Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Province of Laguna

Prepared by: Mark David B. Opelinia, ME

Part Time Instructor LSPU-SCC
Mechanical Engineering Department
TOPIC 1: STEAM BOILER
– A steam boiler is a closed vessel, generally made of steel, in
which water is heated by some source of heat produced by
combustion of fuel and ultimately to generate steam. The
steam produced may be supplied at low pressure for industrial
process work in cotton mills, sugar industries etc. and for
producing hot water which can be used for heating installations
at much low pressure.
– Logically a steam boiler should have a minimum capacity of
containing 10 liters of water and its minimum working pressure
should be 3.4 𝐾𝑔𝑓/𝑐𝑚2.
STEAM
– Steam is the gas formed when water
passes from the liquid to the gaseous
state. At the molecular level, this is
when 𝐻2 𝑂 molecules manage to break
free from the bonds (i.e. hydrogen
bonds) keeping them together. In liquid
water, 𝐻2 𝑂 molecules are constantly
being joined together and separated.
As the water molecules are heated, (https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-is-hot-water-foggy)

however, the bonds connecting the

molecules start breaking more rapidly
than they can form.
– Eventually, when enough heat is supplied, some molecules will
break free. These 'free' molecules form the transparent gas we
know as steam, or more specifically dry steam.
– Steam is used in a wide range of industries. Common
applications for steam are, for example, steam heated
processes in plants and factories and steam driven turbines in
electric power plants, but the uses of steam in industry extend
far beyond this.
BOILER PROPERTIES
– Safety: the boiler should be safe under the operating conditions.
– Accessibility: the various part of boiler should be accessible for
repair and maintenance.
– Efficiency: Should be able to absorb a maximum amount of heat
produced due to burning of fuel in the furnace..
– Capacity: Should be capable of supplying Steam according to
requirements.
– It should be simple in construction.
– Its initial cost and maintenance cost is low.
– It should be capable of quick starting and loading.
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILER

• Boilers can be classified in a number of ways, but the

following are important from the subject point of view:
• 1. Horizontal, vertical and inclined boilers
• 2. Stationary, portable and marine boilers
• 3. Water tube and fire tube boilers
• 4. Single tube and multi tube boilers
• 5. Internally fired and externally fired boilers
• 6. Naturally circulated and forced circulated boilers
• 7. Source of heat (solid fuel, liquid and gaseous fuel, electrical and
nuclear energy)
• 8. Low pressure, medium pressure and high pressure boilers
• 1. Horizontal, Vertical or Inclined
– If the axis of boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called horizontal
– If the axis of boiler is vertical then it is called vertical
– if the axis of boiler is inclined then it is called inclined
– Advantages of horizontal boiler:
a. it should be repaired easily
b. occupies less floor area
• 2. Stationary, Portable and Marine Boiler
– Stationary boilers, the very large boilers used in power
generating stations, operate at high pressure and are invariably
of the water-tube type.

– Portable Boiler is an internally fired boiler which is self

contained and primarily intended for temporary location and the
construction and usage is obviously portable.

– Marine boilers are usually of the two-drum water-tube type with

water cooled furnaces and heat recovery equipment of the
economizer or air-heater type.
• 3. Fire Tube and Water Tube Boiler
– In the fire tube boiler the hot gas are inside the tubes and
the water surrounds in the tube.
ex. Cochran, Locomotive etc.

– In the water tube boiler the water is inside the tube and the hot
gases are surround them
ex. Stirling
• 4. Single Tube and Multi Tube Boiler
– The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi tube
boilers, depending upon the fire tube is one more than one.
ex. Cornish Boiler
• 5. Externally and Internally Fired
– The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the
shell.
ex. Babcock and Wilcox

– In case of internally fired boilers, the furnace is located inside

the boiler shell.
ex. Cochran, Lancashire etc.
• 6. Forced Circulation and Natural Circulation
– In forced circulation type of boilers the circulation of water is
done by forced pump
ex. Velox, Lamont

– In natural circulation type of boiler the circulation of water in

boiler takes place due to natural convention
ex. Lancashire, Babcock
• 7. Source of Heat
• Solid fuel boiler utilizing wood, corn cob and rice straw, rice husk and
sawdust. High efficiency. Stable operation. Types: Coal fired boiler,
Biomass boiler, Power plant boiler.
• Liquid fuelled fireboxes are composed of Liquid Fueled Firebox
blocks. They consume most liquid or fluid fuels, including Creosote Oil.
A Coke Oven that is burning wood logs as fuel produces enough
creosote to continuously fuel a single 1𝑥2𝑥1 Steam Boiler, and two or
three 1𝑥2𝑥1 steam boilers if it is burning coal.
• Gas boilers and furnaces can be fueled by either natural gas or
propane with simple modifications accounting for the different
characteristics of the fuels. Propane is usually more expensive as a
fuel, but is available throughout the United States. Natural gas supplies
depend on having a natural gas distribution system in your area, and
areas at the end of the pipeline (such as the Northeast) tend to pay
higher prices for natural gas.
• 8. High Pressure and Low Pressure Boilers
– The boilers which produce steam at pressure of 80bar and
above are called high pressure boiler
ex. Velox

– The boiler which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are

called low pressure boiler
ex. Cochran
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FIRE TUBE AND WATER TUBE
BOILER
FIRE TUBE BOILER
In this boiler the hot flue gases is present
inside the tubes and water surrounds
them.
They are low pressure boilers. The
operating pressure is about 25 bar
WATER TUBE BOILER
The water is present inside the tubes
and the hot flue gases surrounds them
They are high pressure boilers and the
operating pressure is about 165 bar

The steam generation rate in fire tube Steam generation rate in water tube
boiler is low, i.e.9 tonne per hour boiler is high i.e. 450 tonne per hour

