function of an actuator? What are the different types of actuators?
An Actuator is used to translate the output signal of the automatic controller into a
position of a member exerting large power and often it is employed as a power amplifying
mechanism. Different types of actuators used in control valve are pneumatic actuators,
hydraulic actuators, electro-pneumatic actuators, and electric motor actuators.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic actuator over other
actuators?
The pneumatic actuator is used in wide range of pressure. The pneumatic signal is
easily available which can transmit quite long distance without and transmission losses. No
wear and tear problem is needed as in hydraulic actuators. The main drawback in pneumatic
actuators is it requires signal conversion when the process is automated. This type of
actuators is dependable and difficult in construction.

4. Define range-ability of a control valve.

The range ability of a control valve is the ratio of maximum controllable flow to
minimum controllable flow.

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of rotary type motion valves over linear
stem motion type valves?
The rotary type stem motion valve is providing high capacity flow with minimum
pressure drop. They are used to handle slurries or fibrous materials. They require minimum
space for installation and they are used in low pressure services. The rotating type valves
have low leakage tendency and the range ability is limited.

6. What are the different types of process parameters to be considered in selection of

control valves?
Different types of process parameters to be considered in selection of control valves
are the pressure drop across the value, range ability, flow rate coefficient, control valve size
and etc.

7. What are the different types of factors to be considered in control valve sizing? or What is the
significance of the sizing of control valves?

The proper sizing of the control valve is important because of the effect on the
operation of automatic controllers. if the control valve is oversize, for eg, the valve must
operate at low lift and the minimum controllable flow is too large. In addition, the lower part
of the flow-lift characteristics is most likely to be non-uniform in shape. On the other hand if
the control valve is undersize, the maximum flow desired for a process may not be provided.
8. Differentiate flashing and cavitations in a control valve.
In a control valve when the pressure at venacontracta goes below the vapour pressure
and also at the pressure is below the liquid vapour pressure. So the fluid enters the port as a
liquid & comes out as a vapour. This phenomenon is called Flashing.
It occurs in a valve when the pressure drop across the orifice first results in the
pressure is being lowered to below the liquid‘s vapour pressure and then recovering to above
vapour pressure. This pressure recovery causes on implosion or collapse of the vapour
bubbles formed at the venacontracta. This Phenomenon is called Cavitation.

9. What are the different types of flow-characteristics of a control valve?

The flow lift characteristics of a control valve fall into three approximate categories
a. Decreasing sensitivity type
b. Linear type
c. Increasing sensitivity type.

10. What do you mean by Flashing?

In a control valve when the pressure at venacontracta goes below the vapour pressure
and also at the pressure is below the liquid vapour pressure. So the fluid enters the port as a
liquid & comes out as a vapour. This phenomenon is called Flashing.
11. Suggest suitable control valves for use on slurries and fluids with suspended
particles.
Gate valves, ball valves and Pinch valves are suitable for control of slurries and fluid
with solid particles

12. When a Butterfly valve is used?

The butterfly valve is most often used in sizes from 4 to 60 inch for the control of air
and gas. It is also used for liquid flow if the pressure differential is not large.

13. Relate valve flow coefficient and liquid flow rate.

For control valve the flow rate is given by m = 𝑘𝑎 2g(h1 − h2)
where
m – flw rate ft3 / sec
 K1 – a flow coefficient
a – area of control valve port, ft2.
g = acceleration sue to gravity, ft/ sec2.
h1 – upstream static head of flowing fluid, ft
h2 – downstream static head of flowing fluid, ft
14. Mention the two distinct characteristics of an equal percentage valve.
The equal %valve has increasing sensitivity and linear Characteristics. When the
valve pressure drop is small or when the process gain decreases with increasing flow this
valve can be used.

15. What is the function of the spring in a control valve?

The spring is used to bring back the actuator in static position. The spring develop
Inertia and static force which may use to get the force balance in control valve.

16. What are I/P and P/I converter? State the stand and valves for P and I in
instrumentation practice.
I/P and P/I converter are signal converters which are use to convert current to
pneumatic and vise versa in process system. The standard Pneumatic value is 3 – 15 psi and
the current is 4 – 20 mA DC.

17. Why installed characteristics of control valve are different from inherent
characteristics?
The inherent characteristics of control valve are desired by the manufacture with
standards, but the installed characteristics are change when the control valve is in usage.
Because the control value may apply many applications its coefficient may not be same for
all conditions.

18. What is meant by cavitation in a control valve?

It occurs in a valve when the pressure drop across the orifice first results in the
pressure is lowered to below the liquid‘s vapour pressure and then recovering to above
vapour pressure. This pressure recovery causes on implosion or collapse of the vapour
bubbles formed at the venacontracta. This Phenomena is called Cavitation

19. Why is equal % valve mostly used in process industries?

The equal %valve has increasing sensitivity and linear Characteristics. When the
valve pressure drop is small or when the process gain decreases with increasing flow this
valve can be used.
20. What is self regulation?
It is the ability of a control valve to reach a specific value for nominal changes in the
load variable without any controller.

21. List the merits and demerits of using a positioner in a control valve?
Merits: Hysteresis is reduced and linearity is improved, Actuator can handle higher
static forces and speed of response is improved.
Demerits: Does not improve the ability of actuator to handle inertia or thrust forces. Requires
maintenance.

22. Derive the expression for flow through an equal percentage valve?
The expression for flow is, [ m / M] ={ R(x/X) - 1}
where,
 m = outlet flow rate,
M = desired maximum outlet flow rate
R = rangeability , x / X = ratio of lift

23. What is “equal percentage” in the equal percentage valve?

The equal percentage characteristics is so named because for equal increments of stem
travel at constant pressure drop, an equal percentage change in existing flow occurs (i.e.) The
same % change increase in flow will occur when the stem position changes from 40% to 50%
of travel.

24. The upstream pressure of control value is 4kg/cm² and the downstream pressure
varies 51kg/cm². The port diameter of the control value is 5 cm. Find the actuator force
required?
Given :
pı =4kg/cm² ,
p2= .51 kg/cm² ,
d= 5cm ,
a= π/4*d^2 ,

Ans: F=(4-.51)*π/4*8^2= 68.5kn

25.Merits and demerits of single seated and double seated control valve.
Single -seated control value

Merits:
It has only one port opening between seat and plug
Simple in construction.
Can be shut-off to provide zero flow.
Demerits :
Large force acts a value because of differential head acting across port and seat area.

Double-seated control value

Advantages:
Net force acting on value stem is small

Disadvantages:
Cannot be shut off tightly because of differential pressure and temperature expansion
of value plug and valve body.

25. Define Cv.

The size coefficient Cv is defined as the flow rate of water in gallons per minute
provided by a pressure differential of 1.0 lb per sq.in through a fully open control valve.

where:
Cv = Flow coefficient or flow capacity rating of valve.
F = Rate of flow (US gallons per minute).
SG = Specific gravity of fluid (Water = 1).
ΔP = Pressure drop across valve (psi).

26. Give an example of Cv.

A control valve which has a Cv of 12 has an effective port area in the full open
position such that it passes 12gpm of water with 1 psi pressure drop. The value of control Cv
increases with increase in flow and decreases with increase in pressure drop (Across the
control valve).

UNIT-III
CONTROL ACTIONS

1. What is a Single speed floating control?

For self-regulating process with little or no capacitance, the single speed floating
control can be used.
In the SSFC, if the error is zero, the output will not change but remains (floats) at
whatever setting it is. When the error goes to zero, the output of the control element changes
at a fixed rate when the error exceed the neutral zone

2. Why is the electronic controller preferred than pneumatic controller?

Electronic controller preferred than pneumatic controller for the following reasons:
1. Electronic signals operate over great distance without time lags.
2. Electronic signals can be made compatible with digital controllers.
3. Electronic devices can be designed to be essentially maintenance free.
4. Intrinsic safety techniques eliminate electrical hazards.
5. Less expensive to install.
6. More energy efficient.

3. Explain the function of Controller.

The controller in process control loop evaluates error of the controlled variable and
initiates corrective action by a signal to the controlling variable.
It computes the error and amplifies the error ensuring that the corrective action is
taken in right amount by the control variable

4. Mention any two drawbacks of derivative control action.

 The output of controller is zero at constant error condition.
 It will amplify the noise present in the error signal.

5. Mention limitations of single speed floating control

The present output depends on the time history of errors and such history are not
known, the actual value of controller output floats at an undetermined value. If the deviation
persists controller saturates at either 100% or 0% and remain there until an error drives it
towards opposite extreme.

6. Why floating control has not become famous?

The present output depends on the time history of errors and such history is not
known, the actual value of controller output floats at an undetermined value. If the deviation
persists controller saturates at either 100% or 0% and remain there until an error drives it
towards opposite extreme.

7. Sketch pneumatic P+I controller.

8. Sketch pneumatic P+D controller.

9. Write the transfer function of P, PI, and PID control.

10. How to choose valve speed in floating control?

 The flow rate is very important because very fast process lags cause the valve to
continue opening (or closing) beyond that optimum self-regulated position.

11. Sketch pneumatic P+I+D controller.

12. Define proportional band.

Proportional band (PB) is defined as the error (expressed as a percentage of the range
of measured variable) required to move the valve from fully closed to fully open. The Pb and
Proportional gain (Kp) is given by PB = 100 / Kp.

13. What is meant by differential Gap?

A differential gap in two-position control causes the manipulated variable to maintain
its previous value until the controlled variables has moved slightly beyond the set point. In
actual operation it is the same as hysteresis. A differential gap is caused in the two-position
controller if small friction exists at the bearing on the float arm.

14. What is meant by “reverse action” in the controller operation?

In a reverse action controller operation, the controller output increases when the
process variable decreases. Unlike direct action the error value of reverse acting controller is
computed as :
Error = Set point - process variable.
Here the process parameters such as kp, ki and kd are positive.

15. Why derivative control cannot be used alone? Or Under what circumstances
derivative control action is added or removed in a controller.
The derivative action is recommended for temperature and composition control where
there is a sluggish and Multi capacity processes. When the error is constant the derivative
action is zero.
The derivative action Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate Action.
When the process has noise the derivative control amplifies the noise and makes the noisy
one. It introduces a stabilizing effect on the Closed –loop control response of a process.

16. Why derivative mode of control is not recommended for a noisy process?
The derivative control mode is not recommended for a noisy process because even
when the pv settles down at the set point the derivative control gives the control action for
noises that are at higher frequencies, so the pv moves around the set point.
17. What is meant by neutral zone in an on off controller
The neutral zone is an interval of a signal domain or band where no action occurs (the
system is dead). Neutral zone is used in voltage regulators and other controllers. The purpose
to prevent oscillation or repeated on/off cycles.

18. Draw the electronic circuit for PI controller.

19. Draw the PID circuit.

20) How a controller can be classified?

1. Discrete(Have only two modes or position either ON or OFF)
2. Multi Step type(Have more than two positions)
3. Continuous(compare the value of PV and SP and adjust the controller output)
4. Discontinuous
21) Differentiate between Direct action and Reverse action.

Direct Reverse
Error=PV-SP Error=SP-PV
The output signal from direct controller goes The output signal will be opposite response
in same direction of its PV signal as does a change in PV.
As PV increase the controller output also As PV increase the Controller output has to
increase. decrease.
22) Define Anti reset windup.
Anti-reset windup is an implementation issue while using an Integral controller. Due
to the accumulation of the error values of the past by the integral controller, the manipulated
variable becomes too large and hence the final control element remains saturated in the on or
off state and does not respond for the error for an interval of time. This is known as Anti reset
windup.

23) Draw the pneumatic P Control circuit.

Comparison of P, I, D, PI, PD and PID.

