Basic Principles of Navigation

Short course of Sea Navigation Shota Kuntchulia
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION

1.1. THE SHAPE AND SIZES OF THE EARTH
The actual figure of the Earth is a body of imperfect shape, named the Geoids very
close to the shape of an oblate spheroid, flattened at the Poles. Making an approximation,
one can say that Earth's shape is an ellipsoid, funned by rotating of the ellipse about the
axis Pn OPs (Fig. 1 )
Differences of level reach  100 mt; for example,
in Bermuda region- (-68) mt, on British Is- (+68) mt.
For reference - ellipsoid (r/e) by Krasovsky main
elements radii a and b - are equal: a= 6378245 mt; b=
6356863 mt.
Polar flattening or compression (  ) - of the Earth
can be determined as  = (a - b)/a= 1/298.3 (-0.3 %).
Sometimes another characteristic, called eccentricity (e)
is used. Here it is e2=(a2-b2)/a2=1/149.15=0.006669.
Lately, in order to build a sea chart they use the international r/e WGS-84 –very
close to ellipsoid by Krasovsky: a=6378137 mt; a=1/298.26; e2=0.0669417.
For certain purposes of Navigation the Earth's shape may be considered to be a
perfect sphere. The errors, resulting from such an assumption are too small to matter and
they are, usually, negligible.
For the cases when the volume of the Earth's sphere equals the volume of the
Earth's spheroid (not perfect sphere) radius R = 6371109.7 mt and when the area of the
Earth's sphere is equal to the area of the Earth's spheroid R = 6371116.1 mt
1.2. THE PRINCIPAL POINTS. CIRCLE. PLANES AND LINES ON

THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH'S SPHERE
If the sectional (cutting) plane passes through the centre of the sphere to be out, then
resulting section is the largest that can be obtained, and it is called Great Circle. The
remarkable thing is that, if the Earth were a perfect sphere, then the Great Circle would
give the navigator the shortest track (way) between any two points. If such a plane passes
through the centre and will be perpendicular to the Axis, then remarkable Great Circle is
called Equator. Its plane divides the Earth into two hemispheres, named North and South.
Finally, if Axis is lying in such a plane, Great Circle passes, surely, through both Poles.
Any semicircle, joining the Poles, is called the Meridian.
If the cutting plane does not pass through the Earth's

centre, then the resulting section cannot be a Great Circle and
it is called the Small Circle; and if planes are passing parallel
to the plan of the Equator, they are called the Parallels of
Latitude (in figure, for example). One can easily imagine the
direction of a plumb (vertical line ) in the point F under
consideration. Any plane through a plumb is called a vertical
plane; and vice versa, any plane, perpendicular to the plumb,
is named a horizontal plane. A horizontal plane through the
observer's eye is called the True (or Celestial, or Sensible)
Horizon of the Observer; the meridian through the observer's
eye is named - True Observer's Meridian; vertical plane
through the same observer's eye and is perpendicular to
plane of True Meridian is named Prime Vertical.
1.3 THE GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES
To fix the position of any place on the Earth's

surface it is necessary to know two geographical
coordinates: The Geographical Latitude – φ- is an
angle between the plane of the equator and the
Normal to the spheroid's surface at the point F in
question
All the points of the Parallel of Latitude have
the same Latitude.
Geographical Latitude φ - is an angle at the
centre of the Earth between the plane of the equator
and direction to place F (in the plane of its
Meridian).
The difference r between the two Latitudes of the same point F - is named Reduction,
the value of which in seconds of the arc is expressed as follows:
r  = φ- φ1=  sin 2 φ /arc 1".
The Latitude is reckoned North (+) and South(-), from Equator, as from an origin
(0°) through to the Poles (900).
Hence, using the standard symbols, one can design.
(label) φ = 50°20,2' N (φ osma = 46°29'N)
The Longitude λ- of the place F on the surface of the Earth is the arc of the
Equator, intercepted between the Meridian through this place F and the Prime Meridian.
The Prime Meridian, used by all nations, is that of Greenwich (England). Hence,
the Longitude of Greenwich Meridian is equal to zero. It is important to note that. the
Longitude may be measured by the angle at the centre of Earth in plane of the Equator.
Longitude is reckoned East (+) and West (-) from the Greenwich Meridian, from an
origin (0°) through 180°. Great Circle - Greenwich Meridian and Meridian 180 divides
Earth into two hemispheres, named Eastern and Western ones.
All the points of any meridian have the same Longitude as well. In this connection,
any Meridian may be also termed as a Great Circle of Constant Longitude.
1.4. THE DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE AND THE DIFFERENCE OF

