Technological University of the Philippines

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Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related literature

2.1 Adhesives

Brett (1990) defines an adhesive as a material that is capable of holding two surfaces

together. As stated by Frihart (2005), adhesives are composed of several different components:

bases, solvents, diluents, catalysis, curing agents, and fillers. Base is the polymer that provides

the adhesive the strength to hold the two substrates together. Solvents are liquids often used to

dissolve or disperse the base material and additives in order to provide a liquid system for

application to the adherents, but are removed from the adhesive in the setting step. Diluents are

liquids added to reduce the viscosity of the adhesive systems, and make them suitable for

spraying or other special methods of application. Curing agents are chemicals that actually

undergo chemical reaction in stoichiometric proportions with the base resin and are combined in

the final cured polymer structure. Fillers are solids that are added primarily to lower the cost and

to give body to liquid adhesives, reducing undesired flow or over-penetration into wood.

2.1.1 Types of adhesives

According to Frihart and Hunt (n.d.), adhesives can be made from natural or synthetic

polymers. A polymer is a large molecule constructed of many small repeated units. Natural

polymer are those that can be obtained in plants (casein, soybean, and starch) and animals (blood

and hide). On the other hand, synthetic polymers gradually took over because they were typically

more effective and cost less. They are made or formulated from chemicals that are created by
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man. These are obtained and manufactured from petrochemical, natural gas and other raw

materials found in nature. Synthetic polymers can be made stronger, more rigid, and more

durable than wood, and they generally have much greater water resistance than do traditional

adhesives from natural polymers. Hence, the reason why adhesives based from synthetic

polymers are the more important adhesives used for wood. There are two main types of

adhesives used in wood products manufacturing: thermoplastic and thermosetting.

Thermoplastics polymers are consist of long-chain polymers that are soften to flow when heating

and then harden again upon cooling. They generally have less resistance to heat, moisture, and

long term static loading than do thermosetting polymers. The commonly used thermoplastic

adhesives for wood are poly(vinyl acetate) emulsions, elastomerics, contacts, and hot-melts. On

the other and, thermosetting polymers make excellent structural adhesives because when they are

cured, they will no longer change back to their previous state, and when they are heated, they do

not soften and flow again. They form cross-linked polymers that gives high strength and

resistance to moisture and other chemicals, and are rigid enough to support high, long-term static

loads without deforming. The adhesives that belong to this type are phenol-formaldehyde,

resorcinol-formaldehyde, melamine-formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde, isocyanate, and epoxy

adhesives.
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Table 1. Working and strength properties of adhesives, with typical use (Part 1 of 2)

Types Form and color Preparation and Strength Typical uses

(Thermoplastics) application properties
Cross-linked Liquid, includes Liquid emulsion High dry strength; Interior and
poly(vinyl acetate) copolymers capable mixed with improved resistance exterior doors;
emulsion of cross linking catalyst; cure at to warm molding and
with a separate room temperature temperatures and architectural
catalyst; white to or at elevated moisture, woodwork;
tan with colorless temperature in hot particularly long- cellulosic
bond line press and radio- term performance in overlays
frequency press moist environment
Elastomeric Viscous liquid, Liquid applied Strength develops On-the-job
contact typically neoprene directly to both immediately upon bonding of
or styrenebutadine surfaces, partially pressing, increases decorative tops to
elastomers in dried after slowly over a kitchen counters;
organic solvent or spreading and period of weeks; factory lamination
water emulsion; tan before pressing; dry strengths much of wood, paper,
to yellow roller-pressing at lower than those of metal, and plastic
room temperature conventional wood sheet materials
produces instant adhesives; low
bonding resistance to water
and damp
atmospheres;
adhesive film
readily yields under
static load

Hot melt Solid blocks, Solid form melted Develops strength Edge-banding of
pellets, ribbons, for spreading; quickly on cooling; panels; plastic
rods, or films; bond formed on lower strength than lamination;
solvent-free; white solidification; conventional wood patching; film and
to tan; near requires special adhesives; paper overlays;
colorless bondline application moderate resistance furniture
equipment for to moisture; gap- assembly; general
controlling melt filling with minimal purpose home and
and flow penetration shop

