Pronouns

INTRODUCTION

Pronouns arc a closed class of words. Pronouns may substitute for or stand for the
references to entities which full noun phrases make:
Your boxes of photos have been delivered They're in the kitchen.
(used instead of repeating the noun phrase in green, to refer to the same thing)
Could you cam this for me?
(used to refer to people or things in the immediate situation: you. the listener, me.the
speaker; this, an object in the immediate environment)
Is there something wrong?
(reference to a general notion, potentially realised by several noun phrases)
They’ve got speed cameras everywhere these days so you've got to be careful. (vague,
general reference to groups of people or to everyone)

The interpretation of the meaning of individual pronouns depends heavily on the context in
which they occur.
Like nouns, pronouns can act as the heads of noun phrases and function as subject, object
or complement of the clause, or as the complement of a preposition:
I miss you
(pronoun as subject and object)
(identifying someone in a photograph]
That's him. there, standing behind you
(pronouns as subject, complement and complement of preposition)

There are several different classes of pronoun: personal pronouns, possessive pronouns,
reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns. Each is treated in a separate section in this
chapter.
Although pronouns have noun-like characteristics, they are only rarely modified.
Exceptions to this rule normally involve postmodification:
I’m talking to him over there.
You in the corner. Come here please.

Premodified examples usually involve adjectives:

Have you got a cold again? Poor you.
Oh. Silly me! I went to the post office and still forgot to post that letter.
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS
General
Personal pronouns: subject and object forms:
Subject Object
I me
you(singular/plural) you (singular/plural)
he, she,it, one him, her,it,one
we us
they them
The subject forms of personal pronouns most typically act as the subject of a clause:
I met a cousin of mine.
We’re late again.
198e for 'anticipatory' it
The object forms of personal pronouns most typically act as the object (direct and
indirect) or complement in a clause or as the complement of a preposition:
I invited them.
(direct object)
Give him the map
(indirect object)
That's her. She's wearing the black beret
(complement in a clause)
I left it to them.
(complement of a preposition)
Personal pronouns: person, number
and gender.
Personal pronouns indicate person, number and gender. You is used for singular and
plural reference. Only he, him, she.her express gender contrasts:
Personal pronouns: person,number,gender

subject object person number gender

I me first singular
you you second singular or
plural
he him third singular masculine
she her third singular feminime
it it third singular
one one always generic always generic
we they us them first plural
third plural

 
Personal pronouns are most typically used for backward (anaphoric) reference .
The manager phoned me hack. He was extremely apologetic.
Occasionally a personal pronoun may he used to refer forward (cataphorically)
Such uses are common in openings to written stories:
She was, walking along a tree lined suburban road, unaware of what was about to befall
her .Gillian Dawson had never been very aware the people around her.
 І/me 198b
I and me refer to the speaker/writer:
[on the phone]
Hi Ken. It's me. Bob. Can I speak to Hilary?
(speaker)
In this paper, 1 challenge the dominant understanding of autonomy as
Individualism.
twitter)

You 198с
You does not distinguish between singular and plural reference, but, in context, tin
reference is usually clear:
Do you want some more tea, Paul?
(singular reference)
[host to group of dinner guests)
Would you come to the table now please.
[plural reference]

You refers most frequently to the immediate addressee(s). But it can also refer
more generally to any potential listener(s) or reader(s). This is especially so in
advertising texts and public notices You can also have generic reference (to (people in
general, including the speaker/writer);
Would you all follow me please?
[listeners]
[slogan of the British National Lottery]
It could be you.
\ [any individual addressee could be a winner]

They do these throw-away cameras. They're about φ8. You can get a panoramic one and
you can get a sort of party one with a flash. And you can get an underwater one.