For a given power the floor area required The floor area required for the steam
for steam generation is more i.e. 8 m2 per generation is less, i.e. 5 m2 per tonne
tonne per hour per hour
 FIRE TUBE BOILER WATER TUBE BOILER
The transportation and erection in this type The transportation and erection is easy
of boiler is difficult as its parts can be separated

The overall efficiency of this boiler is upto The overall efficiency is upto 90% with
75% the economizer

It can works on fluctuating loads for shorter It works on fluctuating loads all the times
period of time

The direction of water circulation in fire tube The direction of water circulation in water
boiler is not well defined tube boiler is well defined i.e. a definite
path is provided for the circulation of
water
 FIRE TUBE BOILER WATER TUBE BOILER
Operating cost is low Operating cost is high

Bursting chance is less in fire tube boiler Bursting chance in water tube boiler is
more

Due to bursting, there is a greater risk to the The bursting in this boiler does not
damage to the boiler produce any major destruction to the
whole boiler
It can be operated with less skilled person A skilled person is required to operate
this boiler
 FIRE TUBE BOILER WATER TUBE BOILER
Low maintenance cost High maintenance cost

They are light in weight They are heavy in weight

It is suitable for small power plant It is suitable for large power plant
TYPES OF FIRE TUBE BOILERS

• There are mainly five types of fire tube boilers:

1. Simple Vertical Boiler

2. Cochran Boiler
3. Cornish Boiler
4.Lancashire Boiler
5. Locomotive Boiler
• Simple Vertical Boiler
– It consist of a cylindrical shell, the
greater portion of which is full of
water and remaining is the steam
space.
– At the bottom of the fire box is
grate on which fuel is brunt and
the ash from it falls in the ash pit
– A simple vertical boiler is self-
(https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/626985579347809720)/

contained and can be easily

transported.
• Cochran Boiler
– It is one of the best
types of vertical multi-
tubular boiler, and has
a number of horizontal
fir tubes.
– It consists of a
cylindrical shell with a
dome shaped top (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cochran_boiler,_A
bbey_pumping_station,_Leicester.jpg)

where the space is (https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2017/02/cochr

an-boiler.html)

provided for steam.

• Cornish Boiler
– is a fire tube boiler. It was first adapted by Richard Trevithick’s
and, first installed at Dolcoath mine in the year of 1812. This
boiler has a long horizontal cylinder with a single large flue
containing the fire. Cornish boiler design has similarity with the
Lancashire Boiler.

(https://www.green-mechanic.com/2014/08/cornish-boiler.html)
• Lancashire Boiler
– is a horizontal type and stationary fire tube boiler. This boiler
was invented in the year 1844, by William Fairbairn. This is an
internally fired boiler because the furnace uses to present
inside the boiler. This boiler generates low-pressure steam and
it is natural circulation boiler. It has high thermal efficiency of
about 80 to 90 percent. The size is approximately 7 - 9 meters
in length and 2 - 3 meters in diameter. It is mostly used in
locomotive engines and marine etc.
 (http://mechanical-engineering-info.blogspot.com/2012/01/lancashire-boiler.html)

(https://www.theengineerspost.com/lancashire-boiler/)
• Locomotive Boilers
– is a horizontal fire tube type mobile boiler. The main
requirement of this boiler is that it should produce steam at a
very high rate. Therefore, this boiler requires a large amount of
heating surface and large grate area to burn coal at a rapid
rate. In order to provide the large heating surface area, a large
number of fire tubes are setup and heat transfer rate is
increased by creating strong draught by means of steam jet.
 (https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/716494621942386728/)

(https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/615937686514439028/)
WATER TUBE BOILER CLASSIFICATIONS

• 1. Horizontal Straight Tube Boiler

– There are two types of Horizontal Straight Tube Boiler;
a. Longitudinal Drum
b. Cross Drum
there are three types of cross drum boiler;
1. Two Drum
2. Four Drum
3. Three Drum
 (https://www.electrical4u.com/water-tube-boiler-operation-and-types-of-water-tube-boiler/)
(https://www.electrical4u.com/water-tube-boiler-operation-and-types-
of-water-tube-boiler/)
• 2. Bent Tube Boiler
there are one type of bent
tube boiler;
a. Low Head Three Drum

(https://www.electrical4u.com/water-tube-boiler-operation-and-types-of-water-tube-boiler/)
DEFINITIONS OF BOILER

• 1. POWER BOILER - is a closed vessel in which steam

or other vapor (to be used externally to itself) is generated
at a pressure of more than 1.055kg/cm2 gage by the
direct application of heat.
• 2. PORTABLE BOILER - is an internally fired boiler which
is self contained and primarily intended for temporary
location and the construction and usage is obviously
portable.
• 3. LOCOMOTIVE BOILER - is a boiler mounted on a self
propelled track locomotive and used to furnish motivating
power travelling on rails. It does not include locomotive
cranes, tractors, or other self-propelled apparatus.
Locomotive boilers however if dismantled from locomotive
and reinstalled for stationary use are not included in this
definition.
• 4. MINIATURE BOILER - is any boiler which does not
exceed any of the following limits: 405mm inside
diameter, 1065 mm overall length of outside of heads at
center 1.85 mm of water heating surface, 7.03 kg/cm2
maximum allowable working pressure.
• 5. LOW PRESSURE HEATING BOILER - is a boiler
furnishing hot water to be used externally to itself.
• 6. UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSEL - is a vessel in which
pressure is obtained from an external sources or from an
indirect application of heat.
• 7. REINSTALLED BOILER - is a boiler removed from its
original setting and re-erected at the same location or
erected at location without change of ownership.
• 8. HOT WATER SUPPLY BOILER - is a boiler furnishing
hot water to be used externally to itself.
• 9. SECOND HAND BOILER - is a boiler of which both the
location and ownership have been changed after primary
use.
• 10. CONDEMNED BOILER - is a boiler that has been
inspected and declared unsafe to operate or disqualified
stamped and marked indicating its rejection by qualified
inspecting authority.
BOILERS AND ITS ACCESSORIES
• AIR PREHEATER - is a
heat exchanger which
utilizes the heat of the flue
gases to preheat the air
needed for combustion.
• BAFFLES - a device that
direct the flow of the hot
gases to effect efficient
heat transfer between the
hot gases and the heated (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Air-preheater-layout-showing-air-movement-

water. 31_fig3_324811679)
• BLOWDOWN VALVE - is
a valve through which the
impurities that settle in the
mud drum are removed.