LONGITUDE
Let us imagine, for instance, that a ship

was in some point (departure) 1 on the Earth
and then was conducted (taken) to another
point 2 (destination); it is seen that her
geographical coordinates changed too .
The Difference of Latitude between any
two places 1 and 2 on the Earth is an arc of
any Meridian intercepted between their
parallel: D. Lat. =  =φ1-φ2. to N (+)
(Northing): to S (-) (Southing).
The Difference of Longitude between
any two places I and 2 is a smaller arc of
Equator between Meridians through points in question. D.Long.=λ2- λ1 to E (+): to W (-).
If the Difference of Longitude obtained by means of such a rule exceeds 180°, its
value must be subtracted from 360°, but its name must be reversed at the same time.
THE UNITS OF MEASUREMENT OF SPEED AND
DISTANCE AT SEA.
1Nautical Mile(NM)=1852м
1Nautical Mile =10 Cable
1 Cable = 185.2 м
Speed at sea is measured
1KNOTS=1NM./H.
1 STATUS MAILS=1609м
1 FEET=0,3048м
1 FATHOM=6FEETS=1,829м
1 YARD=3FEETS=0,9144м
1 INCHE=0,0254м
1.7. DEVICES FOR MEASURING SHIP'S SPEED AND DISTANCE

TRAVELLED
The instrument intended for measuring the speed V of a ship and the distance S,
traveled by her, is termed a log. .All the logs are subdivided into two principal categories,
namely: logs, which measured V and S comparatively of sea bottom(the so-called
"Absolute Log") and logs, indicating V and S relatively movable mass of water (the so-
called "Relative Log"). It is clear that current is not indicated by means "Relative Log"
and this is the main disadvantage other. Doppler-log belongs to Absolute Log, but it is too
expensive for merchant fleet
The most common types of logs are relative ones. The first simplest devices are
Dutchman's Logs. Two observation places on upper deck (one forward and one aft)
should be selected and the horizontal distances s between such places must be measured
as accurately as possible. One man is standing on the ship's bow to drop a float into the
water. Watch mate notes this time (t1) and the moment when the float passes aft places
(t2), and finally V=s/(t2-t1). The next method of finding the speed is that by counting
the ship's engine revolutions. It is known that the greater number of the propeller shaft
revolutions per minute (r p m), the greater speed (V) through water is.
The Propeller Log is a rotator (propeller), towed by a ship by means of a special. line
and number of revolutions, reduced by an indicator, shows the mileage on a dial. The
Impeller-type Log is an electrical device, which is driven by the flow of water as the
mechanism moves through it.
The Pitometer Log. There are several kinds of pitometer logs, but an of them are
"pressure-type" logs, i. e. they depend on the difference between static pressure of water
resulting from the depth of an instrument protruding through the hull of the vessel and so-
called full pressure due to the movement of the ship through water.
The Electromagnetic Log. Due to the conduction of sea water appears the voltage
proportional to the relative velocity of a ship.
1.8. DETERMINING AND THE LOG CORRECTION USAGE