He/him, she, her, they/them

198d
In general, he/him and she/her are only used to refer to humans or animals. In traditional
formal usage, he/him may occur with reference to both sexes. Increasingly, however, gender-
neutral pronoun forms are preferred, such as (subject forms) he/she, he or she, they, or (in
writing) (s)he, or saw; (objectforms) him/her, hint or her, them:
A judgment by an Australian court which curtailed the powers of Senate committees
prodded the Senate into reform. Now anyone who believes he has been injured by a senator's
words can ask to have a response written into the Senate's records. (traditional formal usage)
Any student who thinks (s)he has been unfairly treated can appeal.
(preferred neutral usage)
The use of they/them is particularly common when the reference involves words such as
person, someone, anyone. It is also used in this hook for gender-neutral reference:
How can you expect a person to remember what they were doing five years ago?
(preferred neutral usage in more informal contexts)
from the section 141 will in this hook, 3871
A rarer use of will is in declarative clauses which command someone to do something or
insist that they do something.
 It 198e
It is used to refer to things as well as to anything which is not obviously either a Its or she:
The aerial on your car is broken off. Look at it.
Ships, planes, vehicles and other machines (e.g. steam engines) and countries an
sometimes referred to by people within the relevant field with a feminine
pronoun. However, such usage is considered inappropriate by many people:
She is the finest yacht I have ever sailed.
How long have you been flying her?
In very formal styles, countries may be referred to with she/her. Again, such us
is considered inappropriate by many people:
In 1783, France regained Senegal, which she had lost at the conclusion of the Seven
Years War.
More commonly, it is used for countries and machines:
Like most European countries. France imports more food than it exports.

It is also used as an empty pronoun in anticipatory structures and in references to the

weather and the time, as well as more general references to situations:
It’s nice that you were able to come.
(anticipatory; preferred to: That you were able to come is nice.) It's raining again It's
getting late.
We re going to have to pay all over again. It ‘s crazy.
198f
One
One is rare in modern usage, especially in speech, and is confined to formal styles li may
refer to people in general including the speaker/writer, or, more rarely, as an oblique
reference to the speaker/writer but excluding the listener/reader.
(description of the facilities offered by a hotel)
Table tennis is on offer, and one can also hire bicycles.
I don't know whether there are any aspects of the countryside that / don t like,
von know. Occasionally there are horrible smells. Well, one doesn’t like that. Hut on the
whole / like it.
(oblique reference to the speaker)
198g
We/us
We use may be used to refer to different groups of people.
• The speaker/writer(s) and the listener(s)/reader(s):
A: Shall we have lunch outside?
B: Mm, yes, great idea.
• The speaker/writer(s) and a third party or parties but excluding the listener/reader: \
We’re having some friends around on Saturday, would you like to join us?
Oh, thanks. Yes. What time?
* People in general (generic we):
I’m sounding like a Communist now but we should all have the same housing. We’re all
equal. You know it’s sad that there are these divisions.
We is sometimes used with singular reference, especially by people in authority, for
example by teachers to children or by medical staff when addressing patients
How are we today, Mr Maclean? Still got chest pains?
(meaning; | how are you today, Mr Maclean?)
 They/them 198h
Thev is used to refer to a specific group of people, animals or things, or, genetically, with
vague reference In wider groups of people, bodies, institutions, authorities, etc. which
exclude the speaker
Tell your brother and sister they're always welcome to come and stay We‘d love to see
them.
(specific group of people)
{the M25 is a motorway around London|
they're going to 7video the M25
(generic reference to a body 01 authority -here the Highways Agency)

PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND NOTIONS OF CORRECTNESS 199

Users of English (even highly educated users) regularly disagree about what is correct or
acceptable and incorrect or unacceptable with reference to certain uses of personal
pronouns. Choices often depend on whether the context is formal or informal or written or
spoken. In very forma! usage, subject forms of personal pronouns are used as the
complement of or when subject pronouns are joined with and or or (coordinated):
A: Who’s calling?
(not often used)
It is he who is causing all the trouble.
(not often used)
I and all the family wish you well for the future (formal)
Especially in informal spoken contexts, object pronouns are widely used in similar !
positions:
|on the phone]
A: Who's calling?
В: It’s me.
(almost universally used)
It's him that owns that red car.
(almost universally used)
Meand my wife always go shopping on a Saturday.
(or: My wife and me always go shopping on a Saturday )
(usually only found in speech)

Some pronoun forms may be used in hypercorrect way. Hypercorrect forms occur when a
speaker chooses a highly formal option and uses it universally, without reference to context .
The phraseyou and I can occur as an object and even after prepositions such as between
and for, which normally demand an object pronoun:

She wants you and I to be there with her.