Poly(vinyl acetate) Liquid ready to Liquid applied High dry strength; Furniture; flush
emulsion use; often directly; pressed low resistance to doors; plastic
polymerized with at room moisture and laminates;
other polymers; temperatures and elevated panelized floor
white to tan to in highfrequency temperatures; and wall systems
yellow; colorless press joints yield under in manufactured
bondline continued stress housing; general
purpose in home
and shop
(Source: Wood HandBook)
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Table 2. Working and strength properties of adhesives, with typical use (Part 2 of 2)

Types Form and color Preparation and Strength properties Typical uses
(Thermosetting) application
Epoxy Liquid resin and Resin and hardener High dry and wet Laminating veneer
hardener supplied as mixed by user; strength to wood, and lumber in cold
two parts; completely reactive with limited metal, glass, and molded wood boat
reactive, mainly pot-life; cured at plastic; formulations hulls; assembly of
solvent-free; clear to room or elevated for wood resist water wood components in
amber; colorless temperatures; only and damp aircraft; lamination
bondline low pressure atmospheres; of architectural
required for bond delaminate with railings and posts;
development repeated wetting and repair of laminated
drying; gap-filling wood beams and
architectural
building components
Phenolformaldehyde Liquid, powder, and Liquid blended with High dry and wet Primary adhesive for
dry film; dark red extenders and fillers strength; very resistant exterior softwood
bondline by user; film inserted to water and damp plywood, flakeboard,
directly between atmospheres; more hardboard, and low
laminates; liquid or resistant than wood to emission
powder applied high temperatures and particleboard
directly to flakes in chemical aging
composites; all
formulations cured in
hot press at 120 to
150 °C (250 to 300
°F) up to 200 °C (392
°F) in flakeboards

Resorcinol- and Liquid resin and Liquid mixed with High dry and wet Primary adhesives
phenol- resorcinol- powdered hardener powdered or liquid strength; very resistant for laminated
formaldehyde supplied as two parts; hardener; resorcinol to moisture and damp timbers and
phenol may be adhesives cure at atmospheres; more assembly joints that
copolymerized with room temperatures; resistant than wood to must withstand
resorcinol; dark red phenol-resorcinols high temperature and severe service
bondline cure at temperatures chemical aging condition
from 21 to 66 °C (70
to 150 °F)
Urea formaldehyde Powder and liquid Powder mixed with High dry and wet Hardwood plywood;
forms; may be blended water, hardener, filler, strength; moderately furniture; medium
with melamine or other and extender by user; durable under damp density fiberboard;
more durable resins; some formulations atmospheres; moderate particleboard;
white to tan resin with cure at room to low resistance to underlayment; flush
colorless bondline temperatures, others temperatures in excess doors; furniture
require hot pressing at of 50 °C (122 °F) cores
about 120 °C (250
°F) for plywood and
210 °C (410 °F) for
fiberboard and
particleboard; curable
with high-frequency
heating
(Source: Wood HandBook)
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2.1.2 Adhesiveness

A good adhesive has excellent properties of adhesion (the ability to stick to the surfaces

to which it is applied. Vick (1999) identified adhesion as the state in which two surfaces are held

together by interfacial forces, which may be valence forces, interlocking action, or both. The

interaction of atoms, ions, and molecules that exist within and at the surface of both surfaces of

both adhesive and adherent produces forces of attraction called valence force. Surfaces that

adhere together by an adhesive that has penetrated the porous surface while it is liquid and then

anchored itself during solidification is called interlocking action or also called mechanical

bonding.

Adhesion is the process of transition of the adhesive from liquid to solid form. To

effectively say that the surfaces are effectively bonded, the viscosity of a liquid should increase

and the adhesive has solidified to the point where the film resists shear and tensile forces tending

to separate the forces. Likewise, as Frihart (2015) stated, adhesive strength is defined

mechanically as the force necessary to pull apart the substrates that are bonded together.

