Ariane Rose E.

Talledo G16
9-Lavoisier November 2, 2016

Literature Review That Integrates What Others Have Done And Said

1. Carica papaya as a source of natural medicine and its utilization in selected

pharmaceutical applications
I. Introduction
 It was reported that papaya had positive effects against bacterial infections. It
was found that treatment of wound with carica papaya improved efficiency of
phagocytic cells that destroy bacteria.
II. Independent Variable
 Carica papaya as potential natural medicinal source. In vitro studies
conducted on extracts from skin, flesh, and seeds of both ripe and unripe
carica papaya gave antibacterial activities against various microorganisms
including S. aureus, B. vulgaris, B. cereus, and E. coli. Papain which is the
main enzyme found in carica papaya is recognized as effective natural
medicine in controlling both edema and inflammation associated with surgical
operations. It also produced therapeutic effects in patients with inflammatory
disorders of intestine, liver, and eye.
III. Dependent Variable
Several chemical materials are reported in different parts of carica papaya.
 Neck of the fruit
The Latex was chemically investigated and found that it was rich in
chymopapain and papain and the later is also known as vegetable pepsin.
 Leaves
Carica papaya was also investigated for its chemical known functions,
linamarase, protease inhibitors andchinitasescarpainewhich is known as
alkaloid. The leaves also contain glycoside carposide.
 Seeds
Contain myrosinae, caricinand sinigrin glycosides.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 A preliminary phytochemical analysis of the various parts ofCarica papaya
reveals that Carica could be used to treat several diseases such as tumors,
nervous pain, asthma and wounds.
 V. Summary
 This review paper presents Carica papaya as an important and promising
natural medicinal plant which could be utilized in several pharmaceutical and
medical applications because of its effectives, availability, and safety.
VI. Citation
ELGADIR, M. A., & ADAM1, A. (2013, July 29). CARICA PAPAYA AS A SOURCE OF
NATURAL MEDICINE AND ITS UTILIZATION IN SELECTED PHARMACETICAL
APPLICATIONS. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences,
883-884. Retrieved October 2, 2013

2. Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera seed as coagulant for water purification

I. Introduction
 The conventional method of water purification using aluminium sulphate
(alum) and calcium hypochlorite puts pressure on the nation’s over-burdened
financial resources since they are imported thereby making treated water very
expensive in most developing countries and beyond the reach of most rural
folks. Hence, they resort to sources such as dams, dug outs, streams, rivers,
and lakes. Water from these sources is usually turbid and contaminated with
microorganisms that cause many diseases including guinea worm and
bilharzias.
II. Independent Variable
 Moringa oleifera
Among all the plant materials that have been tested over the years, powder
processed from the seeds from Moringa oleifera has been shown to be one of
the most effective as a primary coagulant for water treatment and can be
compared to that of alum (conventional chemical coagulant) (Madsen et al.,
1987; Oslen, 1987; Postnote, 2002). It was inferred from their reports that the
powder has antimicrobial properties. Earlier studies have found Moringa to be
non-toxic (Grabow et al., 1985), and recommended it use as a coagulant in
developing countries (Barth et al., 1982; Bhole, 1987; Jahn, 1988; Müller,
1980) cited by Ndabigengesere et al. (1995) and Olsen (1987).
III. Dependent Variable
 It is in this light that this research was carried out to confirm the effectiveness
of powder extracted from mature-dried Moringa oleifera seeds which is
commonly available in most rural communities in Ghana. It is a well
established fact as proven in several publications that the quality parameters
of drinking water include its turbidity, conductivity, pH and microbial load.
The main objective of this study is to confirm the effectiveness of powder
processed from M. oleifera seeds as water coagulant.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 It is clearly seen that higher concentrations of Moringa powder of 12.0 g/1000
ml loading dose as coagulant gives similar effect on turbidity compared with
alum of loading doses of 10.0 g/1000 ml and 12.0 g/1000 ml. This shows that
 Moringa can be adopted for water purification. This is likely to lead to cost
reduction in the conventional water treatment using alum and no threat to
human life in case of overdose.
V. Summary
 The results obtained show that powder from seed kernels of M. oleifera
contains some coagulating properties at loading doses of 10 g/L and above
that have similar effect as the conventional coagulum, alum. This lends
support to earlier findings of the use of powder processed from Moringa seeds
as a coagulant in water purification system
VI. Citation
Amagloh, F. K., & Benang, A. (2009, February). Effectiveness of Moringa oleifera seed
as coagulant for water purification. African Journal of Agricultural Research,
Vol. 4 (1), 119-123. Retrieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/AJAR