To simplify the calculation of S there are two tables, included into the special Nau-
tical Tables. A log correction should be checked rather frequently, the interval between
two subsequent calibrations, being not exceeded six months.
As a rule, the Log Correction is obtained during the measured mile - trials. Measured
mile is a special sea area, which should satisfy some conditions, namely:
1) Trials should be carried out in calm weather and in a wind less than force 4, since
the effect of wind and sea on recorded speed cannot accurately be estimated.
2) The least depth h min in the area, concerned should satisfy the following ine-
quality: hmin/T  6 , where T is the mean draught of a ship.
3) The area for trials should be free for maneuvering.
4) There should be no streams or currents, or at least, their rates and directions
should be constant.
5) The area should be arranged with some specially placed landmarks (and some-
times buoys), by means of which the so-called transits (leading and thwart ones) are
available.
The quality of any transit is characterized by the following expression
p = (D(D-d)/d) arc 1', where p is the sensitivity of the transit.
6) The engine should be maintained steady through all the trials, .the rudder shoe be
used sparingly during the run.
7) There should be not less than two runs in the opposite directions in each set ~.
trials, provided the tidal stream or any other current are negligible, or can be assumed:
constants, l  (l1  l 2 ) / 2.
8) The overall accuracy of Log Correction should normally be within  1 %. It should
be kept in mind that Log Correction is liable to change its magnitude with variations of
the ship's speed; it is desirable to know the values of Log Correction, corresponding to
the whole main range of the ship's speed (special tables or the curve).
1.9. THE VISIBLE HORIZON AND THE LIGHT'S VISIBILITY

De - distance of the ship from the horizon (i. e. distance of Visible Horizon). At the
same time the distance of any terrestrial object from the horizon (distance of Visible
Horizon) is Dh = 2,1 hmt (if the light's elevation above water is equal to h metres. These
two distances, added to each other, give the distance of the ship from the terrestrial object
in N M: D0 = Dh + De = 2,1( h  e ) (rays are visible, when limited only by the curvature
of the Earth, height of light and eye: Do - geographical range).
As a rule, the heights of

objects are given above the sea level
at the moment oft he Mean High
Water Spring (MHWS).
On sea charts are usually given
the visibilities (in NM) of light
(Dch), ca1culated for the elevation
of the observer's eye, which is
constantly considered to be equal to
5 meters (15 feet); D15 = 1,15 15 = 4,7 (D5 = 2,1 5 = 4,7).
Thus, Dchart =Dh +D15=Dh +4.7 (charted visibility). At the same time the distance of
the observer on board the ship, whose eye's elevation is equal to "e" (feet or metres), from
the light is D0 = Dc+ D ; chart correction
D = De – D15=2,1 emt  4,7  1,15 e ft  4,7 
Bear in mind that, when calculating such a distance, it is also necessary to consider
the power of the light. Sometimes on chart it is indicated the optical distance (luminous
range), when limited only by intensity of weak light, smaller of sum (Dh + De ;) in this
case is not calculated. The information is given in book "The list of lights".
1.10. THE DIVISION OF TRUE HORIZON
The intersection of True Meridian by the plane of True