(hypercorrect form)

Between you and me, he keeps making mistakes while driving.

(hypercorrect form)

Between you and me, he keeps making mistakes while driving.

(preferred, following the rule of preposition between+object pronoun)

I’ve taken notes for Mike and I.

(hypercorrect form)
I’ve taken notes for Mike and me.
(preferred form, object form after a preposition)
 In the case of short answers, object pronouns are used in informal contexts. In more
formal contexts, subject pronouns are used along with a verb:
I play the piano.
Me too.
(informal)
I swim regularly.
Yes , І swim regularly too.
(more informal)
Occasionally, in very formal styles, subject personal pronouns may occur as ,
complements in anticipatory it structures. However, object forms are more common in
everyday usage:
It was she who wanted fame, not me.
It was meleft those boxes there. Sorry.
(typical everyday usage)
When the pronoun is both the object of a previous verb (or the complement of a
preposition) and the subject of a following verb, then the object form of the pronoun is used:

Do you want less or me her?

It for her to choose.

Personal pronouns and spoken English 200

In informal spoken English, particular patterns of personal pronoun usage can be
observed.
 The structure me end you is heard in Informal speech, hut it is traditionally not
considered polite for speakers to put themselves first:
Meand you should have a talk
(preferred: You and me/You and I should have a talk )
 Us is sometimes used very informally to mean me. It is commonly used when making
Can you lend us five pounds?
(normally. Can you lend me ...)
Give us a kiss.
Could you do us a favour? Could you give Joe a message?
• After as, like, than, but, and except, subject forms are used in more formal contexts. 1
hey are normally followed by auxiliary, modal or lexical verbs:
She does the same job as he does.
(more formal)
She can swim better than he can.
We certainly work as hard as she works
• The object forms of pronouns are used in informal contexts:
She lives in the same house аs him
He keeps his bedroom almost as untidy as me.
She can swim better than him.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
201
General 201a
There are two classes of possessive pronoun: possessivedeterminers and
possessive pronouns.
possessive determiner possessive pronoun
my mine
 your (singular)yours
his, her, its his, hers, its*
our ours
your (plural) yours
their theirs
one's one's*

Possessive determiners and independent possessive pronouns may be

postmodified by (very) own:
It’s his ownfault.
Now that you've got your very own flat, how does it feel ?
Possessive determiners 201b
Possessive determiners are also called possessive adjectives in some grammar books .
Possessive determiners occur before a head noun and before any modifiers in the noun
phrase:
Here’s their ticket.
Her final exam results were better than expected.
(proverb)
Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.
When a possessive determiner and a possessive s form modify the same head noun, the
possessive determiner normally comes second:
The best man at Jane's and my weddingcouldn’t 7 stop telling jokes.
(preferred to: The best man at my and Jane’s wedding )
Possessive pronouns 201c
Possessive pronouns can stand alone as the head of a noun phrase:
Is this coal yours?
I can’t believe that the house is ours at last.
One's only occur as possessive pronouns when complemented by (very) own:

Have you given the rabbit its dinner yet?

(possessive determiner)
Is this cage the rabbit's? It is the rabbit's, surely?
(It is its,surely?)
It was a new sense of freedom, of a life of one's own.
Own
Also 192Of+possessive pronoun after the head noun
Also 190c Possessive determiners and pronouns for possessive determiners postmodified
by own used pronominally
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 202
Reflexive pronouns typically refer back to subject forms of personal pronouns.
They always end in self or selves.
Reflexive pronouns:
myself
yourself
himself, herself, itself
 oneself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
Reflexive pronouns for same subject and object
Reflexive pronouns are commonly used to refer to actions where the subject and
object are the same person:

Hehurt himselfquite badly in the fall.