(https://www.matgroup.com.tr/mat-pipe/material-supply/)
• BREECHING - is the duct
that connects the boiler
and chimney.

(http://emgindustrialchimney.com/breeching/)
• BURNER - is the
combustion equipment for
firing liquid and gaseous
fuels.

(https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/steam-boiler-burner-16054585455.html)
• DRAFT FANS (INDUCED
DRAFT AND FORCED
DRAFT) - are devices
used to supply air needed
for the combustion and
create the draft required
for the flow of gases in the
boiler.

(http://www.triveniboilers.com/induced-draft-fans.html)
• ECONOMIZER - is a feed
water preheating device
which utilizes the heat of
the flue gases.

(https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/High-quality-Boiler-
Economizer_548015831.html)
• FEED WATER HEATER -
is the preheating device
which utilizes steam mixed
and the feed water.

(https://www.fluiddynamics.com.au/case-studies-1/feedwater-heaters)

(https://www.tubos.in/feedwater-heater-tubes-manufacturer.html)
• FEED WATER PUMP - is
a device used to deliver
water into the boiler.

(https://www.sintechpumps.com/pumps/boiler-feed-pumps-selection-guide/)
• FURNACE - a device that
encloses the combustion
equipment so that the heat
generated will be utilized
effectively.

(http://geoffcastles.co.uk/boiler-sales/boiler-sales/thermax-twin-
furnace-steam-boiler/)
• FUSIBLE PLUG - is a
metal plug with a definite
melting point through
which the steam is
released in case of
excessive temperature
which is usually caused by
low water level. (https://www.boilermountings.com/)
• GAGE GLASS (WATER
COLUMN) - a device that
indicates the water level
existing in the boiler.

(https://inspectapedia.com/heat/Steam_Boiler_Sight_
Glass.php)

(https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-safety-on-gauge-glass-
of-marine-boiler)
• PRESSURE GAGE - is a
device that indicates the
pressure of the steam in
the boiler.

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Virginia_V_(ship,_192
2)_engine_room_16__Babcock_%26_Wilcox_pressure_gauge
_on_boiler.jpg)
• SAFETY VALVE - is a
safety device that
indicates the pressure of
the steam in the boiler.

(https://dieselship.com/marine-technical-articles/marine-engineering-
knowledge-general/marine-boilers/boiler-easing-gear/)
• SOOT BLOWER - is a
device which uses steam
or compressed air to
remove the soot that has
accumulated in the boiler
tubes and drums.

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wm6SMTpgzF4)
• TEMPERATURE GAGE -
is a device that indicates
the temperature of the
steam in the boiler.