Horizon gives the line North-South and the
intersection Prime Vertical by the plane of True
Horizon gives the line West – East.
The direction N, S, E, W at any point on the Earth's
surface are called the Cardinal Direction.
In order to proceed in some. particular direction it is
necessary to refer to some fixed direction (or datum
line). The most convenient datum is the N-S line in the
plane of True Horizon (because it coincides with True
Meridian).
True Horizon may be divided in the following way: The first System - used to
divide True Horizon into 32 directions (or so-called Point- or Rhumb): N, S, E, W -
cardinal points; NE, SE, SW, NW - inter-cardinal points.
To shorten the explanation let us go on with that only for NE quadrant, as far as
the other quadrants (NW, SW, SE) are divided similarly. Thus, there are the following
points, midway between each cardinal and intercardinal: NNE and ENE, which are called
"Three - Figure Points". Finally, there the following points, between divisions, just de-
scribed: N by E, E by N, NE by N, NE by E, which are called "The By's Points". As one
can see, the names of
these "By's Points" are
made up of a
combination of names
of cardinal or inter -
cardinal points by
means of a word "by"
to that of the cardinal
point, in the direction
of which any "By's
Point" lies. Hence,
each quadrant is
divided into eight
points on range 11.25°
each other, i. e. one
point is 11.25°.
The Second System: navigation security required more accuracy and true Horizon
was divided into 360 points, which had been called "degrees". But the cardinal points
were valid too: N=O°, E=90=W, S=O°. In such a system, therefore, each quadrant
contains 90°, and the whole horizon contains 360°.
The Third System: Nowadays, the third system of dividing True Horizon is in non
use. In this. system cardinal points are: N=O0; E=900; S=1800; W=2700; N=3600 (0°).
Thus, the bearing of some place A is in degrees from N in clockwise direction, i. e.:
(circular system)  a  50 0 ;  b  1450 ;  c  2550 ;  d  3150 ; For solving some problems of
navigation the first and the second systems are still used. That is why it is the navigator's
duty to know these systems well. Besides, every seaman must achieve skills in
transforming bearings of one system into another and do it quickly and mentally, of
course. (To achieve necessary skills one is to train his mind during his practical
exercises).
1.11. THE TRUE BEARING AND COURSE
The True Course (heading) of the ship is an angle between the direction of the True
North (N) and the direction of the ship's fore-and-aft line. True Course is measured
clockwise from NTT (0°) through 360°.
The True Bearing of any point is an angle between the direction of True N and the
direction towards this point. True Bearing is measured clockwise from Nt (0°) through
360° and is labelled by the symbol TB.
Relative True Bearing of any point is an angle between the direction of the ship's
fore-and-aft line and the direction towards this point (RTB).
Such a RTB is said to be "red" (-) - red side light, or "green" (+) - green side light,
depending upon whether the object lies to port or starboard (say "traverse" or "abeam"
when RTB = 90°). Just from the figure one can see that
 green
TB=TC+RTB( )
 red
ИК ИП ИП
  