Mechanical strength depends on primary and secondary chemical bonds of the polymer chains in

the adhesive, wood and adhesive-wood interphase. Thus, one needs to consider both the

chemical and mechanical aspects of bond strength, and the interrelation of the two factors.

Through the adhesive strength, this process determines where the localized stress exceeds the

bond strength under specific test condition, in which it can measure an adhesive’s failure.

2.1.3 Uses of Adhesives

An adhesive is expected to bond materials together and transfer design loads from one

adherent to the other within a given service environment for the life of the structure. According
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to Selbo (1975), currently, it is involved in practically all branches of the wood-using industry.

Adhesives is employed extensively in houses particularly in fabrication, but also used on the

bulding sites. In view of the fact that adhesives are used in many different applications with

wood, a wide variety of types are used. By far, the largest amounts of adhesives are used to

manufacture building materials, such as plywood, structural flakeboards, particleboards,

fiberboards, structural framing and timbers, architectural doors, windows and frames, factory-

laminated wood products, and glass fiber insulation. Adhesives are used in smaller amounts to

assemble building materials in residential and industrial construction, particularly in panelized

floor and wall systems. Significant amounts are also used in nonstructural applications, such as

floor coverings, countertops, ceiling and wall tile, trim, and accessories (Vick, 1999). It have

been widely used for structural and nonstructural uses for years without major problems. That is

why the refinement and expanded use of existing ones was given more emphasis than developing

new type of adhesives and new products. (Frihart, 2015).

2.1.4 Application of Adhesives

A standard procedure should be adopted in preparing glues for use (Truax, 1929). The

application of adhesiveness consists of these steps: first, mixing the ingredients that make up the

glue, when ready for use; second, spreading the glue on one or both joint surfaces to be bonded;

third, assembling the individual parts in the order planned for the bonded product; fourth,

allowing the spread glue to thicken and penetrate the wood surfaces for a certain period (usually

referred to as the open and closed assembly periods and as a rule specified by the supplier); fifth,

applying pressure to bring the spread surfaces into close contact; sixth, retaining pressure until

the bond gains sufficient strength to permit safe handling of the glued product; and lastly,
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conditioning the glued stock to complete adhesive cure and allow any solvent to diffuse

throughout the glued assembly (Selbo, 1975).

2.2. Related Studies

The recent study is similar with the studies conducted by Blanchet, Beauregard, Erb, and

Lefebvre (2003), Nitin Muttila, Ravichandra, Bigger, Thorpe, Shailaja, and Shailaja (2014),

Nikhil, Singh, and Chaudhry (2011), Kurt (2006), Goto, Saiki, and Onishi (1982), Arriaga and

Iñiguez-Gonzales (2011), and Fihart (2005).

Blamchet, Beauregard, Erb, and Lefebvre (2003) had a comparative study of four

adhesives used as binder in engineered wood paraquet flooring. The adhesives were used

polyvinyl acetate (PVA), urea formaldehyde (UF), melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF), and

polyurethane (PUR). As for the result of their study, the best adhesive to bond the EWF layer

was found to be the PUR adhesive for the stability of its glue line strength following aging

cycles. UF and MUF showed similar behavior with a shear strength decreasing with the number

of aging cycles. PVA was not expected to be an appropriate adhesive for EWE and this was

confirmed in the study.

Nitin Muttila, Ravichandra, Bigger, Thorpe, Shailaja, and Shailaja (2014) had a

comparative study of bond strength of formaldehyde and soya based adhesive in wood fibre

plywood done in Melbourne, Australia. The objective of their investigation was to explore

environmentally friendly bio-based adhesives for plywood manufacturing. Their study proposes

a natural bio-based adhesive that was developed using soya flour, phenol, plaster of paris and an

agro-based powder as the binder. A comparison of modulus of rupture of the plywood developed

using the proposed soya-based adhesive with popular plywoods, including the traditional urea-
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formaldehyde based plywood has also been undertaken. The three-point bend test (to identify the

modulus of rupture) was conducted for all the plywoods compressed at a fixed pressure. It was

observed that the soya-based adhesive imparts greater strength to the plywood than the

formaldehyde-based adhesive. It is also desirable for wood and wood-based composites to have

fire-retarding and microbial-resistant properties by utilising non- toxic additives and treatments.