(https://giw.ksb.com/blog/boiler-feed-water-pump-local-instrumentation-
necessity-or-nuisance)
• WATER WALLS - are
water tubes installed in the
furnace to protect the
furnace against high
temperature and also
serve as extension of heat
transfer area for the feed
water. (https://in.pinterest.com/pin/351280839662116738/)
• BOILER TERMINOLOGY
• MCR: Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR
(Maximum Continuous Rating). This is the maximum evaporation rate
that can be sustained for 24 hours and may be less than a shorter
duration maximum rating
• Boiler Rating - Conventionally, boilers are specified by their capacity
to hold water and the steam generation rate. Often, the capacity to
generate steam is specified in terms of equivalent evaporation (kg of
steam / hour at 100oC). Equivalent evaporation- “from and at” 100oC.
The equivalent of the evaporation of 1 kg of water at 100oC to steam at
100oC.
• Efficiency : In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of
efficiency:
– a. Combustion efficiency - Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the
burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn the fuel. The boiler has
little bearing on combustion efficiency. A well-designed burner will operate with as
little as 15 to 20% excess air, while converting all combustibles in the fuel to
useful energy.
– b. Thermal efficiency - Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat
transfer in a boiler. It does not take into account boiler radiation and convection
losses – for example from the boiler shell water column piping etc.
– c. Boiler efficiency - The term boiler efficiency is often substituted for
combustion or thermal efficiency. True boiler efficiency is the measure of fuel to
steam efficiency.
– d. Fuel to steam efficiency - Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either
of the two methods as prescribed by the ASME (American Society for Mechanical
Engineers) power test code. The first method is input output method. The second
method is heat loss method.
• Boiler turndown - Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler
output and the boiler output when operating at low fire. Typical boiler
turndown is 4:1. The ability of the boiler to turndown reduces frequent
on and off cycling. Fully modulating burners are typically designed to
operate down to 25% of rated capacity. At a load that is 20% of the load
capacity, the boiler will turn off and cycle frequently.
*Keeping the boiler on at low firing rates can eliminate the energy loss.
• Primary air: That part of the air supply to a combustion system which
the fuel first encounters.
• Secondary air: The second stage of admission of air to a combustion
system, generally to complete combustion initiated by the primary air. It
can be injected into the furnace of a boiler under relatively high
pressure when firing solid fuels in order to create turbulence above the
burning fuel to ensure good mixing with the gases produced in the
combustion process and thereby complete combustion
• Tertiary air: A third stage of admission of air to a combustion system,
the reactions of which have largely been completed by secondary air.
Tertiary air is rarely needed.
• Stoichiometric: In combustion technology, stoichiometric air is that
quantity of air, and no more, which is theoretically needed to burn
completely a unit quantity of fuel. ‘Sub-stoichiometric’ refers to the
partial combustion of fuel in a deficiency of air
• Balanced draught: The condition achieved when the pressure of the
gas in a furnace is the same as or slightly below that of the atmosphere
in the enclosure or building housing it.
• Gross calorific value (GCV): The amount of heat liberated by the
complete combustion, under specified conditions, by a unit volume of a
gas or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of
which the water produced by combustion of the fuel is assumed to be
completely condensed and its latent and sensible heat made available.
• Net calorific value (NCV): The amount of heat generated by the
complete combustion, under specified conditions, by a unit volume of a
gas or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the determination of
which the water produced by the combustion of the fuel is assumed to
remain as vapour.
• Absolute pressure - The sum of the gauge and the atmospheric
pressure. For instance, if the steam gauge on the boiler shows 9
kg/cm2g the absolute pressure of the steam is 10 kg/cm2(a).
• Atmospheric pressure - The pressure due to the weight of the
atmosphere. It is expressed in pounds per sq. in. or inches of mercury
column or kg/cm2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 lbs./ sq.
inch. or 30 inch mercury column or 760mm of mercury (mm Hg) or
101.325 kilo Pascal (kPa).
• Carbon monoxide (CO): Produced from any source that burns fuel
with incomplete combustion, causes chest pain in heart patients,
headaches and reduced mental alertness.
• Blow down: The removal of some quantity of water from the boiler in
order to achieve an acceptable concentration of dissolved and
suspended solids in the boiler water.
• Complete combustion: The complete oxidation of the fuel, regardless
of whether it is accomplished with an excess amount of oxygen or air,
or just the theoretical amount required for perfect combustion.
• Perfect combustion: The complete oxidation of the fuel, with the exact
theoretical (stoichiometric) amount of oxygen (air) required.
• Saturated steam: It is the steam, whose temperature is equal to the
boiling point corresponding to that pressure.
• Wet Steam: Saturated steam which contains moisture
• Dry Steam: Either saturated or superheated steam containing no
moisture.
• Superheated Steam: Steam heated to a temperature above the boiling
point or saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure
• Oxygen trim sensor measures flue gas oxygen and a closed loop
controller compares the actual oxygen level to the desired oxygen
level. The air (or fuel) flow is trimmed by the controller until the oxygen
level is corrected. The desired oxygen level for each firing rate must be
entered into a characterized set point curve generator. Oxygen Trim
maintains the lowest possible burner excess air level from low to high
fire. Burners that don’t have Oxygen Trim must run with Extra Excess
Air to allow safe operation during variations in weather, fuel, and
linkage.
• Heat transfer mediums - There are different types of heat transfer
medium e.g. steam, hot water and thermal oil. Steam and Hot water
are most common and it will be valuable to briefly examine these
common heat transfer mediums and associated properties.
• Thermic Fluid is used as a heat transfer mechanism in some industrial
process and heating applications. Thermic Fluid may be a vegetable or
mineral based oil and the oil may be raised to a high temperature
without the need for any pressurization. The relatively high flow and
return temperatures may limit the potential for flue gas heat recovery
unless some other system can absorb this heat usefully. Careful design
and selection is required to achieve best energy efficiency.
• Hot water - Water is a fluid with medium density, high specific heat
capacity, low viscosity and relatively low thermal conductivity. At
relatively low temperature e.g. 70oC-90oC, hot water is useful for
smaller heating installations.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF BOILERS
• Boilers use a combination of radiation, convection, and conduction to
convert heat energy into steam energy. Proper boiler operation
depends on controlling many variables, including boiler feedwater
quality, water flow and level in the boiler, furnace temperatures and
pressures, burner efficiency, and air flow.

Boilers use the principle of differential density when it comes

to fluid circulation. For boilers to work properly, they must
have adequate amounts of heat and water flow. Factors
that affect boiler operation include pressure, temperature,
water level, and differences in water density. As fluid is
heated, the molecules expand and the fluid becomes less
dense. When cooler, denser water is added to hot water,
convective currents are created that facilitate
water circulation and mixing.
• Water Circulation
• The circulation of boiler water is based on
the principle of convection. A fluid that is
heated expands and becomes less dense,
moving upward through heavier, denser
fluid. Convection and conduction transfer
heat through pipe walls and water currents,
resulting in unequal densities. Cold water
flows through the downcomer to the bottom
of the mud drum and then flows upward
through the riser (water wall tubes) as it is
heated.
• Superheated Steam
• Saturated steam is steam in equilibrium with water (e.g., steam that
holds all of the moisture it can hold and still remain a vapor). Saturated
steam can be used to purge process equipment or perform other
functions, or it can be superheated.
• As long as the steam and water are in contact with each other, the
steam is in a saturated condition. Saturated steam cannot absorb
additional water vapor, but the boiler can continue to add heat energy
to it. Steam that continues to take on heat energy or get hotter is known
as superheated steam.
• Superheated steam, which is produced downstream of the steam
drum (typically in the firebox), is steam that has been heated to a
temperature above its saturated temperature. Superheated steam is
typically 200 to 300 degrees F (93 to 149 degrees C) hotter than
saturated steam. Typical uses for superheated steam include:
– Driving turbines
– Catalytic cracking
– Product stripping
– Maintenance of steam pressures and temperatures over long distances
– Producing steam for systems that require dry, moisture-free steam.
• Desuperheated Steam
• Superheated steam might not be the best choice for heat transfer in
some heat exchangers because the amount of energy given up by
superheated steam is relatively small compared to the energy given up
by saturated steam. Also, some facility processes cannot tolerate the
high temperatures of superheated steam. The process of cooling the
superheated steam is called desuperheating. Desuperheated steam is
superheated steam from which some heat has been removed by the
reintroduction of boiler feedwater. Typically, desuperheating does not
occur at the boiler but at specific points in the process where boiler
feedwater is injected into superheated steam.
• Boiler Feedwater
• Boiler feedwater levels and flows are critical to proper boiler operation.
If feedwater flow is reduced and the water level decreases to the point
where the boiler runs dry, the tubes will overheat and fail. If the boiler
water level becomes too high, excess water will be carried over into the
steam distribution system. This negatively affects process facility steam
consumers and can damage turbines and other equipment.
• During the boiling process, most suspended solids stay in the water
section of the drum while steam is sent to the distribution system.
Suspended solids are removed from the steam drum by sending a
small amount of the feedwater, called continuous blowdown, to a
blowdown tank. This continuous blowdown is usually released to a
waste water treatment processing unit. Boilers utilize both continuous
and intermittent blowdown systems to remove suspended solids from
the steam drum and solids that have settled from the mud drum.
Blowdowns limit the scale buildup that can negatively affect turbine
blades and superheater tubes.
• Feedwater must be free of contaminants that could affect boiler
operation. As a general rule, the higher the steam pressure, the stricter
the feedwater quality requirements will be. Important feedwater
parameters include pH (alkalinity or acidity of the water), hardness
(amount of mineral content in the water), oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentration, presence of silicates, dissolved or suspended solids,
and concentration of organics. Water treatment techniques include
reverse osmosis, ion exchange, deaeration, membrane contactors, and
electrode ionization or demineralization.
• Water Treatment Methods
• Raw water can come from a variety of sources, such as lakes, rivers, or
wells. Each water source has its own components and treatment
requirements. In general, however, the water chemistry required for
steam production must meet standards. The water needs to be filtered
and have minerals and oxygen removed. Raw water goes through the
following steps to become boiler feedwater.
• 1. Clean the water. This step removes suspended solids. Depending
on water source this could include:
– a. Coagulation/sedimentation
– b. Filtration