Controller Settling Time Offset Damping Ratio Max deviation from

modes set point

P Lower than Highest Highest More than Lowest Lower than Highest
I Zero Highest Highest
PI Highest Zero More than Lowest Highest
PD Lowest Lowest Lowest Lowest
PID More than Lowest Zero More than Lowest More than Lowest

RESPONSE OF P CONTROL
Response OF PID

P
 Fast Closed Loop Response , Non Zero Steady State Error
I
 It Eliminates the offset , The Overshoot and Decay Ratio Will Be More
 Increasing The Integral Action Makes the response More Sensitive
D
 The derivative action Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate
Action.
 When the process has noise the derivative control amplifies the noise and
makes the noisy one.
 It introduces a stabilizing effect on the Closed –loop control response of a
process.
PI
 It Has No Offset
 I Action may induced Closed Loop In stability
 If Offset is in tolerable use this mode
PID
 Zero Offset ,Smaller Max Deviation
 Reduces the Oscillation ,Good For Sluggish Process and those with small
measurement
UNIT IV
PID CONTROLLER TUNING

1. What is meant by tuning in process control?

To adjust the controller parameters is referred as tuning. The controller may tune
using the simple criteria such as ¼ decay ratio, minimum setting time, and minimum error.
Using time integral performance such as ISE, IAE, ITAE the controller may tune. The
popular method of controller tuning is Process reaction curve and Z-N method.

2. What is meant by ultimate period Pu of a controlled process?

The ultimate period Pu of sustained cycling is defined as Pu = 2π / phase cross over
frequency.
3. What is a process reaction curve?
This is a plot drawn between the measurement output and time when the closed loop
system is disconnected between the controller and final control element and is manually
operated with step change.

4. State the relation between maximum overshoot and decay ratio.

The relation between maximum overshoot and decay ratio is,
decay ratio = (overshoot) 2.

5. Give the optimum controller settings for a PID controller based on Zeigler-Nicholas
method.
The optimum controller settings for a PID controller based on Zeigler-Nicholas
method is the proportional gain Kc = Ku / 1.7,
Integral timeI = Pu / 2 & Derivative time D = Pu / 8
where the Ultimate gain Ku = inverse of the amplitude ratio
Ultimate period of oscillation Pu = 2π / phase cross over frequency

6. What is ITAE and when to go for it? Or Define ITAE.

ITAE stands for Integral time weighted absolute error.
ITAE = t|e|dt
ITAE integrates the absolute error multiplied by the time over time. What this does is
to weight errors which exist after a long time much more heavily than those at the start of the
response. ITAE tuning produces systems which settle much more quickly than the other two
tuning methods. The downside of this is that ITAE tuning also produces systems with
sluggish initial response (necessary to avoid sustained oscillation).
To suppress errors that persist for long times, the ITAE criterion will tune the
controllers better because the presence of large t amplifies the effect of even small errors in
the value of the integral.

7. What are ISE and when to go for it?

ISE is integral of the square error and it is defined as ISE = | e 2(t) dt.
To suppress large errors the ISE is better, because the error is squared and thus contributes
more to the value of the integral.

8. What are IAE and when to go for it?

IAE is integral of the Absolute error and it is defined as IAE = | e (t) | dt.
To suppress small errors IAE is better than ISE because when square small numbers (< 1)
they become even smaller.

9. Write Ziegler Nichols tuning formulae.

10. Why is it necessary to choose controller settings that satisfy both gain margin and
phase margin?
 It is necessary to choose controller settings that satisfy both gain margin &phase
margin in order to avoid unstable behavior by the closed loop of a process

11. What is tuning a controller based on quarter – decay ratio?

It‘s the tuning of parameters of the controller so as to obtain a step change in the load
(error). The response gives decay ratio of ¼.it is defined as the ratio of successive amplitude
of the peaks decay ratio=C/A.

12. Write the Cohen – Coon controller settings PID controller.

13. Write the Cohen – Coon controller settings PI controller.

For the PI controllers the parameters are,
Kc = / K td ( 0.9 + td / 12)
I = td ( (30 + 3 td / ) / (9 + 20 td /)

14. When do you go Process reaction curve method for controller tuning.
1. For the multi capacity processes whose response is sigmoid
2. Process with very short time delay
3. The process whose response is overdamped

15. What is cycling?

An important mode of dynamic variable error is the oscillation of an error about zero.
This means the variables is cycling above or below zero set point.

16. Briefly explain about Damped oscillation method

Using only proportional action and starting with low gain adjust the gain adjusted
until the transient response of the closed loop shows a decay ratio of 1 / 4. The optimum
setting of damped oscillation method is more accurate than ultimate method.

17. Define Phase cross over frequency in Bode stability criterion?

 The phase crossover frequency is the frequency where phase shift is equal to 180o.It is
the frequency where the phase margin is measured, which is a 0dB gain crossing frequency.
These frequencies are expressed in radians/Time Unit, where Time Unit is the unit
specified in the Time Unit property of system.

18. Explain the continuous cycling method.

The continuous cycling method or on-off control is a position type control action in
which the mv is quickly changed to either a max or min value depending on whether the
controlled variable is greater or less than the set point. The equations for two-position control
are:
m = m1 when e > 0: m = m0 when e < 0: Where, m = mv
m1 = max value of mv (on)
m0 = min value of mv (off)

19. What is meant by controller tuning?

Having decided the type of controller for a given system, and given the performance
criteria for the closed loop response(eg., minimum peak error, ¼ decay ratio, IAE etc.)
optimum controller settings are the best suited values of the controller(Kp, Ti, Td) which
satisfies the performance criteria set by the designer and selecting these values is called
controller tuning.

20. What are the parameters required to design a best controller?

Process Parameters (K, t), Controller parameters (Kp, Ti, Td), performance criterion
(ISE, IAE, IATE)

21. What is tuning a controller based on quarter – decay ratio

It‘s the tuning of parameters of the controller so as to obtain a step change in the load
(error). The response gives decay ratio of ¼.it is defined as the ratio of successive amplitude
of the peaks decay ratio=C/A.

22. Write any two practical significance of Gain margin

 It constitutes a measure of how far the system is from the brink of Instability.
 The Higher the gain margin (greater than 1), the higher the safety factor we use for
controller tuning.
23. Why Gain margin and phase margin are to be considered while tuning a controller?
The gain margin and Phase margin are the safety factors which is used for the
design of a feedback system. Beyond the phase margin and gain margin the system
goes to unstable position.
24. Draw the block diagram for control loop of measurement of process reaction curve.

UNIT V
MODEL BASED CONTROL SCHEMES

1. What is ratio control where is it needed?

Ratio control is special type of feed forward control where two disturbances are
measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. It is mostly used to control the ratio of
flow rates of two stream in which both are monitored but only one can be controlled.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of feedback and feed forward
controllers?
Advantages :
1. Acts before the effect of a disturbance has been felt by a system.
2. Good for slow systems.
3. Does not introduce instability in closed loop response.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires identification of all possible disturbances and their direct measurement
2. Cannot cope with unmeasured disturbance.
3. Sensitive to process parameter variations.
4. Requires good knowledge of the process model.

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cascade control?

The Cascade control is useful in reducing the effect of a load disturbance that moves
through the control system slowly. This type of control gives very high performances than
conventional control. The draw back of this type of control is the two loop should be tuned
properly with fine tuning methods.

4. Define and explain the concept of feed forward control.

Feed forward control configuration measures the disturbance directly and takes
control action to eliminate its impact on the process output. Therefore; feed forward
controllers have the theoretical potential for perfect control.

6. Briefly explain about multivariable control.

 When many inputs (manipulated variables) and many controlled variable (measured
outputs) are present in a loop the multi variable control is suitable. The variables may be
interacting, interconnecting and decoupling. This may be controlled by this method.

7. State the conditions for the cascade control to be effective.

For cascade control process of the inner loop should be faster than the outer loop.
For cascade control to be effective the control action of the inner loop is often
proportional with the gain set to a high value. The action of the primary controller is
generally PI or PID.

8. Give the applications of cascade control.

The cascade control are used in CSTR‘s ( Continuous Stirrer Tank Reactors ),
distillation column, value position control, boilers and etc.

9. The combination of feed forward and feedback is more effective than feed forward or
feedback control. Say true or false.
True. The feed forward control take care of all disturbances affecting the system and
the feedback control, controls the measured parameters.

10. Ratio control is a specific case of feed forward control. Say true or false.
True. The Ratio control is a special type of feed forward control.

11. What is the advantage of cascade control over conventional control?

The cascade control has two loops. When any load changes the inner loop corrected
before they affected the primary loop. This control gives high performance when the load is
frequency changes. The tuning of the control is easy compared to conventional feedback
control.

12. Mention an application where Ratio control is used.

The ratio control are used in the air fuel mixture control in combustion, reflux control
of distillation columns, mixture of hot and cooled water in heat exchangers and etc.
13. State any two conditions under which the cascade control is much effective. OR
When cascade control will give improved performance than conventional feedback
control?

The cascade control is recommended whenever high performance is mandatory in the

face of frequent load changes, where the secondary part of the process contains an undue
amount of phase lag or non-linearity.

14. When the split range control is needed in a process?

The split range control are used, when the additional safety and operational optimality
whenever necessary.

15. What is inferential control Give an example?

Inferential control uses secondary measurements to adjust the PV, as CV cannot be
measured. An estimator in the inferential control computes the estimate of values of
unmeasured cv from material and energy balance and the measured outputs.
Eg. Distillation column fig 2.2c pg. 17 Stephanopoulos.
16. How is the controlled variable of inner loop chosen in a cascade control system?
The inner loop in a cascade control is the secondary loop. When the process has a
variable that need not be controlled, but whose value affects the CV, then we have a
secondary controller so as to control that value so that they don‘t affect the CV. Usually P-
Control is used.

17. Describe split-range controller with an example.

In a split –range control we can control a single Process output by coordinating the
actions of several Manipulated variables, all of which have the same effect on the controlled
output.
Eg: in a split range control of the pressure in a steam Header, several boilers
discharge steam in a common Steam header and from there to the process needs .Here instead
of controlling the steam flow from each boiler, the firing rate and steam production rate at
each boiler is controlled .The control objective is to maintain constant pressure in steam
header when steam demand at various processing units increase.

18. Explain how the quality of control is improved when Feed forward control is added
with feed back control
The combined form of the two will retain the superior performance of feed forward
control and the insensitivity of the feed back control to uncertainties and inaccuracies .The
deviations caused by the feed forward control will be corrected by the Feed back controller as
it directly monitors the behavior of the controlled processes.

19. How inferential control is implemented?

The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, together with the
material and energy balances that govern the process, to compute mathematically (estimate)
the values of the unmeasured controlled variables. The controller to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables, in turn, uses these estimates.

20. Under what conditions feed forward is added with feedback

Feed forward is added with feedback because of the following:
 Feed forward requires the identification of all possible disturbances
and their measurement. Any changes in parameters of a process by a
feed forward controller cannot be compensated because their impact
cannot be detected.
 Feed forward control requires a very good model for the process.
 Feedback control is insensitive to the above 3 drawbacks but has poor
performance and possibly unstable.

21. Discuss the situations to select a cascade control and discuss when it will become
effective.
Cascade control is useful in reducing the effect of a load disturbance that moves
through the control system slowly since the inner loop has the effect of reducing the lag in the
outer loop with the result that the cascade system results more quickly with a higher
frequency of response. For cascade control process of the inner loop should be faster than the
outer loop. For cascade control to be effective the control action of the inner loop is often
proportional with the gain set to a high value. The action of the primary controller is
generally PI or PID.
22. Why are fuel and air sent at a specified ratio into a combustion chamber?
Fuel & air are sent at a specified ratio into a combustion chamber in order to obtain
complete combustion. (i.e., if the inflow increases the air ratio also increases & hence the
input is min. & o/p is max).

23. Write the principle of Selective control system.

The Selective control system is the one in which there is only one manipulated
variable and many Controlled outputs. In a Normal control of a process, there will be one
manipulated variable for one controlled outputs. But, with a selective control system we can
transfer the control to any controlled outputs.

24. What is an Adaptive control ?

For a non-linear system (dynamic), the Adaptive control system adjusts the
parameters automatically in such a way so as to compensate for the variations in the
characteristics of the process it controls.

25. What is a Split range control ?

Unlike Selective control the Split range control has only one controlled output but
many manipulated variables. Since there is only one controlled output available, there will be
only control signal which is split into several parts. This control is uncommon but ensures
additional safety to the process.
26. When is inferential control used?
Inferential control is used when the controlled output is unmeasured in the presence of
unmeasured disturbances. Since this is a rare case, inferential control can only be used.