( He hurt him quite badly’ would mean subject he and object hint were two different
people)
I'm going to get myself a drink? Anyone else want one?
When are you going to stop pushing yourself so hard?
A reflexive pronoun is used to differentiate reference to a subject I mm reference to
somebody else:
She looks very pleased with herself.
(reference to being pleased ‘with her’ would indicate reference to somebody else)
Children always hurt themselves when they play that game.
Children always hurt each other when they play that game.
(one child hurts another child)
Reflexive pronouns for emphasis
Reflexive pronouns cannot occur as the subject of a clause. They may only be used in
subject position as emphatic complements of subject personal pronouns:
He himself told me he was intending to retire.
(Himself told me he was intending to retire)
Reflexive pronouns may also function to emphasise a subject or object consisting of a full
noun phrase. In such cases, stress is normally on the reflexive pronoun:
The Head of Department herself knows that the staff arc unhappy.
The head of the company wrote to us himself to explain why they had been so slow in
sending us the toys.
Have the children paid for it themselves?

In spoken English the reflexive pronoun is sometimes used us a header or as tail.

Myself. I think it’s crazy.
He'd I prefer wine, himself.
Reflexive pronouns for politeness
Reflexive pronouns are sometimes used instead of personal pronouns, especially to mark
politeness:
Most people were late, including us.
(moreinformal)
Most of the audience arrived late, including ourselves.
(more formal/polite)
After as ,for, like, hut for, except for, reflexive pronouns are particularly common,
although personal pronouns arc also possible in each case. The reflexive use here indicates
greater politeness and deference:
These holidays are designed for people like yourself, young, fancy free and unattached.
(or These holidays are designed for people like you, . )
(Shop assistant addressing a customer who is considering a garment [
It for yourself?
 As for myself / haven't decided yet.
Reflexive pronouns meaning alone
Reflexive pronouns, with or without the preposition by, are also used to mean alonefrom
one's own resources, without help:
Did she draw that herself?
I think it would be better if you did it yourself,
I can help until 4,then they'll have to manage by themselves
Reflexive pronouns in other languages
In languages other than English, verbs referring to basic everyday actions often take
reflexive pronouns. Such verbs are reflexive in English only if there is a reason to emphasise
the action:
He got up, trashed, shaved, dressed and had breakfast.
(Washed himself, shaved himself, dressed himself’ would mean that this suprpising
because he is usually unable to do these things on his own)
She’s seven now. She's old enough to wash herself.
(She doesn’t need any help)

Other common verbs often used reflexively in other languages but which are nor reflexive
in English include concentrate, feel, lie down, sit(down),hurry,open:

You must really concentrate if you want to learn how to play it.
Does she feel sick?

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS 203

Reciprocal pronouns are used to indicate mutual relationships.
Reciprocal pronouns :
reciprocal reciprocal possessive
each other each other's
one another one another’s

They are always criticisingeach other.

A: They both look like one another, don 't they?
В: So they should, they’re sisters.
Both pronouns may be used with the's possessive determiner construction:
My neighbour and I are always borrowing one another's/each other's bikes.
These pronouns may he compared with retlexive pronouns:
We entertained ourselves when it rained.
(either the whole group is entertained or each member of the group entertains himself or
herself)
We entertained each other when it rained.
(each member entertains the other members)
34 Each
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 204
Relative pronouns link noun phrases to a relative clause.
Relative pronouns
who which
whom that
whose

The relative pronoun who has an object form whom and a possessive form whose In
general who and whom are only used personally (to refer to people). Who is commonly used
in both object and subject functions. Whom is used as object or as of a preposition in more
formal contexts:
That’s the guy whosold us the tickets.
The minister, who the media had criticised, eventually resigned his post.
After years of drifting apart, he and Helen, whom he first met at art college, and with
whom he has three children, were divorced.
Whose is not restricted to people. Animals and things can also be referred to:
Koalas ,whosenocturnal habits are well known, are unique to Australia.
Which is used non-personally (to refer to animals and to things); it is not used
personally:
Why don't you just go to a city which is by the sea?What about Barcelona?
Thatіs more informal than who or which and refers to people, animals and things:
That’s the guy that sold us the tickets.
(More formal …the guy who sold us the tickets)
Can you suggest a hook that's for lighter reading?
(More formal …: a book which is for lighter reading)
That is only used in this way in defining relative clauses, not in non –defining relative
clauses.
Omitting a relative pronoun in defining relative clauses is more common in unformal
than in formal contexts;
Here’s the book you were looking for.
(Or Here’s the book that/which you ...)
Which can refer a whole clause or sentence. This usage is frequent in evaluative
statements
The whole office entered the fun-run marathon, which is pretty good for people who sit
down allday.
They’ve ,won their last three matches, which I find a bit surprising actually.
Personal pronouns arc not used to repeat or extend relative pronouns:
He’sthe runnerwho won the 5000 metres.
(He’s the runner who he won the 5000 metres.)
Here’sthe pen that you lent me.
(Here’s the pen that you lend me it.)