3. Neem oil and crop protection: From now to the future

I. Introduction
 A major challenge of agriculture is to increase food production to meet the
needs of the growing world population, without damaging the environment.
Attention is increasingly being paid to the use of natural compounds (such as
essential oils) as a promising option to replace agrochemicals in agricultural
pest control.
II. Independent Variable
 Neem oil is extracted from the neem tree, AzadirachtaindicaJuss., a member
of the of the Meliaceaefamily that originates from the Indian subcontinent and
is now valued worldwide as an important source of pytochemicals for use in
human health and pest control. Neem oil contains at least 100 biologically
active compounds and has been proven to be useful in the medical and
cosmetic sectors. Furthermore, several studies have describes the action of
neem oil in specific group of insects: Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and
Hymenoptera.
III. Dependent Variables
 Azadirachtin
Among the constituents of the neem oil, azadirachtin,the main component of
neem oil, has been proven to cause 90% of the effect on most pests. This
enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the final step in conversion of ecdysone
to the active hormone,20-hydroxycedysone, which controls the insect
metamorphosis process. Therefore, developments of insect resistance would
be virtually impossible.
 Nanotechnology
From the point of view of sustainable agriculture, nanotechnology can help in
the development of environmentally friendly agricultural inputs, improving
the safety and stability of active agents, increasing their acceptance by
producers. Many studies have shown that the encapsulation of agrochemicals
 in nanoparticulate system can enhance the efficacy of the active ingredient,
and reduce losses due to volatilization, leaching, and photobleaching.
 Nanoparticles
The use of nanoparticles provides an effective means of protecting neem oil
against premature degradation, resulting in prolongation of its effect on the
target pest. Sustained release of this active agent is achieved, and
environmental damage is minimal.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 Given the importance of neem oil and its worldwide use for combating
numerous pests in different crops, the nanoencapsulation of this oil should
enable the production of more stable formulations for the control of insects
that damage crops, especially those that are essential for human consumption.
In addition. The use of nanotechnology is an excellent way to combat the
development of resistance in insects due to the indiscriminate use of neem oil.
V. Summary
 These features of neem oil support its contribution to organic agricultural
production systems that are more sustainable and do not generate chemical
residues. The study shows that neem oil has the potential to be used in crop
protection.
VI. Citation
De Oliveira, J. L., Pascoli, M., De Lima, R., & Fraceto, L. F. (2016, October 13). Neem
Oil and Crop Protection: From Now to the Future. Frontiers in Plant Science,
7, 1-8. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.01494