Traditional methods of achieving these objectives have been harmful; for example, timber has

been treated with arsenic-based chemicals to make it resistant to microbes. This paper also

presents future research directions to render wood-based composites free of toxic additives as

well as being sustainable and environmentally friendly.

Nikhil, Singh, and Chaudhry (2011) had a comparative evaluation of bond strength of

three contemporary self-etch adhesives: An ex vivo study. Comparison of contemporary

adhesives in this ex vivo study revealed that the ethanol-based HEMA (Hydroxyl Ethyl

Methacrylate)-rich self-etch adhesive is better than HEMA-free self-etch adhesive that contained

acetone and butanol as the solvents, when compared in terms of bond strength.

Kurt (2006) had studied the effect of gap-filling phenol resorcinol formaldehyde (GPRF)

adhesive on the shear strength of wood joints when thick glue line present. The results showed

that the shear strength was significantly affected by the glue line thickness, so the strength

decreased as the glue line thickness increased. The method may be utilized for wood-to-wood

joints, in example; l-beams and structural wood panels.

Goto, Saiki, and Onishi (1982) clarified the adhesion mechanism of polypropylene as a

hot melt wood adhesive for plywood bonding. The durability of polypropylene and that of

modified polypropylene were the same as that of melamine-formaldehyde resin. Molten

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polypropylene made good contact with veneer surface, and penetrated into the lumina of wood

cells and other spaces. In the separated glue lines, casts of glue which had penetrated into the

vessels had many mushroom-like projections which had filled the bordered pit cavities. It was

indicated that the anchoring effect of polypropylene which had penetrated into various wood

elements and spaces in the veneer contributed dominantly to the gluability.

Arriaga and Iñiguez-Gonzales (2011) evaluated the bonding quality of epoxy glued

timber and glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP) by means of compression loading shear test.

The increase in shear strength with age after the setting of epoxy formulations and the effect of

surface roughness on timber and GRP gluing (the planing of the surface of timber and the

previous sanding of GRP) were studied. It can be concluded that the mechanical properties of

these products make them suitable for use in the reinforcement of deteriorated timber structures,

and that a rough timber surface is preferable to a planned one, while the previous sanding of

GRP surfaces is not advantageous.

Fihart (2005) studied the adhesive bonding and performance testing of bonded wood

products. Systematic studies of the bonding process, the forces upon the bondline, and the locus

of failure using different types of adhesives and wood species should imporve its ability to

design adhesives. Modification of wood surfaces, along with spectroscopic and microscopic

analyses, are important tools to understand bond formation and failure.

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References:

Arriaga, F., Iñiguez-Gonzales, G., & Esteban, M. (2011). Bonding shear strength in timber and

gfrp glued with epoxy adhesives. Wood Research, 56(3), 297-310. Technical University of

Madrid. Retrieved from http://www.woodresearch.sk/articles/4-19-152512_02Arriaga.pdf.

Blamchet, P., Beauregard, R., Erb, A., & Lefebvre, M. (2003). Comparative study of four

adhesives used as binder in engineered wood parquet flooring. Forest Products Journal,

53(1). Forest Products Society. Retrieved from

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/Forest-Products-Journal/97740271.html.

Brett, O. (1990). Adhesives. Chemical Processes in New Zealand. Retrieved from

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 Technological University of the Philippines
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Frihart, C.R. (2015). Introduction to special issue: Wood adhesives: past, present, and future.

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Vick, C. B. (1999). Adhesive bonding of wood materials. Wood handbook: wood as an

engineering material. Madison, Wl: USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.

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