27. Write down the principle of distillation.

The distillation columns is use to separate different distillate and bottom products
with different temperature and different concentration. Distillation separates a mixture on the
basis of a difference in composition between a liquid and the vapor formed from the liquid. In
the process industry, distillation is widely used to isolate and purify volatile materials.

28. Name the different types of distillation.

The types of distillation are Binary distillation column and Multi compound
distillation column.

29. What is purpose of the tower or column in distillation equipment?

The tower or column has two purposes: First, it separates a feed into a vapor portion
which ascends the column and a liquid which descends the column. Second, it achieves
intimate mixing between the two counter-current flowing phases.

30. List some of the variables which can be manipulated when controlling a distillation
column.
a. Column pressure
b. Feed flow rate
c. Feed composition (or feed quality)
d. Heat added (boil-up)
e. Bottom product flow rate
f. Heat removed (reflux)
 g. Distillate product flow rate
31. What is the different ways in product composition control in distillation column?
The different ways in product composition control in distillation column are feed
forward control, feedback control, and inferential control.

32. What are decouplers?

When a designer is confronted with two strongly interacting loops, he or she
introduces special new elements in the control loop called decouplers. The purpose of these
decouplers is to cancel the interaction effects between two loops and thus render two non
interacting control loops.

33. How decoupling control was designed?

The goal of decoupling control is to eliminate complicated loop interactions so that a
change in one process variable will not cause corresponding changes in other process
variables. To do this a non-interacting or decoupling control scheme is used. In this scheme, a
compensation network called a decoupler is used right before the process. This decoupler is
the inverse of the gain array and allows for all measurements to be passed through it in order
to give full decoupling of all of the loops.

34. How to select secondary controller in cascade control schemes?

a. Determine the settings for the secondary controllers using one of the methods such as the
Cohen-coon or Ziegler-Nichols or others employing time integral criteria or phase and gain margin
considerations.

b. Determine the cross –over frequency from the bode plot using the settings of the
secondary controllers.
 UNIT V
PART –B
UNIT –I
1. Derive the mathematical model for the given process?

2. Difference between servo & regulatory operation?

3. Explain the self regulation process with eg?
4. Describe a simple thermal system in which incoming liquid is heated by the heater in
the tank & going out with higher temperature. Develop 1st order TF of the thermal
process?
5. Consider the system shown in the fig Develop the mathematical model for the system.
Assume that flow rate of an effluent stream from a tank is proportional to the
hydrostatic liquid pressure that causes the flow of liquid cross sectional area of tank1
A1(ft^2) & of tank 2 is A2 (ft^2). The flow rates F1, F2 ,F3 are in ft^3/min. takes
necessary assumption?

7. Derive the mathematical model of a 1st order pressure process?

8. What is inverse response? Explain the inverse response noticed in the level control of
feed water in boiler?
9. Develop the mathematical model for the system shown the fig below. What are the
states for the system? All the flow rates are volumetric & cross sectional area of the
tanks are A1, A2 & A3 respectively. The flow rate F5 is constant & does not depend on h3
while all other effluent rates are proportional to corresponding hydrostatic liquid
pressure.
10. What is meant by dead time? Explain the working system for the above system?
11. Differentiate between continuous and Batch process.

Note: Please Ref “Chemical Process Control” by George Stephanopoulos.

 UNIT-II
1. With neat diagram explain the I/P converter?

To connect the electrical signal from controller to the pneumatic control elements, we
use I/P converter. The current-to-pressure converter, or simply I/P converter, is a very
important element in process control. Often, when we want to use the low -level electric
current signal to do work, it is much easier to let the work to be done by a pneumatic signal.
The I/P converter gives us a linear way of translating the 4—20 mA current into a 0.2 to 1
Kg/cm2 signal (3 to 15 psi signal). The basic principle involves the use of a flapper/nozzle
system. Fig. 3.1 illustrates a simple way to construct such a converter. Notice that the current
through a coil produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down and close off the gap. A
high current produces a high pressure so that the device is direct acting. The back pressure is
amplified in pneumatic amplifier to standardize the output. Adjustment of the springs and
perhaps the position relative to the pivot to which they are attached allows the unit to be
calibrated so that 4 mA corresponds to 0.2 kg/cm2 (or 3 psi) and 20 mA corresponds to 1
kg/cm2 (or 15 psi).
2. With neat diagram explain the characteristics of ctrl valve?
The different types of control valves ae classified by a relationship between the valve
stem position and the flow rate through the valve. Control valves exhibit an ‗inherit
characteristic‘ and an installed or effective characteristic.

Inherent characteristics: This control valve characteristic is assigned with the assumptions
that the stem position indicates the extent of the valve opening and that the pressure
difference is determined by the valve alone.

Installed or effective characteristics: The control valve when installed in a process with pipe
lines, downstream and upstream equipment will exhibit a different flow rate—stem position
relation and is called installed or effective characteristics.

Inherent characteristics
Based on inherent characteristics, there are three basic types of control valves, whose
relationship between stem position (as percentage of full range) and flow rate (as a
percentage of maximum flow rates) is shown in Fig.
Quick opening valve
This type of valve is used predominantly for full on/full off control applications. The
valve characteristic in the Fig shows that a relatively small motion of valve stem results in
maximum possible flow rate through the valve. Such a valve, for example, may allow 90% of
maximum flow rate with only a 30% travel of the stem. Such a valve is also called as
‗decreasing sensitivity type valve. The valve sensitivity (\Q/AS) at any flow decreases with
increasing flow. The maximum port area is sufficiently large that pressure losses elsewhere
than at the valve port may restrict the maximum flow.
Linear valve
Here the flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position It represents the ideal
situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop The relationship is expressed as
Q / Qmax = S / Smax
Where Q = Flow rate (ms/sec)
Qmax = Maximum flow rate (m3/sec)
S = Stem position (m)
Smax = Maximum stem position (m)
The valve sensitivity (ΔQ/ΔB) is more or less constant at any flow.
Equal percentage valve
A very important type of valve employed in flow control has a characteristic such that
a given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent change in flow, that is, an
equal percentage. Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow completely in its
limit of stem travel. Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem is at one limit
(closing limit) of its travel At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow Qmax as its
maximum, open valve, flow rate For this type we define the rangability R as the ratio
R = Qmax / Qmin
The curve in the Fig shows a typical equal percentage curve that depends on the
rangeabihty for its exact form The curve shows that increase in flow rate for a given change
in valve opening depends on the extent to which the valve is already open This curve is
typically exponential in form and is represented by
Q = Qmin R s/smax
Such a valve is also called as ‗increasing sensitivity type valve‘ This is termed the equal
percentage, logarithmic, parabolic, or characterized type of valve because the flow-lift curve
plotted on semi logarithmic coordinates is approximately a straight line The valve sensitivity
QS) increases with increasing flow rate. The valve sensitivity at any given flow rate is a
constant percentage of the given flow rate Thus, the term equal-percentage.
Installed characteristics
The flow characteristic of a valve in a process control system depends on the inherent
characteristic and on the change in valve pressure drop with flow rate. When the control
valve is installed as part of a process plant, its flow characteristics are no longer independent
of the rest of the system. The fluid flow through the valve is subject to frictional resistances
in series with that of the valve. Consider a simple system with pump, valve and connected
pipe lines as shown in Fig and the consequence of distortion in the characteristics illustrated
both for linear and equal percentage valves in the curves below. From these curves, one can
conclude that the particular installation involved can have a very substantial effect on both
flow characteristics and ‗Rangeability‘. Clearance flow alone can increase as much as ten
fold, and equal-percentage characteristics can be distorted toward linear or even quick
opening under conditions of excessive distortion. The distortion coefficient Dc used here is
given by the equation

Where ΔP = Pressure drop across system

ΔPs = Pressure drop across system
ΔPt = Total pressure drop = ΔP + ΔPs
The predictability of installed valve behavior is further reduced by other factors, such as the
following
1. Deviation in inherent valve characteristics.
2. Actuators without positioners will introduce non-linearities.
3. Pump curves will also introduce non linearities. It should also be recognized that in order
to learn the true requirements for valve characteristics, a full dynamic analysis is required.

3. Explain the procedure for ctrl valve sizing for a flow ctrl system?
1. The valve shall be sized for the actual flow condition and not for the ultimate design
capacity of the system. Normal maximum flow rate is normally about 70% of the ultimate
design capacity.
2. Most of the pressure drop of the system should be across the control valve. As a general
rule around 70% of the system drop should be across the control valve.
3. When the pipe line is dimensioned with normal allowable velocities (low pressure loss) the
control valve will be a few sizes smaller than the pipeline. Only in extreme cases where very
high velocities have been used in the pipe line, the size of the control valve will be same as
that of the pipe line.
4. The final selection must be done such that the calculated Cv is attained at about 75 to 80%
of the full valve travel. In case of high pressure gases and steam where expansion takes place
after the control valve, calculated Cv must be attained at about 50 to 60% of the valve travel.
5. Regardless of the application such as flow control or pressure control the valve sizing is
done on the basis of flow coefficient Cv.

4. Explain the construction & working of solenoid?

Solenoid
A solenoid is an elementary device that converts an electrical signal into mechanical
motion, usually in a straight line. A simple solenoid consists of a coil and plunger as shown
in Fig. The plunger may be free standing or spring loaded. The coil may be operated by either
dc or ac voltage. Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or
push force when excited by the specified voltage. Some solenoids are rated only for
intermittent duty because of thermal constraints.
In this case, the maximum duty cycle (percentage on total time) will be specified. In
many process control pipe lines solenoid valves (where the plunger can act as valve stem
also) are used for quick closing or shut-off operations. In large pipelines shut-off valves are
operated with the help of pneumatic air or hydraulic oil which are in turn controlled by
solenoids valves fitted in the air line or oil line.

Solenoids move in a straight line and therefore require a cam or other mechanical
converter to operate rotary valves. These actuators are best suited for small, short-stroke on-
off valves, requiring high speeds of response. Solenoid—actuated valves can open or close in
8 to 12 milliseconds.
A practical solenoid valve consists of the valve body, a magnetic core attached to the
stem and disc, and a solenoid coil. The magnetic core moves in a tube that is closed at the top
and sealed at the bottom, allowing the valve to be packless. A small spring assists the release
and initial closing of the valve. The valve is electrically energized to open. The figure shows
both the deenergized and energized conditions of the valve.
5. When single & double seated valves used? List &compare advantage &
disadvantage?
Ref: Q No: 8
6. When a double seated valve is used in a system for a flowing liquid at a maximum
rate of 10gpm, its specific gravity being 0.9 & viscosity 36000cp, a drop across the valve
1psi. Obtain the valve size?
Ref: Control valve sizing
7. Write down the flow eqn of an equal %valve & sketch its inherent valve
characteristics?
Ref: Q No: 2
8. What are the different types of valves are commercially more used?
Valve body - Commercial valve bodies
The control valve is essentially a variable resistance to the flow of a fluid, in which
the resistance and therefore, the flow can be changed by a signal from a process controller.
The control valve itself is divided into the body and the trim. The body consists of housing
for mounting the actuator and flange connections for attaching the valve in a pipeline. The
trim, which is enclosed within the body, consists of a plug, a valve seat and a valve stem. The
actuator moves the valve stem and in turn the stem moves the plug in a valve seat in order to
change the resistance to flow through the valve. That is, the cross-sectional area between the
plug and the seat is changed to change the flow rate.
The bonnet assembly is attached to the valve body. The ‗body stem moves through
the bonnet which contains a means for sealing against leakage such as a stuffing box
assembly with suitable packaging or a sealing bellows. The blind head may be with or
without guide bushings. The valve plug has extensions on top and bottom which are the valve
plug guides. These guides keep the valve-plug motion in alignment. The yoke is the structure
which is supported rigidly on the bonnet assembly and carries the diaphragm actuator.
 Valve trim consists of those internal components within the valve body which come
in contact with the process fluid passing through the valve. Valve trim includes components
such as seat rings, valve stems and valve plugs. Valve bodies are generally cast. The most
frequently used materials are cast iron, cast steel and bronze. For corrosion service, stainless
steel, nickel, carbon-molybdenum etc are used.
Sliding-Stem Control Valves:
The following types of such valves are available
1. Single-seat plug valves
2. Double-seat plug valves
3. Lifting gate valves
4. Weir valves
Single-seat plug valves:
The single-seat plug valve has only one
port opening between seat and plug and
the entire flow passes through this port.
The single seat plug valve has the
following features
1. It is simple in construction
2. It can be shut off to provide zero flow.
3. There is large force acting across the
port and seat area.
Double-seat plug valves:
The double-seat valve has two port openings and two seats and two plugs. The port
openings are not usually identical in size. Two types of double-seat valve plugs are shown in
Fig. This type has the following features
(a) Net force acting on the valve stem is generally small and therefore pressure balanced.
(b) It cannot be shut off tightly because of differential temperature expansion of valve plug
and valve body.
Lifting gate valves:
presents an open area directly to the flow
of fluid and does not involve a change of
direction of flow stream. A gate valve can
usually be shut-off tightly by wedging into
the seat. The chopping action at shut-off is
very useful for stringy materials such as
paper pulp.