Interrogative pronouns 205

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.
Interrogative pronouns
who which
whom what
whose
Who and whom are used alone as noun phrase heads.Whom ,whichand what may be used
with a noun head or may themselves ad as noun phrase heads:
Who's next?
And whom does Margaret meet?
Whose are these socks?
Whichcolour do you like best ?
(interrogative pronoun used here as determiner)
What number did you write down.

Who can be used in both subject and object forms. Whom is used in object loim and
following prepositions in more formal contexts:
 Who is your favourite footballer?
Who did the prime minister promote to the cabinet?
(or more formal: Whom did the prime minister promote to the cabinet ')
Who do you have most confidence in?
(informal)
(or more formal: In whom do you have most confidence?)
Which can be either personal or non personal:
Which is your brother’s girlfriend, the one with the black jeans?
Which of the juices do you prefer? Orange or pineapple and mango?
What is only used non-personally:
She is just about the most persistent person I've met. What does she want?
What versus which
What is used when specific information is requested from a general or open ended
possible range. Which is used when specific information is requested from a restricted
range of possibilities:
A: I’ve got your address. What’s your phone number?
B: Oh it's 267358.
(Which is your phone number?)
(an open-ended range of possible information)

However, where the number of options is shared knowledge among speakers and
listeners, what + noun is often used in informal contexts. Here, what is an interrogative
pronoun used as a determiner:
[talking about a shop]
What sideof the street is it on, left or right?
(or Which side of the street is it on?)
Did you von see that documentary about the SARS virus last night?
No, what channel was it on?
(or Which channel was it on?)

Demonstrative Pronouns 206

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to things. The demonstrative pronouns are this,
that, these and those. This and that have singular reference; these and have plural
reference.
Demonstrative pronouns express contrasts between what is 'near' whether in space, time
or emotional distance, in terms of the speaker and listener; This and those are listener-
oriented:
This is what we want, a big house with a big garden
[shopassistant referring to two sets ol earrings, one of which she is holding these and
another set which a customer is holding (those)]
Why don 't you take these?Those look far too large.

Indefinite pronouns 207

Indefinite pronouns refer to things in a general and open way. They indicate either
quantify or the absence of quantity.
There are two main types of indefinite pronoun .The first consists of compounds have a
second part: -one, -body, -thing, linked to any , some, no and every.

Indefinite pronouns –one, -body, -thing

somebody something
anybody anything
nobody nothing
 everybody everything

The second type is a much larger group of determiners which can be used as pronouns
and which can be followed by an of construction

a few Few Most

a little fewer Much
All Fewest Neither
Another Least None
Any less Numerals(cardinal and
ordinal)
Both little one
Each many several
either more some

All are waiting outside the bus station.

Many apply to join but few are chosen.
You want tickets for the concert. Right, well, most of them have gone already,
Cardinal and ordinal numbers can be used as indefinite pronouns:
I was woken at six every morning by those birds.
The mortar bomb hit the main hospital building, leaving twenty two seriously injured.
Jane, the third of our children, is the brightest.
-One, -body, -thing
207a
There are no significant differences in meaning between indefinite pronouns ending in
-one and those ending in -body However, somebody, anybody, nobodyare used more
frequently in informal contexts.

When used as subjects, these indefinite pronouns take a singular, not a plural verb.
Somebody and someone normally only refer to one person:
Does anyone want a lift ?
Do anyone want a lift?