КУ КУ 180 0
ИП ИК ОИП
1.12. THE GYRO BEARING AND COURSE
An instrument, which affords to find in the open sea the direction of the true
meridian, from which courses and bearings are reckoned, is called Navigational
Compass.
There are three kinds of compasses in common use, namely: magnetic, gyro and
gyro-magnetic.
All the seagoing vessels are at present time fitted with the modern direction
detector - gyrocompass, in which all North-paintings are based on gyroscopic principles.
For a number of reasons (which deviate the gyrocompass axis) the gyrocompass
will not always point exactly to the True North NT. NG is the direction, pointed out by
the gyrocompass (or simply GCN). GCC (GCB) is the gyrocompass course (bearing), an
angle (taken with a gyrocompass), reckoned from GCN. ∆GC is an angle between TN
and GCN, so-called Gyro-deviation or Gyrocompass correction. In this case ∆GC is
negative and it is usually termed as a western one; in other case ∆GC is positive and it is
called as an eastern one.
TC=GCC+∆GC TB=GCB+∆GC
In the mnemonic: CADET (Compass Add East True)
The remarkable thing is that the ∆GC is practically of a constant value, it does not
depend on the ship's heading.
1.13. THE MAGNETIC BEARING AND COURSE
Normally there are two compasses on board a modern vessel: Gyrocompass and
Magnetic Compass (an autonomous one). The primary source of direction is the
Gyrocompass, but the prudent navigator should continue to know and understand his
Magnetic Compass and keep an accurate record of its error.
In its simplest form a Magnetic Compass consists of a magnetised needle, freely
suspended so that it can turn in any direction. Such a needle, being affected by the Earth
magnetism, tends to align itself with the magnetic field of the Earth. Since for the most
parts of the World this direction is roughly N-S, the magnetic needle turns and settles
with one end, pointing approximately to the North.
The direction assumed by the freely suspended magnetic needle, when acted up by
the Earth's magnetic force alone, is known as a Magnetic Meridian.
The magnetic poles are not fixed. They are moving in the unknown paths,
apparently completing a cycle in the period of many hundreds of years.
The horizontal angle between the magnetic and true meridians is called “Magnetic
Variation".
The variation does not only change as one travels from a place to a place, being
different in various localities; but in every locality the variation changes with running
time. Variation is called "western" and marked (-), when the magnetic NM lies to West of
true Nt and "eastern" (+), when it lies to the East of true Nt.
As a rule, there are magnetic compass rose on the sea charts, which show the secu-
lar change of the Variation. On the ordinary sea charts the Variation is given for a certain
year together with a note of some annual change of an angle, for example: V 10° 45' E
(1968), decreasing about 10' annually. For 1998 the corrected Variation would be:
10° 45' E – 10'· 30 = 5° 45' E
From time to time there are disturbances of the Earth's magnetic field. Such a phe-
nomenon causes the so-called "magnetic storm", which is often accompanied by the dis-
plays of the "Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights". At such a time the unknown errors
may occur. Besides, there is another cause of the unusual errors, so-called "Local At-
traction". This phenomenon occurs, when a mass of the magnetic ore (possibly a wreck)
lies sufficiently close. Magnetic Bearing (MB) is an angle between the direction of Mag-
netic North and the direction towards the object. Magnetic Course (MC) of a ship is an
angle between the direction of Magnetic North and the direction of the ship's fore-and-aft
line. Both ones are measured clockwise from 0° through 360°
TC = MC+V; TB = MB+V and vice versa
1.14. THE COMPASS BEARING AND COURSE
The modern vessels are made of metal. Constantly influenced by the Earth's mag-
netism, the ship's metal constructions turn into magnets and cause their own "Ship
magnetic field". That is why there always exists a disturbing magnetic field. Besides
such a supplementary disturbing magnetic field is also intensified by the field set up of a
number of the electrical equipment on board.
Therefore, at any moment the total field is a combination of the field due to: a) The
Earth's magnetism; b) the ship's permanent magnetism (Hard Iron); c) the ship's induced
magnetism (Soft Iron), which depends on the ship's head and geographical position.
The effect of the ship's magnetic field makes the compass-needle to be no longer
aligned in the Magnetic Meridian, but at the angle D to this direction; this effect is called
the "Deviation".
The vertical plane through the compass-needle

forms on the Earth's surface a line called "Compass Meridian". If Compass Meridian Nc
points out to the West of Magnetic North, the Deviation is called "western" (-), and if it
points out to the East of Magnetic North, the Deviation is called "eastern" (+). The value
of the Deviation may be obtained from the special table.
METHODS OF DEVIATION DETERMINATION.
Compass Bearings of a Distant Object Date:
Head N NE E SE S SW W NW
C.B. 156,3 154,0 157,0 156,5 154,0 156,0 153,0 159,0
M.B. 155,7 155,7 155,7 155,7 155,7 155,7 155,7 155,7
-
Dev. -000,5 001,7 001,3 -000,8 001,7 -000,3 002,7 -003,3
A= 000,0
B= -002,0
C= -001,1
D= 001,4
E= -000,1
Heading Deviation
0 -001,2
10 -001,0
20 -000,9
30 -000,8
40 -000,8
50 -000,9
60 -001,1
70 -001,3
80 -001,6
90 -001,9
100 -002,2
110 -002,3
120 -002,3
130 -002,2
140 -001,8
150 -001,2
160 -000,6
170 000,2
180 001,1
190 001,9
200 002,6
210 003,1
220 003,5
230 003,6
240 003,5
250 003,2
260 002,7
270 002,1
280 001,4
290 000,7
300 000,0
310 -000,5
320 -000,9
329 -001,2
340 -001,3
350 -001,3
360 -001,2
WHITH LEADING LINE