Coagulation adds chemicals to reduce coarse suspended solids, silt, turbidity, and colloids
through the use of a clarifier. The impurities gather together into larger particles
and settle out of the chemical/water solution (sedimentation).

Filtration removes coarse suspended matter and sludge from coagulation or from
water softening systems. Gravel beds and anthracite coal are common materials used
for filter beds.
 • 2. Remove minerals. This step is done to the clean water (from step 1)
to remove minerals that could build up on steam turbines or other
process equipment. Depending on the water source, this step could be
one or more of these processes:
– a. Softening
– b. Demineralization (ion exchange)
– c. Reverse osmosis (membrane)

Softening is the treatment of water to remove dissolved mineral salts such as calcium and
magnesium, known as hardness, in boiler feedwater. Softening methods include the addition of
calcium carbonate (lime soda), phosphate, and/or zeolites (crystalline mineral compounds).
Demineralization is the removal of ionized mineral salts by ion exchange. The process is also called
deionization, and the water produced is called deionized water.
Reverse osmosis uses pressure to remove dissolved solids from boiler feedwater by
forcing the water from a more concentrated solution through a semipermeable membrane to a less
concentrated solution.
• 3. Remove the oxygen. Dissolved oxygen and other gases (primarily
𝐶𝑂2 ) in boiler feedwater are major causes of boiler system corrosion.
While oxygen results in localized corrosion (pitting), 𝐶𝑂2 forms carbonic
acid and damages condensate piping. This step could include:
– a. Deaeration
– b. Oxygen scavenging

Deaeration removes oxygen or other gases from boiler feedwater by

increasing the temperature, using steam, to strip out the dissolved
gases.
• Specific terms describe the water as it moves through these steps.
Water starts as raw water and becomes demineralized water, then
deaerated water, and finally boiler feedwater.
• Steam that has been condensed (condensate) is already clean and can
be fed back into the system at the deaerator. This saves the cost of
treating more raw water, making it practical to recycle any used steam
condensate.
• Burner Fuel
• Boilers use a single fuel or a combination of fuels, including refinery
gas, natural gas, fuel oil, and powdered coal. In some complexes,
scrubbed off-gases are collected from process units and combined with
natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas in a fuelgas balance drum. The
balance drum establishes a constant system pressure and fairly stable
BTU (British thermal unit) content. It also provides for separation of
suspended liquids in the gas vapors to prevent large slugs of liquid
from being carried over into the fuel distribution system.
• As the scrubbed gases enter the balance drum, heavier liquids fall to
the bottom along with any gases that have condensed into liquid. The
lighter gas leaves the top of the balance drum and goes to the fuel
distribution system. The fuel oil system delivers fuel to the boiler at the
required temperatures and pressures. The fuel oil is heated to pumping
temperature, sent through a coarse suction strainer, pumped to a
temperature-control heater, and then pumped through a fine mesh
strainer before being burned.
INTRODUCTION OF FUEL FOR BOILER

• The fuel is substance containing combustible elements

which on combining with oxygen generate heat. In other
words, any material that can be burned to release thermal
energy is called a fuel. It is further defined as the source
of heat energy which is released in a reactive system by
chemical reaction.
• A fuel is a substance which belongs to the hydrocarbon
family in which main constituents are carbon and
hydrogen. Also have sulphur and non combustible
substance like nitrogen, water vapour and ash.
– Fuel can be defined as the source of heat energy which is
released in a reactive system by chemical reaction
– Fuel represents a combustible substance which one raised to
ignition temperature, continues to burn without any external
support, provided a sufficient quantity of oxygen is available for
combustion. Example: Wood, Coal, Petrol Diesel, Producer
gas, oil gas etc.
• The fuels may be classified as:
1. Solid Fuel
2. Liquid Fuel
3. Gaseous Fuel
• Solid Fuel
– Natural Solid: Wood and coals (Peat, lignite, Bituminous,
Anthracite)

(https://byjus.com/chemistry/formation-of-fossil-fuels/)
– Artificial: Char coal, Coke, Pulverized Coal, Bagasse

(https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Pulverized-coal-
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charcoal) (https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/568368415444355389/)
in-0-5mm_62485891957.html)

(https://www.britannica.com/technology/bagasse)
• Coal: Coal is high carbonaceous matter that has been formed. It
contains varying amount of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur,
moisture and ash. The coals are recognized on the basis of rank.