Literature Review That Build Bridges Between Related Topics

1. Biodiesel production by Enzymatic Transesterification of Papaya Seed Oil and

Rambutan Seed Oil

I. Introduction
 In recent years, it has been on growing importance to explore new energy
resources as substitutes to fossil fuels. Biodiesel appears as a recommended
energy mainly because biodiesel is renewable, biodegradable and non-toxic,
and its significantly reduces toxic and other emission when burned as a fuel.
II. Independent Variable
 Biodiesel can be derived from vegetable oil or animal oil. Papaya (Carica
papaya)and Rambutan (Nepheliumlapapaceum) are fruit plants that can grow
easily. In Malaysia, oils from the local fruit seeds of papaya and rambutan are
potential feedstock for biodiesel production due to their high lipid contents
and easily available.
III. Dependent Variable
 Candida rugods lipase
 Transesterification, a process applied to produce biodiesel, requires the
presence of catalyst to improve the reaction rate and yield. In this study,
Candida rugods lipase is used to ensure the potential of molar ratio or alcohol
to oil. The performance of immobilized enzyme as also compared with the
enzyme to study the effect of the enzyme immobilization on the biodiesel
production.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 The highest biodiesel yield for papaya seed oil and rambutan seed oil was
found to be 96% and 89% at methanol-to-oil ratios of 6:1 and 8:1;
respectively. Results also showed a higher biodiesel yield using Candida
rugods lipase on the magnetic particles as the heterogeneous catalyst
compared to the yield obtained using free enzyme as the homogeneous
catalyst.
V. Summary
 The properties of biodiesel such as density, acid value, iodine value and
cetane number were analyzed ant found to meet the European Standard of
Biodiesel. The study shows that papaya and rambutan seed oils have the
potential to be used as alternative feedstock for biodiesel production than the
full dependence on palm oil in Malaysia.
VI. Citation
Wong, C. S. (2014, December). Biodiesel Production by Enzymatic Transesterification of
Papaya Seed Oil and Rambutan Seed Oil. International Journal of Engineering and
Technology (IJET), 6(0975-4024), 2773-2777. Retrieved January, 2015.

2. Production of ethanol from Carica papaya (pawpaw) agro waste: effect of

saccharification and different treatments on ethanol yield.

I. Introduction
 Since the large quantities of pawpaw argo waste are available from plantations
cultivated for papain production, their disposal can be a problem. Here we
attempt to process the fruit waste into alcohol, which will have industrial
applications.
II. Independent Variable
 The study was carried out on yeast formation of carica papaya (pawpaw).
Caricapapaya (pawpaw) is one of the fruits commonly used as food and
medicine. The pawpaw considered as an agricultural waste was the tapped rice
pawpaw fruit harvested after the tapping of papain.
III. Dependent Variable
 Yeast
Fermentation was carried out on the sample by using two different yeasts
(baker’s and brewer’s). The effect of the concentration of the yeast on the
percentage alcohol yield was also investigated. Yeast supplements were added
and their effects in relation to the percentage ethanol yield were determined.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 A study was carried out on yeast fermentation of carica papaya (pawpaw)
agricultural waste using dried active baker’s yeast stain
(Sacchromycescerevisiae).
V. Summary
 The result of this work have shown that paw-paw argo waste could serve as
raw material for the production of biofuel, alcohol. The findings of this work
recommend that alcohol can be produced from pawpaw waste obtained as
papain by-product to maximize profit.
VI. Citation
AKIN-OSANAIYE, B. C., NZELIBE,, H. C., & AGBAJI,, A. S. (2005, March 23).
Production of ethanol from Carica papaya (pawpaw) agro waste: Effect of
saccharification and different treatments on ethanol yield. African
Journal of Biotechnology, Vol. 4 (7)(1684–5315), 657-659. Retrieved July,
2005, from http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB

3. Production of Bio-fuel from Crude Neem Oil and Its Performance

I. Introduction
 In the current energy scene of fossil fuel, renewable energy sources such as
biodiesel, bio-ethanol, bio-methane, and biomass from wastes or hydrogen
have become the subjects of great interest. These fuels contribute to the
reduction of dependence on fossil fuels. In addition, energy sources such as
these could partially replace the use of those fuels which are responsible for
environmental pollution and may be scarce in the future. For these reasons
they are known as “alternative fuels”. Vegetable oil cannot be directly used in
the diesel engine for its high viscosity, high density, high flash point and
lower calorific value. So it needs to be converted into biodiesel to make it
consistent with fuel properties of diesel. The growing demand for fuel and the
increasing concern for the environment due to the use of fossil fuel have led to
the increasing popularity of biofuel as a useful alternative and
environmentally friendly energy resource.
II. Independent Variable
 The contribution of neem as a source for biodiesel production will be of great
importance in the coming day. In India Neem tree is a widely grown up
termed as a divine tree due to its wide relevance in many areas of study. Neem
is a large tree growing about 25 m in height with semi-straight to straight
trunk, 3 m in girth and spreading branches forming a broad crown, starts
fruiting after 3-5 years. From the tenth year onwards it can produce up to 50
Kg of fruits annually. The tree has adaptability to a wide range of climatic,
topographic factors. It thrives well in dry, stony shallow soils and even on
soils having hard calcareous or clay pan, at a shallow depth. Neem tree
requires little water and plenty of sunlight and rainfall in the range of 450 to
1200 mm with wide temperature range of 0°C to 49°C. However, it has been
 introduced successfully even in areas where the rainfall is as low as 150 to
250 mm .It grows on almost all types of soil including clayey, saline and
alkaline soil, but does well on black cotton soils and deep well drained soil
with good sub-soil water.
III. Dependent Variable
 Transesterification
Transesterification is the reaction of a fat or oil with an alcohol to form esters
and glycerol. Alcohol combines with the triglycerides to form glycerol and
esters. A catalyst is usually used to improve the reaction rate and yield. Since
the reaction is reversible, excess alcohol is required to shift the equilibrium to
the product side. Among the alcohols that can be used in the
transesterification process are methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl
alcohol. Alkali-catalyzed transesterification much faster than acid-catalyzed
transesterification and is most often used commercially.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 This paper deals with Biodiesel production from neem oil, which is monoester
produced using transesterification process. It has high lubricity, clean burning
fuel and can be a fuel component for use in existing unmodified diesel engine.
The fuel properties of biodiesel including flash point-and fire point were
examined. The engine properties and pollutant emissions characteristics under
different biodiesel percentages were also studied. The results shows that the
biodiesel produced using neem oil could reduce Carbon monoxide and 426
Shruthi H Heroor& S.D. Rahul Bharadwaj smoke emissions significantly
while the Nitrogen oxide emission changed slightly.
V. Summary
 Based on the above study made on blend of neem oil and neem biodiesel
considering diesel parameters as base, Filtered neem oil (biodiesel) can be
substitute of diesel because the properties like calorific value, density and
viscosity are very much comparable with diesel.
VI. Citation
Heroor 1, S. H., & Rahul Bharadwaj2, S. D. (2013). Production of Bio-fuel from Crude
Neem Oil and its Performance. International Journal of Environmental
Engineering and Management, Volume 4(Number 5 (2013)), 425-432. Retrieved
from http://www.ripublication.com/ ijeem.ht

Literature Review That Identifies The Central Issues In The Field

1. Novel Production Of Biofuels From Neem Oil

I. Introduction
 Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae which
is abundantly grown in varied parts of India. The Neem grows on almost all
types of soils including clayey, saline and alkaline conditions. Neem seed
 obtained from this tree are collected, de-pulped, sun dried and crushed for oil
extraction.
II. Independent Variable
 Neem oil also contains steroids (campesterol, beta-sitosterol, stigma sterol)
and a plethora of triterpenoids of which Azadirachtin is the most widely
studied .This study is intended to consider aspects related to the feasibility of
the production of biodiesel from neem oil in attempt to produce biodiesel
using the abundantly grown tree naturally as the use of vegetable oils for
engine fuels seems insignificant at present day scenario.
III. Dependent Variable
 Biodiesel
Biodiesel thus obtained can be used in any compression ignition (diesel)
engines without the need of modification and is therefore a good substitute for
diesel fuel. The first documented commercial production of 471 rapeseed oil
methyl esters is reported to be in 1988. It possesses several distinct
advantages over petro-diesel in following safety, biodegradability and
environmental aspects
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 The raw neem oil has high moisture content and contains other impurities. In
order to remove the moisture and impurities from the neem oil it has to be
refined.