The gate valve is often used for

fluids containing solid matter, because it

Weir valve
This is particularly suited to certain
chemical fluids, because it has a smooth
contour inside the body with no ‗pockets‘
for solid matter, and because it has no
packing gland around the stem. The
flexible diaphragm of rubber or other non
metallic material is positioned by the
plunger and stem. Fluid pressure inside the
valve body holds the diaphragm smoothly
against the plunger. This valve is also
referred to as ‗Saunders Diaphragm
Valve‘.

Rotating-Shaft Control Valves

Control valves in which the restriction is accomplished by the rotation of a plug or vane may
be called rotating shaft type.
1. Rotating-plug valves
2. Butterfly valves
3. Louvers.
Rotating-plug valves:

The plug is a cylindrical or conical element with a transverse opening. It is rotated in

the valve body by an external lever so that the opening on one side of the plug is gradually
covered or uncovered. The shape of the opening or part may be circular, V-shape,
rectangular, or any form that is desired to produce a given flow-angle characteristic. A
rotating-plug valve having a conical plug can generally be closed tightly and has high
rangeability. This type of valve is normally employed for throttling the flow of oil to burner
system. The valve with a spherical plug that controls the flow of fluid through the valve body
is called as ‗ball valve‘.

2. Butterfly valves:
projects through the casing and operated
externally. The total rotation of the vane is
restricted to about 60 degrees, because the
additional 30 degrees does not produce
much further increase in flow (Theoretical
rotation of a butterfly vane is 90 degrees).
The V-port butterfly valve incorporates a
V-slot in the body so that rotation of the
vane opens a portion of the V-slot. The
rangeability of butterfly valves may vary
from 5 to 50 and tight shut-off may be
obtained with special design. The butterfly
valve is most often employed for the
control of air and gas.
The butterfly valve consists of a
single vane rotating inside a circular or
rectangular pipe or casing. The shaft

Louvers:
The louver consists of two or more rectangular vanes mounted on shafts one above
the other and interconnected so as to rotate together. The vanes are operated by an external
lever. In the uni rotational louver the vanes remain parallel at all positions. In a counter
rotational louver alternate vanes rotate in an opposite direction. Flow guides are sometimes
installed between adjacent vanes in order to improve the effectiveness of throttling. A louver
cannot provide tight shut-off because of the long length of seating surfaces. Louvers are used
exclusively for control of air flow (draft) at low pressure.

9. What are the factors that should be known for selecting a control valve?
Selection of a control valve for a particular application is a very important function
for a design engineer. It is really a complex process as there are lot of things to be considered
before selecting a suitable control valve. Load changes, pressure drop, rangeability, process
gain, flow capacity and characteristic, process itself, surroundings, safety and hazardous
conditions, cavitation and flashing details, valve sizing, trim material and cost are some of the
important parameters which will finally decide the selection of a control valve.
1. Need for a control valve: Before proceeding through the steps of selecting a control
valve, one should evaluate if a control valve is really needed in the first place, or if a simpler
and more elegant system will result through some other means. (e.g., variable speed
centrifugal pump can be used instead of constant speed pump and a control valve).
2. Collection of process data: One must fully understand the process that the valve controls.
It means not only understanding normal operating conditions, but also the requirements that
the valve must live upto during start-up, shut-down, and emergency conditions. Therefore all
anticipated valves of flow rates, pressures, vapour pressures, densities, temperatures,
viscosities etc must be identified in the process of collecting the data for valve sizing in
addition to quality and safety requirements
3. Assigning valve pressure drop: Assigning the sizing pressure drop for the valve is more
complex than picking a number like 25% of the total system drop or a number like 25 psi It
requires an understanding of the interrelationships that exist in pumping, fan or compressor
systems. The proper approach to the selection of valve pressure drop is to first determine the
total friction drop of the system at normal flow and assign 50% of that to valve pressure drop
Based on that assignment, one should next determine the resulting valve drop at minimum
and maximum flows and select a valve which can handle the required Cv rangeabiity.
4. Control valve performance: Good control valve performance usually means that the
valve is stable across the full operating range of the process, it is not operating near to one of
its extreme positions, it is fast enough to correct for process upsets or disturbances, nd it will
not be necessary to retune the controller every time the process load changes. In order to meet
the above goals one must consider the following factors:
(a) Valve characteristics: Inherent (quick opening, linear or equal percentage) and installed
characteristics.
(b) Gain of control loop components like process, sensor, controller and valve gain.
(c) Process nonlinearity.
(d) Valve rangeability.
(e) Control valve sequencing. (ñ Split-ranging or floating.
5. Control valve sizing: One should first determine both the minimum and maximum cv
requirements for the valve, considering not only normal but also start-up and emergency
conditions. The selected valve should perform adequately over a range of 0.8 [C,(min)] to 1.2
[Cv (max)]. If this results in a rangeability requirement which exceeds the capability on one
valve, use two or more valves.
6. Valve actuator selection: Knowing the applications and relative advantages of different
actuator designs, one should be able to select proper actuator for an application. The
following factors are to be kept in mind.
(a) Whether electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic.
(b) Actuator speed of response.
(c) Actuator power or torque.
(d) Valve failure position (Fail-safe operation).
7. Valve positioner : The following factors are to be considered with respect to valve
positioner.
(a) When not to use positioner : one should be clear.
(b) To eliminate dead band.
(c) Split range operation.
8. Process application considerations: In selecting control valves, the properties of the
process liquid must be fully considered. The following factors are to be taken into account.
(a) High-pressure service
(b) High differential pressure usage.
(c) Vaccum service
(d) High temperature service: Limitations of metallic parts, packing designs, jacketed valves
etc to be taken into account here.
(e) Low-temperature service: Cold box and cryogenic valves.
(f) Cavitation and erosion.
(g) Flashing and erosion.
(h) Viscous and slurry service.
(i) Leakage.
(j) Small-flow values.
(k) Control valve noise.
(l) Piping and installation considerations.
(m) Climate and atmosphere corrosion.
9. Control valve specification form: Compiling the information necessary to specify a
control valve is best done with the aid of tabulation sheet. Many companies have their own
customized forms.
10. Test report and test certificate: This is to be obtained from the manufacturers of control
valves for future record, of course after selecting and getting a proper control valve for the
required application.
10. Explain the principle of working & construction of pneumatic actuator?
An actuator is that portion of a valve that responds to the applied signal and causes the
motion of the valve stem. For that purpose, the actuator often translates a control signal into a
large force or torque as required to manipulate the control element. The ‗pneumatic actuator‘
is most useful for such translation. The pneumatic actuators are capable of moving the valve
to any position from fully closed to fully open using compressed air for power. There are two
general types of pneumatic actuators:
(1) The spring and diaphragm actuator
(2) The piston actuator.
In a spring and diaphragm actuator, variable air pressure is applied to a flexible
diaphragm to oppose a spring. The combination of diaphragm and spring forces acts to
balance the fluid forces on the valve. In a piston actuator, a combination of fixed and variable
air pressures is applied to a piston in a cylinder to balance the fluid forces on the valve.
Sometimes springs are used, usually to assist valve closure.
Excluding springs, there are two variations of piston actuators: cushion loaded and
double acting. In the cushion-loaded type, a fixed air pressure, known as the cushion
pressure, is opposed by a variable air pressure and is used to balance the fluid forces on the
valve. In the double acting type, two opposing variable air pressures are used to balance the
fluid forces on the valve.
Spring and Diaphragm Actuator
The popularity of the spring/diaphragm actuator, also called diaphragm motor, is due
to its low cost, its relatively high thrust at low air supply pressure, and its availability with
fail safe springs. It is available in springless designs, double diaphragm designs (for higher
pressures), rolling diaphragm design (for longer strokes), and tandem designs (for more
thrust). These actuators are ideal for use on valves requiring linear travel, such as globe
valves. A linkage or other form of linear-to-rotary motion conversion is required to adapt
these actuators to rotary valves, such as the butterfly valve.
The principle is based on the concept of pressure as force per unit area. If we imagine
that a net pressure difference is applied to a diaphragm of surface area ‗A‘, then a net force
acts on the diaphragm is given by
F= (P1-P2) A
Where P1 P2 pressure difference (Pa)
A = diaphragm area (m2)
F = force (N)
If we need to double the available force for a given pressure, it is merely necessary to double
the diaphragm area.
Direct Action Pneumatic Actuator
The action of a ‗direct‘ pneumatic actuator is shown in Fig. The air transmitted from a
pneumatic controller (or a valve positioner) or from an electronic controller via I/P converter
enters the upper diaphragm case, while the lower diaphragm case is vented to the atmosphere
by the open hole H. When the top pressure increases the force acting downward also
increases. This starts the valve closing. As it does so, the valve spring is compressed and the
spring force increases. The valve movement will continue until the spring force is equal to the
force due to the increased air pressure. Similarly, when the air pressure decreases, the valve
moves upward and the spring expand until a new force balance is attained. Thus the valve
stem moves through a definite distance for each change in air pressure applied to the
diaphragm.

Fig. shows the condition in the low

signal pressure state where the spring S
maintains the diaphragm and the
connected control shaft in a position as
shown.

Fig. shows the case of maximum

control pressure and maximum travel of
the shaft. The pressure and force are
linearly related, as shown in equation and
the compression of a spring is linearly
related to forces acting on it. Then we see
that the shaft position is linearly related to
the applied control pressure.

𝐴
∆𝑋 = ∆𝑃
𝐾

Where Δx = Shaft travel (m)

ΔP = Applied gauge pressure (Pa) pascals.
A = Diaphragm area (m2)
K = Spring constant (N/rn)
Reverse Action Pneumatic Actuator

direct actuator, but obeys the same

operating principle. Thus, the shaft is
pulled in by the application of a control
pressure.

A reverse actuator, shown in Fig. moves

the shaft in the opposite sense from the
Piston actuators are either single
or double acting. The single-acting
actuator shown in Fig, utilizes a fixed air
pressure, known as the cushion, to oppose
the controller signal. This valve does not
have spring or diaphragm area
nonlinearities. In order to use such an
actuator for throttling purposes, it is
necessary to have a positioner. The
positioner senses the actuator motion and
causes the valve to move accordingly.

Double acting Actuator

The difference is in the outlets; one
pressure increases and the other decreases
to cause piston travel.

The double-acting piston actuator is one

that eliminates the cushion regulator and
uses a positioner with a built in reversing
relay. Thus the positioner has two air
pressure outlets, one connected above the
piston and the other below. The positioner
receives its signal and senses travel in the
same manner as a single-acting positioner.
Dept-ICE Process Control

The double-acting piston actuator shown in Fig. is employed for large thrust forces
than can be handled by the single acting actuator, and the piston is used in order to obtain
long stroke. The pilot is generally a spool-type diverting valve and requires an air supply of
30 to 100 psi (2 to 7 Kg/cm2). When the input pressure increases, the bellows moves to the
right and pushes the pilot spool upward. This action opens the upper side of the cylinder to
the air supply and opens the lower side to the atmosphere; thus the action is to return the
piston to the neutral position. Thus the position of the piston is proportional to the input
pressure. A double-acting piston actuator can handle a thrust force equal to about 80 % of the
supply pressure times the area of the piston.
When choosing between piston actuators and the spring diaphragm type, the
fail-safe consideration may be the reason for the final selection. If properly designed, the
spring is the best way of achieving fail-closed action. Fail-open action is normally less
critical. Piston actuators depend upon air lock systems to force the valve closed on air failure.
Such systems may work well initially, but there are many possibilities for leaks to develop in
the interconnecting tubes, fittings, and check valves and such piston actuator systems are not
considered reliable. Air lock systems also add to the actuator‘s cost. Piston actuators may also
be specified with closure springs to provide positive failure positions.
11. Explain the characteristics of ctrl valve sizing?
The proper sizing of control valve is important because of the effect on the operation
of the automatic controller. If the control valve is over size, for example, the valve must
operate at low lift and the minimum controllable flow is too large. In addition, the lower part
of the flow-lift characteristic is most likely to be non uniform in shape. On the other hand if
the control valve is undersize, the maximum flow desired for operation of a process may not
be provided.
Factors that influence sizing of control valves: Pressure drop across the control valve,
flow rate through the valve and specific gravity (or specific weight) are the main determining
factors in selecting a suitable size for control valves. Other factors such as type of fluid, gas
or liquid, critical flow conditions for gases and vapours, and viscosity of liquids influence
valve size. Before selecting valve size, valve and process characteristics must match to
compensate for non linearities in the control valve and process.