T.B. 109,0 109,5 110,0 111,0 111,0 111,5 112,0 114,0
C.B. 110,5 112,5 111,5 111,5 117,5 118,5 117,6 117,5
Error -001,5 -003,0 -001,5 -000,5 -006,5 -007,0 -005,6 -003,5
Var -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4
Dev. 002,5 001,0 002,5 003,5 -002,5 -003,0 -001,6 000,5
A= 000,4
B= 002,1
C= 002,5
D= -001,5
E= -000,2
Heading Deviation
0 002,6
10 002,5
20 002,3
30 002,1
40 002,1
50 002,1
60 002,2
70 002,4
80 002,5
90 002,6
100 002,7
110 002,6
120 002,3
130 001,8
140 001,2
150 000,4
160 -000,5
170 -001,4
180 -002,4
190 -003,2
200 -003,8
210 -004,2
220 -004,4
230 -004,3
240 -003,8
250 -003,2
260 -002,4
270 -001,5
280 -000,5
290 000,4
300 001,2
310 001,9
320 002,4
330 002,7
340 002,8
350 002,8
360 002,6
Off Columbia
Weather: Fine Sea : Calm Speed: 0.0kn Area: River
Mag.Var. 18,4 E Cargo: Cars Date: 16.08.2004
Comparison Between Gyro & Magnetic Compasses Time: 1200 hrs LT
Gyro Hdg 017,9 062,9 107,9 152,9 197,9 242,9 287,9 332,9
Gyro Err. 000,5 000,5 000,5 000,5 000,5 000,5 000,5 000,5
T.Course 018,4 063,4 108,4 153,4 198,4 243,4 288,4 333,4
Var 018,4 018,4 018,4 018,4 018,4 018,4 018,4 018,4
M.Course 000,0 045,0 090,0 135,0 180,0 225,0 270,0 315,0
MC Hdg 002,0 048,0 090,5 135,0 177,5 223,0 270,0 316,5
Dev. 002,0 003,0 000,5 000,0 -002,5 -002,0 000,0 001,5
A= 000,3
B= 000,3
C= 002,3
D= -000,1
E= -000,3
Heading Deviation
0 002,3
10 002,3
20 002,2
30 002,2
40 002,0
50 001,9
60 001,7
70 001,4
80 001,1
90 000,8
100 000,4
110 000,0
120 -000,4
130 -000,8
140 -001,2
150 -001,5
160 -001,8
170 -002,1
180 -002,2
190 -002,2
200 -002,2
210 -002,0
220 -001,7
230 -001,4
240 -001,0
250 -000,6
260 -000,1
270 000,3
280 000,7
290 001,1
300 001,5
310 001,7
320 002,0
330 002,1
340 002,2
350 002,3
360 002,3
Compass Bearing (CB) of any point is meant the angle between Compass Meridian
(CM) and the direction towards this point from the ship's position. CB is measured
clockwise from Nc (0°) through 360°. In similar way Compass Course (CC) is the angle
between Compass North and the direction of the ship's fore-and-aft line.
In the mnemonic: Can Dead Men Vote Twice (compass reading+D=Magnetic
reading+V=True reading) i. e. CC+D=MC, CB+D=MB, MC+V=TC,MB+V=TB
They usually prefer to compensate the ship's magnetic field by means of a special
system of permanent and induced magnets. After making the proper and careful com-
pensation there always remains the so-called "Remaining Deviation", which cannot be
practically compensated and therefore must be taken into account, when the respective
navigation problems are solved.
1.15. CORRECTING AND UNCORRECTING BEARINGS AND