V. Summary
 Studies have been made using neem oil, a novel feedstock of obtaining
biodiesel which is renewable in nature. The effect of methanol to oil molar
ratio and acid & alkali catalyst transesterification were analyzed. The exhaust
emissions of neem oil blended biodiesel are studied.
VI. Citation
Radha, K. V., & Manikandan, G. (2011, May 13). Novel Production Of Biofuels From
Neem Oil. Bioenergy Technology, 472-478. Retrieved from
http://www.ep.liu.se/ecp/057/vol1/063/ecp57vol1_063.pdf

2. Biodiesel production from neem oil using two step transesterification

I. Introduction
  The biodiesel is an alternative feedstock for depletion of fossile fuel. It has
drived from renewable resources such as vegetable oil, which could either be
fresh or waste vegetable oil are find useful in Europe, America and Asia as a
feedstock in production of biodiesel, as a consequently, biodiesel derived from
a wide variety of sources can be used as a direct substitute for petro-diesel
fuels.
II. Independent Variable
 Neem tree is evergreen tree growing in almost every state of India. It is native
to Indian subcontinent, South_East Asian countries and it grows all over
India.It grows in all kinds of soil and in drier areas. Neem oil have high free
fatty acid value which is accompanied with moisture content and some other
impuritiest, this two have prime effect on the trans-esterification of glycerides
with alcohol using catalyst.
III. Dependent Variable
 Oil filtration
In order to remove the moisture and impurities from the neem oil it should
be refined.
 Alkaline transesterification
The impure biodiesel remain in upper layer.It contains some trace of catalyst,
glycerol and methanol.The washing process can be done by the 3/4 th of hot
distilled water added with methyl ester and gently stirred.The upper layer is
pure biodiesel and lower layer is drawn off.
 Acid esterification
The excess alcohol, sulphuric acid and impurities moves to the top layer and
its discarded. The lower layer is separated for further processing of
transesterified into methyl ester. This process reduces the acid value of refined
neem oil to less than 1% of FFA.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 Molar ratio is very important factor for transesterificatin reaction.
Theoritically, transesterification reaction requires 3 moles of alcohol for each
mole of oil.However, in practically molar ratio should be higher than
stoichiometric ratio.The higher molar ratio is required for complete the
reaction at higher rate. In lower molar ratio,it takes longer duration for
complete the reaction.
V. Summary
 The high FFA (6%) content neem oil has been investigated for the biodiesel
production .It has been found that the feedstock with high FFA its couldnot be
transesterified with alkaline catalyst because the alkaline catalyst react with
FFA to form soap.So in this study,two step process was developed to convert
FFA to its methyl ester.
VI. Citation
Sathya, T., & Manivannan2, A. (2013, May/June). Biodiesel production from neem oil
using two step transesterification. International Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications, 3(3), 488-492. Retrieved from
http://www.ijera.com/papers/Vol3_issue3/CD33488492.pdf
3. Production of biofuel by using micro algae (Botryococcus braunii)
I. Introduction
 Microalgae are sunlight driven cell factories that convert carbondioxide to
potential biofuels. The micro algae culture Botryococcusbraunii was obtained
from Algae Depot, USA and was maintained in Chu 13 medium. Further, the
culture was mass produced in a specially designed photo bioreactor. The
physical and environmental factors were established for the proper growth of
the culture. Algal oil was extracted using Soxhlet apparatus through repeated
washing or percolation with organic solvent such as hexane and petroleum
ether for the 5weeks old culture. The final concentrated compound was
separated using aqueous two phase extraction by mixing two incompatible
polymers. Then it was purified and subjected to gas chromatography for the
analysis. The growth of the culture in a fabricated photo bioreactor was found
to be best at a temperature of 23 oC, a light intensity of 60 W/M2 , with a light
period of 12 hours per day, and a salinity of 0.15 molar NaCl and a pH of 7.5.
In the laboratory, B.braunii is commonly grown in cultures of Chu-13 media.
The cell growth reached a maximum of 1.2g L-1 for B.braunii after 3 weeks in
flasks. The growth was however higher in bubble column photobioreactor