Flow coefficient: One of the most useful factors to determine the size of a control valve is the
‗flow coefficient‘ or Cv factor (or Kv factor). Practically all control valve manufacturers
supply Cv factors for their valves. These factors form the basis for all calculations. The flow
coefficient indicates the amount of flow the control valve can handle under a given pressure
drop across the control valve.

Cv factor: The flow coefficient (Cv) is defined as the flow rate of water in gallons per minute
at 60°F through a valve at maximum opening with a pressure drop (or pressure differential)
of 1 psi measured in the inlet and outlet pipes directly adjacent to the valve body
K factor Whenever the flow coefficient is mentioned in metric units, it is denoted by the
symbol v which is defined as the flow rate of water in m3fhour at about 30°C flowing
through the fully opened control valve at a pressure drop of 1 kg/cm2 across the control.

The following relationships between Cv and Kv can generally be used.

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Cv = 1.17 Kv
Kv = 0.86 Cv
The flow coefficient is determined by the manufacturer for various types and sizes of
valves by actual experiments with water The flow coefficient for 100% valve opening is
termed asCv (or Kv) of the particular valve size and the variation of Cv (or Kv) at different
valve openings is given in the form of a graph which is termed as valve characteristic.

Flow Rate vs Flow Coefficient

Combining Bernoulli‘s theorem for the conservation of energy and the continuity
equation for the conservation of mass, the ideal flow rate through a pipe restriction such as a
control valve can be expressed as :

Where, ΔP = Pressure drop across control valve

SG Specific gravity of the liquid
It is important to note that C is not a dimensionless coefficient.

Fluid flowing though a control valve obeys the basic laws of the conservation of mass
and energy. The pressure profile through a typical control valve is illustrated in Fig. P1

P1 = Upstream pressure
P2 Downstream pressure
PVC = Pressure at vena contracta (The minimum pressure point down stream from the
throttling point is known as the ‗vena contracta‘)

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12. Describe the purpose of valve positioner in a ctrl valve in detail?

The main purpose of having a valve positioner is to guarantee that the valve does
move to the position where the controller wants it to be. By adding positioner, one can correct
for many variations, including changes in packing friction due to dirt, corrosion, or lack of
lubrication; variations in the dynamic forces of the process; sloppy linkages (dead band); or
non linearities in the valve actuator. The effective dead band of a valve/actuator combination
can be as much as 5%; with the addition of a positioner it can be reduced to less than 0.5 %.
It is the job of the positioner to protect the controlled variable from being upset by any of the
variations.

In addition, the positioner can be used for split-ranging the control signal between
more than one valve, for increasing the actuator speed (by increasing the air pressure/volume
in case of pneumatic actuators) for modifying the valve characteristics by cams or electronic
function generators. But these reasons do not necessitate the use of positioners as they can be
achieved by other means without using positioner also.
When the valve is remote manual (open loop) operation, it will always benefit from
the addition of a positioner, because it will reduce the valve‘s hysteresis and dead band while
increasing its response. When the valve is under automatic (closed loop) control, the
positioner will be helpful when the loop response is not very fast (analysis, temperature,
liquid level, blending, slow flow, large volume gas flow etc), while the positioner will
degrade loop response, contribute to proportional offsets, and limit cycling in fast loops (fast
flow, liquid pressure, small volume gas pressure etc). Pneumatic actuators without springs
always require valve positioners.
The valve positioner is a high-gain plain proportional controller which measures the
valve stem position, compares that measurement to its set point (the controller output signal),
and, if there is a difference, corrects the error. The open-loop gain of positioners ranges from
10 to 200 (proportional band of 10 % to 0.5%), and their periods of oscillation range from 0.3
to 10 seconds (frequency response of 3 to 0. 1 Hz). In other words, the positioner is a very
sensitively tuned proportional only controller.
The positioner in effect is the cascade slave of the loop controller. In order for a
cascade slave to be effective, it must be faster than the speed at which its set point, the master
output signal, can change.
The rules of thumb used in this respect suggest that the time constant of the slave
should be ten times shorter (open-loop gain ten times higher) than that of the master and the
period of oscillation of the slave should be three times shorter (free response three times
higher) than that of the primary. It is recommended not to use positioners if the positioned
valve is slower than the process variables it is assigned to control.

14. Explain in detail about Cavitation .

Cavitation
The phenomenon of cavitation is related to Bernoulli‘s theorem, which describes the
pressure profile as fluid flows through a pipe or passes through a narrower passage,
restriction, orifice or control valve. As the fluid accelerates, some of the pressure head is
converted into velocity head. This transfer of static energy is needed to push the same mass
flow through the smaller passage. The fluid accelerates to its maximum velocity, which is

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also the point of minimum pressure (vena contracta).and then gradually slows down as it
again expands back to the full pipe area.
The static pressure also recovers but part of it is lost due to friction. If the static
pressure head drops below the liquid vapour pressure (Pr) at that temperature, then vapour
bubbles will form downstream of the restriction. As the static pressure recovers to a point
greater than the vapour pressure, the vapour bubbles collapse back into their liquid phase.
The collapse of the bubbles produces high-energy implosions which is called
‗Cavitation‘. These implosions generate noise, fluid shock cells, and gets that impinge upon
the trim metal parts. It is thought that this phenomenon generates a tremendous and
concentrated impact force that destroys the metal as it fractures out tiny metal particles.
Cavitation damage gives a very distinctive appearance which is like sandblasting.

Cavitation damage always occurs downstream of the vena contracta when pressure
recovery in the valve causes the temporary voids to collapse. Destruction is due to the
implosions, which generate the extremely high pressure shock waves in the substantially non
compressible stream. When these waves strike the solid metal surface of the valve or
downstream piping, the damage gives a cinderlike appearance. Cavitation is usually coupled
with vibration and a sound like rock fragments or gravel flowing through the valve.

15. How Cavitation can be eliminated and explain the available method?
Elimination of Cavitation
No known material will withstand continuous cavitation without damage and eventual
failure. The length of time it will take is a function of the fluid, metal type and severity of the
cavitation. Without special trim geometry, some of the mitigating actions possible were to
use extremely hard trim materials or overlays to increase the downstream back pressure, or to
limit the pressure drop by installing control valves in series to distribute the drop and to
reduce the vena contracta pressure in each valve.
Cavitation damage also varies greatly with the type of liquid flowing. The greatest
damage is caused by a dense pure liquid with high surface tension (water, mercury etc).
Density governs the mass of the microjet stream, and surface tension governs the most
important jet velocity. Because no known material can remain indefinitely undamaged by
severe cavitation, the only sure solution is to eliminate cavitation completely. Some of the
methods by which cavitation can be reduced or eliminated are listed below.

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1. Revised process conditions: A reduction of operating temperature can lower the vapour
pressure sufficiently to eliminate cavitation. Similarly, increased upstream and downstream
pressures, with AP unaffected, or a reduction in the ΔP can both relieve cavitation. Therefore,
control valves that are likely to cavitate should be installed at the lowest possible elevation in
the piping system and operated at minimum ΔP. Moving the valve closer to the pump will
also serve to elevate both upstream and downstream pressures. If cavitating conditions are
unavoidable, then it is preferred to have some permanent vaporization (Flashing) through the
valve.
2. Revised valve: The valves most likely to cavitate are the high recovery valves (ball,
butterfly, gate etc) having low liquid pressure recovery factor (FL) and low cavitation
coefficient (Kc). (The cavitation coefficient Kc is the ratio between the valve pressure drop at
which cavitation starts and the difference between the inlet and the vapour pressure of the
application. The liquid pressure recovery factor FL is related to the ratio between the valve
pressure drop and the difference between the inlet and the vena contracta pressure.)

3. Gas injection: Another valve design variation that can alleviate cavitation is based on the
introduction of non-condensible gases or air into the region where cavitation is expected. The

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presence of this compressible gas prevents the sudden collapse of the vapour bubbles as the
pressure recovers to values exceeding the vapour pressure, and, instead of implosions, a more
gradual condensation process occurs. The gas or air may be admitted through the valve shaft
or through downstream taps on either side of the pipe, in line with the shaft and as close to
the valve as possible as shown in Fig. Since the fluid vapour pressure is usually less than
atmospheric pressure, the gas or air need not be under pressure.

4. Revised installation: In order to eliminate cavitation, it is possible to install two or more

control valves in series. Cavitation problem can also be alleviated by absorbing some of the
pressure drop in restriction orifices, chokes, or in partially open block valves upstream or
downstream to the valve.
16. How Flashing occurs, explain it with detail.
Cavitation occurs when P2 > Pv, while flashing takes place when P2 < Pv. When the
valve outlet pressure, P2, is less than or equal to the vapour pressure of the process liquid,
some of the liquid ‗flashes‘ into vapour and stays in the vapour phase as it enters the
downstream Piping. The specific volume increases as liquid changes to vapour (and hence
large increase in volume), which in turn causes an increase in the fluid velocity. If enough
vapour is formed, the resulting high velocities can erode metals. In this circumstance the
piping downstream of a valve needs to be much larger than the inlet-piping in order to keep
the velocity of the two-phase stream low enough to prevent erosion.
In many cases, flashing is a normal part of the process; it cannot be avoided, and special
system and valve designs are required to accommodate it. The ideal valve to use for such
applications is an angle valve with an oversized outlet connection. Erosion caused by high
exit velocities can also cause corrosion problems. The preferred arrangement for flashing
service is to use a reduced port angle valve discharging directly into a vessel or flash tank.
The heat of vapourisation comes from the process liquid, causing its temperature to
decrease. The relative masses of liquid and vapour will thereby approach thermodyanamic
equilibrium. The amount of flashing can be calculated from an energy balance. Even small
amounts of flashing (1 to 3% by weight) can significantly affect a valve‘s capacity, sizing,
and selection; therefore, flashing should be stated in the valve specification data sheets. Large
amount of flashing (10 to 15% by weight) require special valve designs, such as oversized
outlets, replaceable throats, and special trims. In order to select the right valve, it is necessary
to know the fraction of the liquid which will flash to vapour and the velocity of the
vapourised mixture.

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UNIT-III
1. With neat diagram explain the single speed floating control?
Single speed floating controller
Generally the output was uniquely determined by the magnitude of the error input. If
the error exceeded some preset limit, the output was changed to a new setting as quickly as
possible. But in floating control, the specific output of the controller is not uniquely
determined by the error. If the error is zero the output will not change but remains (floats) at
whatever setting it was when the error went to zero. When the error moves off zero, the
controller output again begins to change.
Actually, as with the two-position mode, there is typically a neutral zone about zero
error where no change in controller position occurs. In the single-speed floating mode of
control the manipulated variable changes at a constant rate in one direction when the
deviation is positive and in the opposite direction at a constant rate when the deviation is
negative. That means the output of the control element changes at a fixed rate when the error
exceeds the neutral zone. The action can be represented by an equation:

where dp/dt = rate of change of controller output with time.

KF = rate constant (%Is)
Δep = half the neutral zone
If equation is integrated for the actual controller output, we get

where P(0) = controller output at t = 0 ,Which shows that the present output depends on the
time history of errors that have previously occurred. Because such a history is usually not
known, the actual value of ‗p‘ floats at an undetermined value. If the deviation persists, then
equation shows that the controller saturates at either 100% or 0% and remains there until an
error drives it toward the opposite extreme.