(https://www.minexforum.com/en/tag/coal/)
• Peat coal, lignite coal, Sub-Bituminous coal, Bituminous coal, Semi-
Bituminous coal, Semi-Anthracite coal, Anthracite coal and Super
Anthracite coal are the different types of coal. Anthracite is the highest
rank of coal.

(https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/how-coal-works)
• Anthracite coal is a form of coal that is
almost made entirely of carbon.
Anthracite coal is much harder than
other forms of coal such as bituminous,
and is usually found in areas
surrounding mountains or deep valleys.
Anthracite is considered the cleanest
burning coal available. It produces more
heat and less smoke than other coals
and is widely used in hand-fired
furnaces.
(https://www.britannica.com/science/anthracite)
• Anthracite contains a high amount of fixed carbon 80 to 95 percent and
very low sulfur and nitrogen less than 1 percent each. Volatile matter is
low at approximately 5 percent, with 10 to 20 percent ash possible.
Moisture content is roughly 5 to 15 percent. The coal is slow burning
and difficult to ignite because of its high density, so few pulverized, coal
fired plants burn it.
– The quality of coal depends on:
» Moisture content (5% to 15%)
» Calorific value (3500Kcal/kg)
» Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur contents
• Liquid Fuels
– Most of the liquid fuels are
obtained from natural petroleum
which is a mixture of many
hydrocarbons together with small
amounts of organic compounds
containing oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur. It obtained from oil wells
in form of crude oil under the earth (fxempire.com/forecasts/article/boxed-in-crude-oil-
looking-for-a-break-659963)

crest in the different parts of the

world such as Iraq, Saudi Arabia,
Russia, America and India.
• When crude petroleum is refined by boiling at different
temperatures it gives liquid fuels like:
– Petrol: High volatile, inflammable and used in internal
combustion engine and aeroplane
– Diesel: Used in diesel engine for road and rail transport
– Kerosene Oil: Used for domestic fuel
– Artificial Oils: Coal tar, Tar oil, Shale oil, Natural gas oil
– Advantages: Higher calorific value, undergo complete
combustion
• Gaseous Fuels
– Natural gas is produced from gas wells or oil wells rich in
natural gas. It is composed mainly of methane but also contains
small amounts of ethane, hydrogen, helium, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen sulfate and water vapour.

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYKQDjciI3o)

(https://www.surfertoday.com/environment/what-is-offshore-drilling)
• Types of Gases
– 1. Natural gas: Obtained from well dug in the petroleum –
bearing field
– 2. Coke oven gas: Got after burning of bituminous coals and
used for industrial heating and power generation
– 3. Coal gas: Obtained when coal is heated in the absence of
air at about 13000C used for street and domestic lighting,
heating etc.
– 4. Producer gas: Obtained by passing air – water blast over a
bad of red hot coal at 11000C in a special reactor. Cheap,
clean, easily preparable gas. It is used mostly for heating open
hearth furnace
PERFORMANCE TEST OF A BOILER

• The purpose of performance test is to determine actual

performance and efficiency of the boiler and compare it
with design values or norms. It is an indicator for tracking
day-to-day and season-to-season variations in boiler
efficiency and energy efficiency improvements.
• Basically Boiler Efficiency can be tested by the following
methods:
– 1)The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working
fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of
the boiler fuel.
– 2)The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference
between the losses and the energy input.
 HeatOutput
• The Direct Method BoilerEffi cieny 
HeatInput
x 100

– This is also known as ‘input-

output method’ due to the
fact that it needs only the
useful output (steam) and the
heat input (i.e Fuel) for
evaluating the efficiency. This
efficiency can be evaluated
using the formula.
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑥100
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 − 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦)
𝐵𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
– Where:
• Heat input requires the knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel and
its flow rates in terms of mass or volume, according to the nature of the
fuel.
• For Heat Output in steam boilers, an installed steam meter can be
used to measure flow rate, but this must be corrected for temperature
and pressure. In earlier years, this approach was not favoured due to
the change in accuracy of orifice or venturi meters with flow rate. It is
now more viable with modern flow meters of the variable-orifice or
vortex-shedding types.
• The Indirect Method
– The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the
losses occurring in the boilers using the principles to be
described. The disadvantage of the direct method can be
overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat
losses associated with boiler. The efficiency can be arrived at,
by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. An important
advantage of this method is that the errors in measurement do
not significantly change the efficiency.
– Thus if boiler efficiency is 90% , an error of 1% in direct method
will result in significant change in efficiency. i.e.90 + 0.9 = 89.1
to 90.9. In indirect method, 1% error in measurement of losses
will result in
– 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 100 – (10 + 0.1) = 90 + 0.1 = 89.9 𝑡𝑜 90.1
Efficiency = 100 – (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8) (by Indirect Method)
The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler
L1 - Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
L2 - Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (𝐻2 )
L3 - Loss due to moisture in fuel (𝐻2 𝑂)
L4 - Loss due to moisture in air (𝐻2 𝑂)
L5 - Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6 - Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted*.

*Losses which are insignificant and are difficult to measure.

The following losses are applicable to solid fuel fired boiler in addition to above
L7 - Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon)
L8 - Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)

𝐵𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑

= 100 – (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4 + 𝐿5 + 𝐿6 + 𝐿7 + 𝐿8)
Measurements Required for Performance Assessment Testing
• The following parameters need to be measured, as applicable for the
computation of boiler efficiency and performance.
a) Flue gas analysis
1. Percentage of 𝐶𝑂2 or 𝑂2 in flue gas
2. Percentage of 𝐶𝑂 in flue gas
3. Temperature of flue gas
b) Flow meter measurements for
1. Fuel
2. Steam
3. Feed water
4. Condensate water
5. Combustion air
c) Temperature measurements for
1. Flue gas
2. Steam
3. Makeup water
4. Condensate return
5. Combustion air
6. Fuel
7. Boiler feed water
d) Pressure measurements for
1. Steam
2. Fuel
3. Combustion air, both primary and secondary
4. Draft
e) Water condition
1. Total dissolved solids (TDS)
2. pH
3. Blow down rate and quantity
Typical Instruments used for Boiler Performance Assessment
Instrument Type Measurements