Is nobody interested?
Someone has left a message for you.
However, when pronouns arc used to refer to these words, plural forms are commonly used:
If anybody knocks at the door, tell them I 'm out .
You’ll have to tell them I’m busy if anyone calls.
Nobody resigned, did they?
Someone has lost their ticket.
Although indefinite pronouns are most commonly used for vague and general reference,
somebody/someone and anybody/anyone can have both general and specific reference.
Will somebody be there to meet you at the airport ?
(specific)
Somebody isn't telling the truth.
(general)
/ didn't see anybody.
(specific)
Anyone can learn to play the guitar, if they work at it
(general)
The pronouns someone/somebody,something and anyone/anybody, anything arc d>
 distinguished in similar ways to the determiners some and any .For example,
someone/somebody is more assertive and is used in questions in which the speaker thinks
that the answer will follow neatly from the question. The pronouns anyone/anybody are
more open -ended and when used in questions do not anticipate a particular answer.
Has your mum bought you something for the journey?
Do you want to buy anything?
Hasn 'tanyone called a taxi?
Something and anything can be used to ask negative questions. They contrast in meaning:
Doesn’t she contribute something to the appeal?
(suggest that she probably did)
Didn’t she contribute anything to the appeal?
(indicates greater uncertainty)
The indefinite pronouns no one (which is also written no-one) and nobody are more
definite than. not anyone or not anybody. Anyone and anybody are used in conjunction
with uses of nothing.
I heard that no one said a good word about the trip.
I didn't hear anybody say a good word about the trip.
Nothing anybody says is accurate.
(Nothing anybody says is accurate.)
196h-196d for tuller discussion of some and any

Every fordiscussion of the determiner every, which is included mainly for purpose of
contrast with each, but which also contains examples of the use of the indefinite
pronouns everything and everyone.

Whatever,Whoever,Whichever 208

Whatever,whoever,whichever can be used as pronouns, especially in speech:

Take whatever you want.
If I talk to an Irish ,a person or whoever, my accent changes.
A: Which one shall I get for you
B: Whichever. I don’t mind.

I n formal use (and often in proverbial expressions) a subject personal pronoun •

+ who may be used instead of whoever. More commonly, whoever or the person who
are used:
He who hesitates is lost.
Will whoever borrowed my dictionary please return it to my office?
(or Will the person who borrowed my dictionary please return it to my office )
Substitude ONE 209

Substitute one has a plural form ones:

Which one would you like?
Which ones are you taking with you?
Empty It And Existential There 210
 The so-called empty it and existential there do not refer to any object or entity.
They arc used as dummy subject forms (since a subject is required in non-
imperative clauses) and refer generally to situations:
It’s very hot today, isn’t it.
(empty it used for weather, time and general references to situations)
It looks as if the shop’s closed early.
It seems as though we might have misjudged her.

It’s time to call a halt to all the arguing.

It’s no use complaining.
There were a lot of people in the town centre.
There’s something I want to talk to you about.

Anticipatory IT
211
If an infinitive or a that-clause is the subject of a sentence, it is often used as a prepatory
or anticipatory subject:

It's been nice to meet you.

(To meet von has been nice’ is unusual and. at he least, very formal indeed)
It was a great shame that they arrived late and missed the start of the play.
( preferred to the more formal. That they arrived late and missed the start of the play was
a great shame.)
It can also be used as a preparatory or anticipatory subject when the subject of the clause is
an-ing form:
It . no trouble meeting them at the station.
It can also be used as a preparatory object:
I consider it a compliment getting such a positive response from him.
(preferred to consider getting such a positive response from him a compliment.)

He made it very difficult to the him and his sister.

It is also used in cleft constructions:
It was Sunita who reported them to the police.
(Sunita, not Jane)
 Archaic forms 212

Some older forms of second person singular pronouns such as thou, thee, thy, thine are only
found in religious texts, in poetry and in some dialects of English. In contemporary English
the equivalents are:

Thou: you (subject)

Thee: you (object)
Thy: your
Thyself : yourself
Thine: yours