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Single speed floating controller action. The ordinate is the rate of change of controller output
with time.

Error and controller output for single speed floating action.

A graph of single-speed floating control, a graph showing controller output versus
time and error versus time for a hypothetical case illustrating typical operation is shown in
Fig. In this example, we assume the controller is reverse acting, which means the controller
output decreases when the error exceeds the neutral zone. This corresponds to a negative KF
in equation. Most controllers can be adjusted to act in either the reverse or direct mode. Here
the controllers start at some output p(O). At time ‗t1‘, the error exceeds the neutral zone. The
controller output decreases at a constant rate until ‗t2‘ when the error again falls below the
neutral zone limit. At ‗t3‘, the error fall below the lower limit of the neutral zone, causing
controller output to change until the error again moves within the allowable band.

Ref: ―Automatic Process Control‖ by Donald P Eckman.

2. With neat diagram explain the working of PI Pneumatic controller?

Ref:‖ Process Control and its Applications‖ by Surekha Bhanot, Pg No: 136-137
3 .With neat diagrams explain the working of electronic P, PI, PD, PID controller
modes?
Ref: ―Process Control Instrumentation Technology‖ by Curtis D Johnson Pg No:483-493
4. When an On-Off controller is recommended? How is its performance affected by the
process dead time?
It is the simplest and the most widely used type of control for both industrial and
domestic service. Two-position control is a position type of controller action in which the
manipulated variable is quickly changed to either a maximum or minimum value depending
upon whether the controlled variable is greater or less than the set point. The minimum value
of the manipulated variable is usually zero (off) and the maximum value is the full amount
possible (On). Although an analytic equation cannot be written, we can. In general,

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This relation shows that when the measured value is less than the set point, full
controller output results. When it is more than the set point, the controller output is zero.
Example:
The Iron box or water heater is a common example. If the temperature drops below a
setpoint, the heater is turned on. A liquid level control using two-position controller is shown
in fig.

A float in the vessel operates an electric switch which controls power to a solenoid
valve. When the liquid level raises, the switch contacts are closed, the solenoid valve closes,
and the inflow is cut off. When the liquid level falls, the switch contacts are opened, the
solenoid valve opens, and the inflow resumes. If the float level has no bearing friction and the
electrical contacts draw no arc, the action is sharp or ‗knife-edge‘. In virtually any practical
implementation of the two-position controller, there is an overlap as ep increases through
zero or decreases through zero. In this span, no change in ‗controller output occurs.

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This is shown in Fig., (which plots p versus ep for a twoposition controller. We see
that until an increasing error changes by Δep above zero, the controller output will not change
state. In decreasing, it must fall Δep below zero before the controller changes to the 0%
rating. The range 2 Δep, which is referred to as the ‗neutral zone‘ or ‗differential gap‘ is often
purposely designed above a certain minimum quantity to prevent excessive cycling. The
existence of such a neutral zone is an example of desirable hysteresis in a system.
The ‗differential gap‘ in two-position controller causes the manipulated variable to
maintain its previous value until the controlled variable has moved slightly beyond the set
point. A differential gap is caused in the two-position controller if small static friction exists
at the bearing on the float arm. The liquid level must then rise slightly above the desired
value to create sufficient buoyant force to overcome friction when the level is rising. Also,
the liquid level must fall slightly below the desired value when the level is falling so that the
weight force may overcome the friction. This kind of differential gap may be caused by
unintentional friction and lost motion.
Generally, the two-position control mode is best adapted to large-scale systems with
relatively slow process rates. Thus, in a room heating or air-conditioning system, the capacity
of the system is very large in terms of air volume, and the overall effect of the heater or
cooler is relatively slow. Other examples of two-position control applications are liquid bath
temperature control, level control etc.
The process under two-position control must allow continued oscillation in the
controlled variable because, by its very nature, this mode of control always produces such
oscillation. For large systems, these oscillations are of long duration, which is partly a
function of the neutral-zone size.
Ref: ―Automatic Process Control‖ by Donald P Eckman.

5. Consider a household heating system with On-Off controller .there is a dead band of
2degF (i.e) temperature must drop to 1degF below the set point before the heater kicks
on & must got to 1degF above the set point before the kicks off. The heater has periodic
behavior with periods where the heater is ON followed by the periods where it is OFF.
Discuss the effect of dead band on this periodic behavior. Sketch the expected heater
(ON-OFF) & temp profiles (has a function of time)as the dead band is changed?
6. A PI controller has PB of 20% & Integral time of 10s.for a constant error of
5%.Determine the controller output after 10s.The controller offset is 25%.
Ref: ―Process Control Instrumentation Technology‖ by Curtis D Johnson Pg No:483-493

7. How are P&I actions realized in a pneumatic controller? How are these actions
varied in magnitude? Obtain the TF of such a controller?
Ref:‖ Process Control and its Applications‖ by Surekha Bhanot, Pg No: 136-137

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UNIT-IV
1. Explain the procedure for tuning & the eqn for Controller settings in the following
methods Z-N method.
Ziegler and Nichols have developed another method of controller setting assignment
that has come to be associated with their name. This technique, also called the ‗Ultimate
Cycling Method‘, is based on adjusting a closed loop until steady oscillations occur.
Controller settings are then based on the conditions that generate the cycling. This method is
based on frequency response analysis. Unlike the process reaction curve method which uses
data from the open-loop response of a system, the Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique is a
closed-loop procedure. It goes through the following steps
1. After the process reaches steady state at the normal level of operation, remove the integral
and derivative modes of the controller, leaving only proportional control. On some PID
controllers, this requires that the integral time (τi) be set to its maximum value and the
derivative time (τd) to its minimum value. On modern controllers (microprocessor-based), the
integral and derivative modes can be removed completely from the controller.
2. Select a value of proportional gain (K), disturb the system, and observe the transient
response. If the response decays, select a higher value of Kc, and again observe the response
of the system. Continue increasing the gain in small steps until the response first exhibits a
sustained oscillation. The value of gain and the period of oscillation that correspond to the
sustained oscillation are the ultimate gain (K) and the ultimate period (Pu).
3. From the values of Ku and Pu, found in the previous step, use the Ziegler- Nichols rules
given in Table to determine controller settings (Kc, τI, τD).

‗Ultimate gain‘ = Kc = 1/M

‗Ultimate period of sustained cycling‘ = Pu =

55 | P a g e
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The settings above reveal the rationale of the Ziegler—Nichols methodology.

1. For proportional control alone, use a gain margin equal to 2.
2. For PI control use a lower proportional gain because the pressure of the integral control
mode introduces additional phase lag in all frequencies with destabilizing effects on the
system. Therefore, lower Kp, maintains approximately the same gain margin.
3. The presence of the derivative control mode introduces phase lead with strong stabilizing
effects in the closed-loop response. Consequently, the proportional gain Kp for a PID
controller can be increased without threatening the stability of the system.

2. Determine the optimum controller settings for the given transfer function 1/(s+1)^3
using Z-N method?
Ref: Apply ZN closed loop method
3. Explain the damping oscillation method for tuning the controller?
Tuning Damped oscillation method
The disadvantages of the closed-loop tuning method are that when tuning unknown
processes. The amplitudes of undampened oscillations can become excessive (unsafe) and the
test can take a long time to perform. One can see that when tuning a slow process (period of
oscillation of over an hour), it can take a long time before a state of sustained; undampened
oscillation is achieved through this trial-and-error technique. For these reasons, other tuning
techniques have also been developed.

4. Discuss the procedure for settling controller parameters by using frequency response
method?
Ref: ―Chemical Process Control‖ by George Stephanopoulos. Pg no: 344-355
5. Explain how to find the controller settings using Process Reaction Curve (PRC) with
an eg?
Process reaction curve method: (Cohen and Coon Method)

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Procedure:
1. After the process reaches steady state at the normal level of operation, switch the controller
to manual. In a modem controller, the controller output will remain at the same value after
switching as it had before switching. (This is called ―bumpless‖ transfer.)
2. With the controller in manual, introduce a small step change in the controller output that
goes to the valve and record the transient, which is the process reaction curve.
3. Draw a straight line tangent to the curve at the point of inflection, as shown in Fig. The
intersection of the tangent line with the time axis is the apparent transport lag (Td); the
apparent first-order time constant (T) is obtained from T = Bu/S where Bu, is the ultimate
value of B at large t and S is the slope of the tangent line. The steady-state gain that relates B
to M is given by Kp = Bu / M.
4. Using the values of Kp, TI, and Td from step 3, the controller settings are found from the
relations given in Table.

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6. What is the use Evaluation criteria?

The first problem encountered in selection and tuning of controllers is to define what
‗good‘ control is. This unfortunately differs from process to process. In this section we will
discuss how to select the type of feedback controller (i.e. , P, PI, PD or PID) and how to
adjust the parameters of the selected controller (i.e. , KP, KI, KD) for a particular process in
order to achieve an ‗optimum‘ response for the controlled process.

Consider the block diagram of a general closed-loop system shown in Fig. above.When the
load or the set point changes, the response of the process deviates and the controller tries to
bring the output again close to the desired set point.

Fig. shows the response of a controlled process to a unit step change in the load when
different types of controllers have been used. We notice that different controllers have
different effects on the response of the controlled process. It clearly demands that we should
us some performance criterion for the selection and the tuning of the controller.
There are a variety of performance criteria we could use, such as
1. Keep the maximum deviation (error) as small as possible.
2. Achieve short settling times.
3. Minimise the integral of the errors until the process has settled to its desired set point and
so on.

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7. What are different tuning schemes proposed for a PID controller? How have they
been evolved?
Tuning: - After the type of feedback controller has been selected, we still have to set the
values to use for its adjusted parameters (PID). This is known as ‗Controller Tuning‘
problem. There are three general approaches we can use for tuning a controller.
1. Use simple criteria such as the one-quarter decay ratio, minimum settling time, minimum
largest error, and so on. Such an approach is simple and easily implementable on an actual
process. Usually, it provides multiple solutions. Additional specifications on the closed-loop
performance will then be needed to break the multiplicity and select a single set of values for
the adjusted parameters.
2. Use time integral performance criteria such as ISE, IAE or ITAE. This approach is rather
cumbersome and relies heavily on the mathematical model (transfer function) of the process.
Applied experimentally on an actual process, it is time consuming.
3. Use semiemprical rules which have been proven in practice.

8. A cascade ctrl system is shown in fig. Calculate the max gain & critical frequency of
the primary controller? Eliminating the inner loop compare these values with the single
loop system. Use bode plot technique?

9. Explain in detail about time response method with an example.

Ref: ―Chemical Process Control‖ by George Stephanopoulos. Pg no: 344-355
10. A P-controller is used in a pc system which is seen to oscillate for a kp of 60. With an
oscillation period of 3min.If I & D Action are also to be used. What should be the diff
tuning parameter of a controller?

11. Explain IAE, ISE and ITAE in detail.

Ref: ―Chemical Process Control‖ by George Stephanopoulos. Pg no: 302-306

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UNIT-V
1. With neat diagram explain the cascade control scheme with an example?
In a cascade control configuration we have one manipulated variable and more than
one measurement. In the scheme there will be two controllers namely Primary controller and
Secondary controller. The output of the primary controller is used to adjust the set point of a
secondary controller, which in turn sends a signal to the final control element (may be control
valve) The process output is fed back to the primary controller, and a signal from an
intermediate stage of the process is fed back to the secondary controller. The block diagram
of such a cascade control system is shown in Fig.

Two measurements are taken from the system and each used in its own control loop. The
outer loop (primary controller) controller output is the set point of the inner loop (secondary
controller). Thus, if the outer loop controlled variable changes, the error signal that is input to
the controller effects a change in set point of the inner loop. Even though the measured value
of the inner loop has not changed, the inner loop experiences an error signal and thus new
output by virtue of its set point change. Cascade control generally provides better control of
the outer loop variable than is accomplished through a single variable system.

Advantages:
1. Disturbance affecting the secondary variable can be corrected by the secondary controller
before a pronounced influence is felt by the primary variable.
2. Closing the control loop around the secondary part of the process reduces the phase lag
seen by the primary controller, resulting in increased speed of response.