Flue gas analyzer Portable or fixed % 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑂2 and 𝐶𝑂

Temperature indicator Thermocouple, liquid in glass Fuel temperature, flue gas

temperature, combustion air
temperature, boiler surface
temperature, steam
temperature
Draft gauge Manometer, differential Amount of draft used or
pressure available
TDS meter Conductivity Boiler water TDS, feed water
TDS, make-up water TDS.
Flow meter As applicable Steam flow, water flow, fuel
flow, air flow
Test Conditions and Precautions for Indirect Method Testing
A) The efficiency test does not account for:
Standby losses. Efficiency test is to be carried out, when the boiler is operating under a
steady load. Therefore, the combustion efficiency test does not reveal standby losses,
which occur between firing intervals
Blow down loss. The amount of energy wasted by blow down varies over a wide range.
Soot blower steam. The amount of steam used by soot blowers is variable that
depends on the type of fuel.
Auxiliary equipment energy consumption. The combustion efficiency test does not
account for the energy usage by auxiliary equipment, such as burners, fans, and pumps.
B) Preparations and pre conditions for testing
• Burn the specified fuel(s) at the required rate.
• Do the tests while the boiler is under steady load. Avoid testing during warming up of
boilers from a cold condition
• Obtain the charts /tables for the additional data.
• Determination of general method of operation
• Sampling and analysis of fuel and ash.
• Ensure the accuracy of fuel and ash analysis in the laboratory.
• Check the type of blow down and method of measurement
• Ensure proper operation of all instruments.
• Check for any air infiltration in the combustion zone.
C) Flue gas sampling location
• It is suggested that the exit duct of the boiler be probed and traversed to find the
location of the zone of maximum temperature. This is likely to coincide with the zone
of maximum gas flow and is therefore a good sampling point for both temperature and
gas analysis.
D) Options of flue gas analysis
Check the Oxygen Test with the Carbon Dioxide Test
If continuous-reading oxygen test equipment is installed in boiler plant, use
oxygen reading. Occasionally use portable test equipment that checks for both oxygen
and carbon dioxide. If the carbon dioxide test does not give the same results as the
oxygen test, something is wrong. One (or both) of the tests could be erroneous, perhaps
because of stale chemicals or drifting instrument calibration. Another possibility is that
outside air is being picked up along with the flue gas. This occurs if the combustion gas
area operates under negative pressure and there are leaks in the boiler casing.
Carbon Monoxide Test
The carbon monoxide content of flue gas is a good indicator of incomplete
combustion with all types of fuels, as long as they contain carbon. Carbon monoxide in
the flue gas is minimal with ordinary amounts of excess air, but it rises abruptly as soon
as fuel combustion starts to be incomplete.
• E) Planning for the testing
• The testing is to be conducted for a duration of 4 to 8 hours in a normal production
day.
• Advanced planning is essential for the resource arrangement of manpower, fuel,
water and instrument check etc and the same to be communicated to the boiler
Supervisor and Production Department.
• Sufficient quantity of fuel stock and water storage required for the test duration should
be arranged so that a test is not disrupted due to non-availability of fuel and water.
• Necessary sampling point and instruments are to be made available with working
condition.
• Lab Analysis should be carried out for fuel, flue gas and water in coordination with lab
personnel.
• The steam table, psychometric chart, calculator are to be arranged for computation of
boiler efficiency.
Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method: Calculation Procedure and Formula
• In order to calculate the boiler efficiency by indirect method, all the losses that occur
in the boiler must be established. These losses are conveniently related to the
amount of fuel burnt. In this way it is easy to compare the performance of various
boilers with different ratings.
Conversion formula for proximate analysis to ultimate analysis
%𝐶 = 0.97𝐶 + 0.7(𝑉𝑀 + 0.1𝐴) − 𝑀(0.6 − 0.01𝑀)

%𝐻2 = 0.036𝐶 + 0.086(𝑉𝑀 − 0.1𝐴) − 0.0035𝑀2(1 − 0.02𝑀)

%𝑁2 = 2.10 − 0.020𝑉𝑀

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 = % 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛
𝐴 = % 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠ℎ
𝑉𝑀 = % 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑀 = % 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
 Theoretical (stoichiometric) air fuel ratio and excess air supplied are to be determined first for
computing the boiler losses. The formula is given below for the same.

a) Theoretical air required for = 𝑂2

11.6 × 𝐶 + 34.8 × 𝐻2 − + 4.35 × 𝑆 /100 kg/kg of fuel. [From fuel
8
combustion
analysis]
Where 𝐶, 𝐻2 , 𝑂2 and 𝑆 are the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
sulphur present in the fuel.
b) % Excess Air supplied (EA) = 𝑂2 %
× 100 [from flue gas analysis]
21−𝑂2 %

Normally 𝑂2 measurement is recommended. If 𝑂2 measurement is not available,

use 𝐶𝑂2 measurement
7900× 𝐶𝑂2 % 𝑡 − 𝐶𝑂2 % 𝑎
[from flue gas analysis]
𝐶𝑂2 % 𝑎 × 100− 𝐶𝑂2 % 𝑡

Where, 𝐶𝑂2 % 𝑡 = Theoretical 𝐶𝑂2

𝐶𝑂2 % 𝑎 = Actual 𝐶𝑂2 % measured in flue gas

Moles of 𝑁2 = 𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

+
𝑀𝑜𝑙. 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑁2 𝑀𝑜𝑙. 𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2
Moles of 𝐶 = 𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑊𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶
c) Actual mass of air supplied/ kg of = {1 + 𝐸𝐴/100} 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑖𝑟
fuel (AAS)
The various losses associated with the operation of a boiler are discussed
below with required formula.
1. Heat loss due to dry flue gas
– This is the greatest boiler loss and can be calculated with the following formula:

𝑚 × 𝐶𝑝 × 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐿1 = × 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Where,
𝐿1 = % 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
= 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙: 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 + 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠. (𝐻2 𝑂/𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑)
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
*Total mass of flue gas (m)/kg of fuel = mass
𝑇𝑓 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
of actual air supplied/kg of fuel + 1 kg of fuel

𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
 2. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to 𝑯𝟐 in fuel (%)
– The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss because the product of
combustion is water. This water is converted to steam and this carries away heat
in the form of its latent heat.