reaching a maximum of 4.1g L-1.
II. Independent Variable
 Botryococcusbraunii The green colonial hydrocarbon rich unicellular
microalgae Botryococcusbraunii (Banerjee et al., .2002; Metzger and Largeau,
2005) is widespread in freshwater, brackish lakes, reservoirs and ponds. It is
also widely distributed in reservoirs at temperate, tropical and arctic latitudes
(Tyson, 1995). It is recognized as one of the potent renewable resource for the
production of liquid hydrocarbons.
III. Dependent Variable
 Photobioreactor
The 3 weeks old culture obtained from the shake flask was inoculated into
bubble column photobioreactor specially designed for the present
investigation. The bubble column photobioreactor consisted of two circular
concentric glass columns of 30mm inside diameter and 65mm outside
diameter. Height of 726 and 711mm/ the nominal working of 4.0L. The
dispersion system for the reactor consisted of a 1.5cm diameter air diffuser
located at the center of the column. The culture was exposed to the natural day
and night photoperiod and red blue light of different wavelengths for the
growth rate studies. The culture environment was maintained to a temperature
of 23oC, a light intensity of 60 W/M2 ,with a light period of 12 hours per day,
and a salinity of 0.15 molar NaCl at pH of 7.5. The supplement of CO2 to the
culture would enhance the growth of the algae so, the photobioreactor was
designed to supplement at a high rate of 1.5 litres/min air supply through an
air sprayer/air stone to create a forced stress on the algae for exchange of gas.
 Lipids
 The lipid extraction was done by using Bligh and Dyer method 1.0g of the
freeze- dried preparation was homogenized in 30ml of chloroform- methanol-
water (1:2:0.8, v/v) with a Waring blender, and lipids were extracted after
addition of 30 ml each of chloroform and water. The homogenate was filtered
through Whatmann filter paper no. 2 on a Buchner funnel. It was repeated for
three times and the chloroform layer was evaporated by keeping on a water
bath to dryness and total lipids were measured gravimetrically. The silica gel
column supplied by Amil was (Ixl5cm) packed with silica gel using 250ml of
hexane, 150ml of chloroform, and 150ml of methanol to isolate hydrocarbons,
nonpolar lipids except hydrocarbons and polar lipids, respectively to
fractionation of total lipids. The isolated lipids in each eluate were measured
gravimetrically after evaporation of the solvent.
IV. Independent and Dependent Variable
 Algae efficiently use CO2, and are responsible for more than 40% of the
global carbon fixation. Thus this investigation was undertaken to Grow the
cultures of Botryococcusbraunii in photobioreactor and for the Biofuels
Production.
 There was no separation of aqueous and organic phases when it was left
undistributed after stirring slowly for 30minutes. The production of biodiesel
by esterification was not possible for the Botryococcusbraunii oil and it was
later studied Aquatic Species Program (ASP) report that the Botryococcus oils
are not fatty acid trigycerides but they are triterpenes and they lack the free
oxygen atom needed for esterification process. Later the Botryococcus oil was
used as a feedstock for hydrocracking. In conclusion, the biomass yielded in a
bubble column photobioreactor system. Subjected to extractive fermentation,
for the lipid content and methanol production was found to be successful in
production of biofuel from the microalgae Botryococcusbraunii.
V. Summary
 Microalgae are photosynthetic, heterotrophic organisms that have an
extraordinary potential for cultivation as energy crops. Microalgae are
potential source of biomass, which may have great biodiversity and
consequent variability in their biochemical composition (Satyanarayana et al.,
2011). Under difficult agro-climatic conditions and are able to produce a wide
range of commercially interesting byproducts such as fats, oils, sugars and
functional bioactive compounds (Erika C Francisco et al., 2010)
 The biomass yielded in a bubble column photobioreactor system. Subjected to
extractive fermentation, for the lipid content and methanol production was
found to be successful in production of biofuel from the microalgae
Botryococcusbraunii
VI. Citation
Nagaraja, Y. P., Biradar, C., Manasa, K. S., & Venkatesh, H. S. (2014). Production of
biofuel by using micro algae (Botryococcus braunii). International Journal of
Current Microbiology and Applied Science, 3(4), 851-860. Retrieved
from http://www.ijcmas.com