Example: Jacketed CSTR

Consider the CSTR shown in Fig. The reaction is exothermic and the heat generated
is removed by the coolant, which flows in the jacket around the tank. The control objective is
to keep the temperature of the reacting mixture, T, constant at a desired value. Possible
disturbances to the reactor include the feed temperature Ti and the coolant temperature Tc.
The only manipulated variable is the coolant flow rate Fc.

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Simple feedback control: The control

configuration shown in Fig. is for simple
feedback control. It is clear that T will
respond much faster to changes in Ti than
to changes in Tc. Therefore, the simple
feedback control will be very effective in
compensating for changes in Ti and less
effective in compensating for changes in
Tc.

Cascade Control: We can improve the

response of the simple feedback control to
changes in the coolant temperature by
measuring Tc and taking control action
before its effect has been felt by the
reacting mixture. Thus, if Tc goes up,
increase the flow rate of the coolant to
remove the same amount of heat. Decrease
the coolant flow rate when Tc decreases.

We notice, therefore, that we can have two control loops using two different
measurements, T and Tc, but sharing common manipulated variable, Fc.The loop that
measures T (controlled variable) is the dominant, or primary, or master control loop and uses
a set point supplied by the operator. Whereas the loop that measures Tc, uses the output of
the primary controller as its set point and is called the secondary or slave loop.

2. Explain the 3 element ctrl scheme (Multi variable ctrl) in a boiler system?
The performance of the three-element control system during transient conditions
makes it very useful for general industrial and utility boiler applications. It handles loads
exhibiting wide and rapid rates of change. Plants which exhibit load characteristics of this
type are those with mixed, continuous, and batch processing demands. It is also
recommended where normal load characteristics are fairly steady; but upsets can be sudden,
unpredictable and/or a significant portion of the load.

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Ref:‖Power Plant Instrumentation‖ by K. Krishnaswamy & M. Ponni Bala, Pg No: 73-74.

3. Explain the application of FFC &cascade ctrl in distillation column?

Ref: Chemical Process Control by George Stephanopoulos Page No: 412-414
4. Explain the concept of ratio ctrl with example?
Ratio control is a special type of feed forward control where two disturbances (loads)
are measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. Many industries require feed in
specific ratio, examples being air-fuel ratio in burners, reactants ratio to blending unit and
reactors. It is mostly used to control the ratio of flow rates of two streams. Both flow rates are
measured but only one can be controlled. The stream whose flow rate is not under control is
usually referred to as ‗wild stream‘. Fig. shows two different ratio control configuration. Here
we measure both flow rates and take their ratio. This ratio is compared to the desired ratio
(set point) and the deviation (error) between the measured and desired ratios constitutes the
actuating signal for the ratio controller.

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In configuration 2 we measure the

flow rate of the wild stream A and
multiply it by the desired ratio. The result
is the flow rate that the stream B should
have and constitutes the set point value
which is compared to the measured flow
rate of stream B. The deviation constitutes
the actuating signal for the controller
which adjusts appropriately the flow of
stream B.
As the magnitude of the wild
stream flow changes, the set point of the
controller is automatically moved to new
value by the ratio setter (sometimes called
as ‗ratio station‘) so that an exact ratio is
maintained between flow rates of stream A
and stream B.

A most common ratio control is to control the ratio of two reactants entering a reactor
at a desired value. In this case, one of the flow rates is measured but allowed to float, that is,
not regulated, and the other is both measured and controlled to provide the specified constant
ratio. An example of this system is shown in Fig. The flow rate of reactant A is measured and
added, with appropriate scaling, to the measurement of flow rate B. The controller reacts to
the resulting input signal by adjustment of the control valve in the reactant B input line.

5. What is a split range control scheme? Explain with an eg?

The split-range-control configuration has one measurement only (one controlled
output) and more than one manipulated variable. Since there is only one controlled output, we
have only one control signal, which is thus split into several parts, each affecting one of the
available manipulations. In other words, we can control a single process output by
coordinating the actions of several manipulated variables, all of which have the same effect
on the controlled output. Such systems are not very common in chemical processes but
provide added safety and operational optimality whenever necessary.
Example: Chemical reactor

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Consider the reactor shown in Fig., where a gas-phase reaction takes place. Two
control valves manipulate the flows of the feed and the reaction product. It is clear that in
order to control the pressure in the reactor, the two valves cannot act independently, but
should be coordinated. Fig. indicates the coordination of the two valves‘ actions as a function
of the controller‘s output signal.

Let the controller‘s output signal corresponding to the desired operation of the reactor
be 6 psi (8 mA). From the graph we see that valve V2 is partly open while valve V1 is
completely open. When for various reasons the pressure in the reactor increases, the
controller‘s output signal also increases. Then it is split into two parts, affects the two valves
simultaneously, and the following actions take place As the controller output increases from 6
psi (8 mA) to 9 psi (12 mA), the valve V2 open continuously, while valve V1 remains
completely open. Both actions lead to a reduction in the pressure. For large increases in the
reactor‘s pressure, the control output may exceed 9 psi (12 mA). In such a case, as we can see
from graph, valve is completely open while V starts closing. Both actions again lead to a
reduction in pressure until the reactor has returned to the desired operation.

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6. Explain Feed forward control with an eg? Compare FFC with FBC also bring out
merits & demerits?

Feedback control system measures the controlled variable, compares that

measurement with the set point or reference, and if there is a difference between the two,
changes its output signal to the manipulated variable in order to eliminate the error. This
means that feedback control cannot anticipate and prevent error; it can only initiate its
corrective action after an error has already developed. Thus we can conclude that feedback
control loops can never achieve perfect control of a process, that is, keep the output of the
process continuously at the desired set point value in the presence of load or set point
changes.

Unlike the feedback systems, the feed forward control configuration reacts to
variations in disturbance variables (or set point), predict the disturbance‘s effects and take
corrective action to eliminate its impact on the process output. Therefore, the feed forward
controllers have the theoretical potential for perfect control. But, as it is difficult to measure
all possible disturbances variables and to predict their effect quantitatively, feedforward
control is generally used along with feedback control. In most cases, a combination of
feedforward and feedback techniques can correct process deviations in the shortest time. It
may also be said that feed forward loops are usually corrected by feedback trimming. With
feedforward, the feedback controller must only change its output by an amount equal to what
the feedforward system fails to correct.

Control action starts immediately after a change in the disturbance has been detected
(Ref Fig) that feedback acts after the fact, in a compensatory manner, whereas feedforward
acts ‗before hand‘ in an anticipatory manner.

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Example: CSTR
Consider the stirred tank heater
shown in Fig. The control objective is to
keep the temperature of the liquid in the
tank at a desired value (set point) despite
any changes in the temperature of the inlet
stream.

Fig. (Feedback temperature control for a

tank heater) shows the conventional
feedback loop, which measures the
temperature in the tank and after
comparing it with the desired value,
increases or decreases the steam pressure,
thus providing more or less heat into the
liquid.

A feedforward control system uses

a different approach as shown in Fig
(Feedforward temperature control for
stirred tank heater). It measures the
temperature of the inlet stream
disturbance) and adjusts appropriately the
steam pressure (manipulated variable).
Thus it increases the steam pressure if the
inlet temperature decreases and decreases
the steam pressure when the inlet
temperature increases.

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7. Write short notes on Multivariable variable control.

Chemical processes usually have two or more controlled outputs, requiring two or
more manipulated variables. The design of control systems for such multiple-input, multiple
output (MIMO) is complex and requires fairly good knowledge of the process. A MIMO
controller can recognize and compensate for process interaction much more effectively than
can standard 5150 controllers on individual loops.
Let us consider a general process with several inputs and outputs as shown in Fig.
which summaries all the classes of variables that one can have around an industrial process
especially chemical process.

Major aspects to be considered when addressing the multivariable control (MVC)

problem are:
1. It is important to select the proper variable pairing for interactive feedback control.
2. Application of feedforward compensation is desirable to help minimize the required effort
of interactive feedback loops reacting to process disturbance.
3. The use of selective or override controls where possible will minimize the need for
interactive feedback loops.
4. Using interaction compensation will frequently help to provide a stabilizing effect on
interactive feedback loops and allow tighter tuning.

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8. Write short notes on Inferential Control.

Inferential control is one in which the desired parameter is controlled not by directly
measuring but inferring from another linked parameter. The reasons for giving in for such a
control may be due to
1. Controlled variable cannot be measured directly.
2. It is too difficult to measure economically.
3. No reliable measurement is possible.
Structure of an Inferential Control System
Consider the block diagram of the process shown in Fig., with one unmeasured
controlled output, y, and one secondary measured output, z. The manipulated variable m and
the disturbance d affect both outputs. The disturbance is considered to be unmeasured.

The transfer functions in the block diagram indicate the relationships between the various
inputs and outputs, and they are assumed to be perfectly known. We can easily derive the
following input output relationships

From an equation we can solve with respect to d and find the following estimate of the
unmeasured disturbance:

Substitute the estimate above into equation

and find the following relationship

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Dept-ICE Process Control

The equation provides the needed estimator which relates the unmeasured controlled output
to measured quantities like m and z Fig shows the structure of the resulting inferential control
system Notice that the estimated value of the unmeasured output t plays the same role as a
regular measured output; that is, it is compared to the desired set point and the difference is
the actuating signal for the controller.

The inferential control will perfectly function provided

1. The process transfer functions Gp1, Gp2, Gd1 and Gd2 are perfectly known.
2. The perfect estimator is available.
Adaptive Control
In chemical process control the variable that is most commonly inferred from
secondary measurements is composition. This is due to the lack of reliable, rapid, and
economical measuring devices for a wide spectrum of chemical systems. Thus inferential
control may be used for the control of chemical reactors, distillation columns, and other mass
transfer operations such as driers and absorbers. Temperature is the most common secondary
measurement used to infer the unmeasured composition.

It is understood in the previous chapters that task of controller design for a process is very
much domain specific. First the model of the process is linearized around a certain nominal
point and the controller is designed on the basis of that linearized model and finally
implemented on the process. Hence, the controller is applicable for certain domain around the
nominal operating point around which the model has been linearized. However, if the process
deviates from the nominal point of operation, controller will lose its efficiency. In such cases,
the parameters of the controller need to be re-tuned in order to retain the efficiency of the
controller. When such retuning of controller is done through some ―automatic updating

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scheme‖, the controller is termed as adaptive controller. The technique can be illustrated with
the following figure.

figure.

One of the most popular adaptive control techniques is gain scheduling technique. The
overall gain of an open loop process is usually given as

It is customary to keep the overall gain constant. In case of changes in the process (or valve
characteristics or measuring element), Kc should be tuned in such a manner that overall gain
remains constant.

The above is called the gain scheduling control law.

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When the process is poorly known, one cannot rely much on the correctness of the value
of KÞ In such cases, the self-adaptive control may be helpful. A self adaptive controller
optimizes the value of certain objective function (criterion) in order to obtain updated
controller parameters. Two examples of self adaptive controllers are Model Reference
Adaptive Control (MRAC) and Self-Tuning Regulator (STR)

Model Reference Adaptive Control

The following figure shows the schematic of a Model Reference Adaptive Controller.

Model Reference Adaptive control

It contains of two loops. The inner loop contains the regular feedback mechanism whereas
the outer loop contains an ideal reference model which the process needs to follow. The
process and model outputs are compared and the error function is minimized through a
suitable optimization routine in order to arrive at the re-tuned controller parameters.

Self Tuning Regulator

Self-Tuning Regulator on the other hand estimates the model parameters by measuring
process inputs and outputs. The re-tuned model eventually guides the controller parameter
adjustment mechanism. Figure V.17 shows the schematic of Self Tuning Regulator.

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Inferential Control

Often the process plant has certain variables that cannot be measured on-line, however, needs
to be controlled on-line. In such cases, the unmeasured variables to be controlled can be
estimated by using other measurements available from the process. Consider the following
example:

The process has two outputs y1 (unmeasured) and y2 (measured). The disturbance d affects
the process adversely that needs to be nullified by manipulating input u. The open loop model
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Dept-ICE Process Control

equations can be written as

In this case disturbance, which is usually not measured can be expressed in terms of
two measurable quantities

In other words, the variable y1 is estimated through two measurable

quantities y2 and u . The rest is similar to regular feedback control. This control mechanism is
termed as inferential control because here the controlled variable y1 is never measured, rather
it has been estimated through the inference drawn from measurement of other variables
(y2 and u in this case).