9 × 𝐻2 × 584 + 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐿2 = × 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Where,
𝐻2 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔𝑜𝐶
𝑇𝑓 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
584 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
 3. Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel
– Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapour. This
moisture loss is made up of the sensible heat to bring the moisture to boiling
point, the latent heat of evaporation of the moisture, and the superheat required to
bring this steam to the temperature of the exhaust gas. This loss can be
calculated with the following formula

𝑀 × 584 + 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐿3 = × 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Where,
𝑀 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔𝑜𝐶
𝑇𝑓 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
584 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
• 4. Heat loss due to moisture present in air
– Vapour in the form of humidity in the incoming air, is superheated as it passes
through the boiler. Since this heat passes up the stack, it must be included as a
boiler loss.
– To relate this loss to the mass of coal burned, the moisture content of the
combustion air and the amount of air supplied per unit mass of coal burned must
be known.
– The mass of vapour that air contains can be obtained from psychrometric charts
and typical values are included below:
Dry-Bulb Temp oC Wet-Bulb Temp oC Relative Humidity (%) Kilogram water per
Kilogram dry air
(Humidity Factor)
20 20 100 0.016
20 14 50 0.008
30 22 50 0.014
40 30 50 0.024
 𝐴𝐴𝑆 × ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝐶𝑝 × 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐿4 = × 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Where,
𝐴𝐴𝑆 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔𝑜𝐶
𝑇𝑓 = 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶
𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝐶 (𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏)
 • 5. Heat loss due to incomplete combustion:
– Products formed by incomplete combustion could be mixed with oxygen and
burned again with a further release of energy. Such products include 𝐶𝑂, 𝐻2 , and
various hydrocarbons and are generally found in the flue gas of the boilers.
Carbon monoxide is the only gas whose concentration can be determined
conveniently in a boiler plant test.

%𝐶𝑂 × 𝐶 5744
𝐿5 = × × 100
%𝐶𝑂 + %𝐶𝑂2 𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙
Where,
𝐿5 = % 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟 (%)
𝐶𝑂2 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (%)
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Or
𝐶𝑂 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑀𝐶𝑂 ) = 𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑚 × 10−6 × 𝑀𝑓 × 28
𝑀𝑓 = 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝐿5 = 𝑀𝑐𝑜 × 5744∗
* Heat loss due to partial combustion of carbon.
• 6. Heat loss due to radiation and convection:
– The other heat losses from a boiler consist of the loss of heat by radiation and
convection from the boiler casting into the surrounding boiler house.
– Normally surface loss and other unaccounted losses is assumed based on
the type and size of the boiler as given below
» For industrial fire tube / packaged boiler = 1.5 to 2.5%
» For industrial watertube boiler = 2 to 3%
» For power station boiler = 0.4 to 1%
 – However it can be calculated if the surface area of boiler and its surface
temperature are known as given below :

𝐿6 = 0.548 × 𝑇𝑠 /55.55 4 − 𝑇𝑎 /55.55 4 + 1.957 × 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 1.25

× 196.85𝑉𝑚 + 68.9 /68.9

Where
𝐿6 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑊/𝑚2
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐾)
𝑇𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝐾)
• Heat loss due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash:
– Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and this constitutes a loss of
potential heat in the fuel. To assess these heat losses, samples of ash must be
analyzed for carbon content. The quantity of ash produced per unit of fuel must
also be known.
• 7. Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash (%)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 × 𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠ℎ

𝐿7 = × 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

8. Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash (%)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 × 𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑠ℎ

𝐿8 = × 100
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Heat Balance:
Having established the magnitude of all the losses mentioned above, a simple heat balance would
give the efficiency of the boiler. The efficiency is the difference between the energy input to the
boiler and the heat losses calculated.
Test Data and Calculation
Water consumption and coal consumption were measured in a coal-fired boiler at hourly
intervals. Weighed quantities of coal were fed to the boiler during the trial period.
Simultaneously water level difference was noted to calculate steam generation during the trial
period. Blow down was avoided during the test. The measured data is given below.
Type of boiler: Coal fired Boiler
Heat output data
Quantity of steam generated (output) : 8 TPH
Steam pressure / temperature : 10 kg/cm2(g)/ 180 0C
Enthalpy of steam(dry & Saturated)
at 10 kg/cm2(g) pressure : 665 kCal/kg
Feed water temperature : 850 C
Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kCal/kg
Heat input data
Quantity of coal consumed (Input) : 1.6 TPH
GCV of coal : 4000 kCal/kg
2. For Coal fired Boiler
The following are the data collected for a boiler using coal as the fuel. Find out the boiler
efficiency by indirect method.
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 5599.17 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 21937.5 𝑘𝑔/ℎ𝑟
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 43 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2(𝑔)
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 377 𝑜𝐶
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢re = 96 𝑜𝐶
%𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 14
%𝐶𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 0.55
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 190 𝑜𝐶
𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 31 𝑜𝐶
𝐻𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.0204 𝑘𝑔 / 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 70 𝑜𝐶
𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 3.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 90 𝑚2
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑠ℎ = 800 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠ℎ = 452.5 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠ℎ = 90: 10
Fuel Analysis (in %)
𝐴𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 8.63
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 = 31.6
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 41.65
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 2.0413
𝑁𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1.6
𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 14.48
𝐺𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 = 3501 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔
PLATE#1 FIRE TUBE BOILER

(https://www.hurstboiler.com/boiler-images/scotch_marine)