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Page 1 (10) Symbols for piping I 00 25 0

L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
General
No Symbol Symbol designation No Symbol Symbol designation
1. GENERAL CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS 2.13 Blank flange

1.1 Pipe 2.14 Spectacle flange

1.2 Pipe with indication of direction flow 2.15 Orifice

1.3 Valves, gate valves, cocks and flaps 2.16 Orifice

1.4 Appliances 2.17 Loop expansion joint

1.5 Indicating and measuring instru- 2.18 Snap coupling

ments
1.6 High-pressure pipe 2.19 Pneumatic flow or exhaust to
atmosphere
1.7 Tracing 3. VALVES, GATE VALVES, COCKS AND FLAPS

1.8 Enclosure for several components 3.1 Valve, straight through

as-sembled in one unit
2. PIPES AND PIPE JOINTS 3.2 Valve, angle

2.1 Crossing pipes, not connected 3.3 Valve, three-way

2.2 Crossing pipes, connected 3.4 Non-return valve (flap), straight

2.3 Tee pipe 3.5 Non-return valve (flap), angle

2.4 Flexible pipe 3.6 Non-return valve (flap), straight

screw down
2.5 Expansion pipe (corrugated) general 3.7 Non-return valve (flap), angle, screw
down
2.6 Joint, screwed 3.8 Safety valve

2.7 Joint, flanged 3.9 Angle safety valve

2.8 Joint, sleeve 3.10 Self-closing valve

2.9 Joint, quick-releasing 3.11 Quick-opening valve

2.10 Expansion joint with gland 3.12 Quick-closing valve

2.11 Expansion pipe 3.13 Regulating valve

2.12 Cap nut 3.14 Ball valve (cock)

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L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
No Symbol Symbol designation No Symbol Symbol designation
3.15 Butterfly valve 3.37 3/2 spring return valve contr. by sol-
enoid
3.16 Gate valve 3.38 Reducing valve (adjustable)

3.17 Double-seated changeover valve 3.39 On/off valve controlled by solenoid

and pilot directional valve and with
spring return
3.18 Suction valve chest 4. CONTROL AND REGULATION PARTS

3.19 Suction valve chest with non-return 4.1 Fan-operated

valves
3.20 Double-seated changeover valve, 4.2 Remote control
straight
3.21 Double-seated changeover valve, 4.3 Spring
angle

3.22 Cock, straight through 4.4 Mass

3.23 Cock, angle 4.5 Float

3.24 Cock, three-way, L-port in plug 4.6 Piston

3.25 Cock, three-way, T-port in plug 4.7 Membrane

3.26 Cock, four-way, straight through in 4.8 Electric motor

plug

3.27 Cock with bottom connection 4.9 Electromagnetic

3.28 Cock, straight through, with bottom 4.10 Manual (at pneumatic valves)
conn.
3.29 Cock, angle, with bottom connec- 4.11 Push button
tion
3.30 Cock, three-way, with bottom con- 4.12 Spring
nection
3.31 Thermostatic valve 4.13 Solenoid

3.32 Valve with test flange 4.14 Solenoid and pilot directional valve

3.33 3-way valve with remote control 4.15 By plunger or tracer

(actuator)

3.34 Non-return valve (air) 5. APPLIANCES

3.35 3/2 spring return valve, normally 5.1 Mudbox

closed

3.36 2/2 spring return valve, normally 5.2 Filter or strainer

closed

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L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
No Symbol Symbol designation No Symbol Symbol designation
5.3 Magnetic filter 6. FITTINGS

5.4 Separator 6.1 Funnel / waste tray

5.5 Steam trap 6.2 Drain

5.6 Centrifugal pump 6.3 Waste tray

5.7 Gear or screw pump 6.4 Waste tray with plug

5.8 Hand pump (bucket) 6.5 Turbocharger

5.9 Ejector 6.6 Fuel oil pump

5.10 Various accessories (text to be 6.7 Bearing

added)
5.11 Piston pump 6.8 Water jacket

5.12 Heat exchanger 6.9 Overspeed device

5.13 Electric preheater 7. READING INSTR. WITH ORDINARY DESIGNATIONS

5.14 Air filter 7.1 Sight flow indicator

5.15 Air filter with manual control 7.2 Observation glass

5.16 Air filter with automatic drain 7.3 Level indicator

5.17 Water trap with manual control 7.4 Distance level indicator

5.18 Air lubricator 7.5 Recorder

5.19 Silencer

5.20 Fixed capacity pneumatic motor

with direction of flow
5.21 Single acting cylinder with spring
returned
5.22 Double acting cylinder with spring
returned
5.23 Steam trap

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I 00 25 0 Symbols for piping Page 4 (10)

L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
List of Symbols
General
Pipe dimensions and piping signature

Pipe dimenesions
A : Welded or seamless steel pipes. B : Seamless precision steel pipes or Cu-pipes.
Normal Outside Wall Stated: Outside diameter and wall thickness i.e. 18 x 2
Diameter Diameter Thickness Piping
DN mm mm
: Built-on engine/Gearbox

: Yard supply
Items connected by thick lines are built-on engine/ gearbox.
15 21.3 In accordance
20 26.9 with classifica-
25 33.7 tion or other
32 42.4 rules
40 48.3
50 60.3
65 76.1
80 88.9
90 101.6
100 114.3
125 139.7
150 168.3
175 193.7
200 219.1
General
Pump, general DIN 2481 Ballcock

Centrifugal pump DIN 2481 Cock, three-way, L-port

Centrifugal pump with electric DIN 2481 Double-non-return valve DIN 74.253
motor
Gear pump DIN 2481 Spectacle flange DIN 2481

Screw pump DIN 2481 Spectacle flange, open DIN 2481

Screw pump with electric DIN 2481 Spectacle flange, closed DIN 2481
motor

Compressor ISO 1219 Orifice

Heat exchanger DIN 2481 Flexible pipe

Electric pre-heater DIN 2481 Centrifuge DIN 28.004

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Page 5 (10) Symbols for piping I 00 25 0

L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
Heating coil DIN 8972 Suction bell

Non-return valve Air vent

Butterfly valve Sight glass DIN 28.004

Gate valve Mudbox

Relief valve Filter

Quick-closing valve Filter with water trap ISO 1219

Self-closing valve Typhon DIN 74.253

Back pressure valve Pressure reducing valve (air) ISO 1219

Shut off valve Oil trap DIN 28.004

Thermostatic valve Accumulator

Pneumatic operated valve Pressure reducing valve with

pressure gauge

General

Specification of letter code for measuring devices

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L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
1st letter Following letters
D : Density A : Alarm
E : Electric D : Difference
F : Flow E : Transducer
L : Level H : High
M ; Moisture I : Indicating
P : Pressure L : Low
S : Speed N : Closed
T : Temperature O : Open
V : Viscosity S : Switching, shut down
Z : Position T : Transmitter
X : Failure
(ISO 3511/I-1977(E)) C : Controlling
Z : Emergency/safety acting

The presence of a measuring device on a schematic dia-

gram does not necessarily indicate that the device is inclu-
ded in our scope of supply.
For each plant. The total extent of our supply will be stated
formally.
General
Specification of ID-no code for measuring signals/devices

1st digit 2nd digit

Refers to the main system to which the signal is related. Refers to the auxillary system to which the signal is rela-
ted.
1xxx : Engine x0xx : LT cooling water
2xxx : Gearbox x1xx : HT cooling water
3xxx : Propeller equipment x2xx : Oil systems (lub. oil, cooling oil, clutch oil, servo
oil)
4xxx : Automation equipment x3xx : Air systems (starting air, control air, charging air)
5xxx : Other equipment, not related to the propulsion x4xx : Fuel systems (fuel injection, fuel oil)
plant
x5xx :
x6xx : Exhaust gas system
x7xx : Power control systems (start, stop, clutch, speed,
pitch)
x8xx : Sea water
x9xx : Miscellaneous (shaft, stern tube, sealing)
The last two digits are numeric ID for devices referring to the same main and aux. system.

Where dublicated measurements are carried out, i.e. multiple similar devices are measuring the same parameter,
the ID specification is followed by a letter (A, B, ...etc.), in order to be able to separate the signals from each other.

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L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
Basic symbols for piping
2237 Spring operated safety
valve

2238 Mass operated Safety

valve

2228 Spring actuator

2284 Float actuator

2229 Mass

2231 Membrane actuator

2230 Piston actuator

2232 Fluid actuator

2223 Solenoid actuator

2234 Electric motor actuator

2235 Hand operated

Basic Symbol

Valves 584 585 593 588 592 590 591 604 605 579

584: Valve general

585: Valve with continuous regulation
593: Valve with safety function
588:Straight-way valve
592: Straight-way valve with continuous regulation
590:Angle valve
591: Three-way valve
604: Straight-way non return valve
605: Angle non-return valve
579: Non-return valve, ball type
I - bored

L - bored

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L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
T - bored

2237 Spring operated

safety valve
2238 Mass operated
Safety valve
2228 Spring actuator

2284 Float actuator

2229 Mass

2231 Membrane actuator

2230 Piston actuator

2232 Fluid actuator

2223 Solenoid actuator

2234 Electric motor actua-

tor

2235 Hand operated

Basic Symbol

Valves 594 595 586 587 599 600 601 602 607 608 606

594: Straight-way reduction valve

595: Angle reduction valve
586: Gate valve
587: Gate valve with continuous regulation
599: Straight-way cock
600: Angle cock
601: Three-way cock
602: Four-way cock
607: Butterfly valve
608: Butterfly valve with continuous regulation
606: Non-return valve, flap type
No Symbol Symbol designation No Symbol Symbol designation
Miscellaneous 972 Pipe threaded connection

582 Funnel xxx Blind

581 Atomizer Tanks

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L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
583 Air venting 631 Tank with domed ends

6.25 Air venting to the outside 771 Tank with conical ends

299 Normal opening/ closing speed yyy Electrical insert heater

300 Quick opening/ closing speed Heat exchanger

613 Orifice with diffuser 8.03 Electrical preheater

612 Orifice 8.08 Heat exchanger

611 Sight glass 792 Nest of pipes with bends

615 Silencer 798 Plate heat exchanger

617 Berst membrane Separators

629 Condensate relief 761 Separator

580 Reducer 764 Disc separator

589 Measuring point for thermo element Filters

1298 Air relief valve 669 Air filter

Couplings/ Flanges 671 Fluid filter

167 Coupling Coolers

955 Flanged connection 16.03 Cooling tower

971 Clamped connection 16.06 Radiator cooler

No Symbol Symbol designation No Symbol Symbol designation

Chimney Pumps
838 Chimney 708 Centrifugal pump

Expansion joints 697 Piston pump

2285 Expansion bellow 704 Piston pump - radial

4.1 Expansion pipe 700 Membrane pump

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I 00 25 0 Symbols for piping Page 10 (10)

L28/32DF, L27/38, V28/32S, V28/32H, L28/32S, L28/32H, L23/30DF, L23/30S,

L23/30H, L21/31S, L21/31, L16/24S, L16/24, L27/38S
4.1.1.1 Loop expansion joint 702 Gear pump

4.1.1.2 Lyra expansion joint 705 Screw pump

4.1.1.3 Lens expansion joint 706 Mono pump

4.1.1.4 Expansion bellow 703 Hand vane pump

4.1.1.5 Steel tube Motors

4.1.1.6 Expansion joint with gland 13.14 Electrical motor AC

Compressors 13.14 Electrical motor AC

716 Piston compressor 13.14 Electrical motor AC

725 Turbo axial compressor 13.15 Electrical motor DC

726 Turbo dial compressor 13.15 Electrical motor DC

720 Roots compressor 13.15 Electrical motor DC

722 Screw compressors 13.15 Electrical motor DC

Ventilators 13.15 Electrical motor DC

637 Fan general 13.15 Electrical motor DC

638 Fan - radial 632 Turbine

639 Fan - axial 633 Piston engine

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