COURSES
The angle between the True Meridian and the Compass Meridian is known as To-
tal Compass correction ΔC:ΔC =D+V
In his routine work the navigator is faced with a problem of finding, for example.
the true bearing, when he has taken the CB; and of finding the CC, when he has worked
out the TC, and so on.
An operation of obtaining the true magnitudes desired from the compass ones given
is usually called "Correcting Bearings and Courses".
CC+D=MC CB+D=MB
MC+V=TC MB+V=TB
CC+ ΔC =TC CB+ ΔC =TB
While correcting CB, the navigator should always remember that any CB may be
corrected only by D, corresponding to CC, which the ship was steering, when that
bearing was taken. The above mentioned formulae enable to correct B and C quickly;
but this way does not give a vivid illustration; which is often an additional source of
being mistaken and sometimes was also one of reasons, leading to terrible shipwrecks.
The navigator uses, as a rule, two methods simultaneously, namely: the algebraically by
means of formulae and the graphical method too (plot the "beetle" )
Uncorrecting Bearing and Course. An operation of obtaining CB and CC, desired
from true ones given, is usually named "Uncorrecting Bearing and Course". To solve
such a problem it is necessary to overcome some complication. Certainly, in order to
find CB or CC the navigator must know D concerned. Such a D cannot be taken out
from Deviation Table available until one knows CC required.
To overcome the above mentioned complication the navigator has to take out an
approximate Deviation for certain magnetic course, which is known.
Gyro and Magnetic Compass is constantly needed for checking up. In mid-ocean
there are stars and the Sun in the sky and there is a method of finding the true bearing of
any celestial body. If the ship is in some point and there is some shore object or transit
true bearing, of which from the above point is exactly known; the compass bearing of a
sky or shore object can be taken. Comparing TB and CB, one easily obtain ΔC. Total
ΔC(ΔGC) may be determined by comparing Gyro CC and Magnetic
CC:GCC+ GC=CC+ΔC;
Hence, ΔC =GCC-CC+ ΔCGC.
2. MAP PROJECTIONS AND SEA CHARTS
2.1. GREAT CIRCLE. RHUMB LINE
The shorter arc of the Great Circle (Orthodromic line), joining two places
on the Earth's sphere, is taken for the shortest route between these places.
Orthodromic Line, Great Circle, intersecting the Equator at some point
with coordinates  0  0 0 and 0 . Since the Great Circle, except in cases when it
is a meridian or the Equator, does not make a constant angle with the meridians,
in order to keep upon it a ship must be continually changing her course; thus,
angle K0 at the point F, but angle Ka at the point A and so on. Difference
between Kb and Ka is the termed Convergence and labelled  :   Kb- Ka. The
length of Great Circle
AB=arc cos [sin  a sin  b + cos  a cos  b cos( b  a ) ].
It is obvious that sailing along the line, which makes a constant with all the
meridians, would be much more convenient. And there exists such a line on the
surface of the Earth's sphere, the so-called Rhumb Line (Loxodromic Line).
Equation (*) is that of Loxodromic Line through points with their
coordinates (  a , a ) and (  b , b ) on the surface of the Earth's sphere
(*) b  a = tg ln tg ( / 4   b / 2)  ln tg ( / 4   a / 2)
and on the surface of the Earth's spheroid:
(**) b  a = tg K1
ln tg ( / 4   b / 2)(1  e sin  b /(1  e sin  b )) e / 2  ln tg ( / 4   a / 2)(1  e sin  a /(1  e sin  a )) e / 2 
Now let us analyze the formula (**):

1) If a vessel steers the constant course K1 =0° or K1 = 180°, then tgK1 =0°
and b  a = const. that is the Rhumb Line coincides with a meridian.
2) If a vessel steers by the course K1=90° or K1=270°, then tg K1=  and
 b   a  const., that is the Rhumb Line becomes a parallel.
3) If a vessel sails the course, which is different from 0° or 90°, then the
Loxodromic Line intersects each parallel only once and cuts the same meridian
infinite times in the points of different latitude  .
Thus, the Rhumb Line is constantly striving for, but never reaches the Pole.
2.2. SCALES OF PLANS AND CHARTS
For ordinary navigational purposes it is convenient to represent the Earth's

surface or a part of it on a flat piece of paper. Such a representation is called a map,
chart (a map has to do primarily with land). A chart-making presents the problem.
Representing the surface of the Earth's spheroid upon a plane surface. At the same
time, it is well known that the surface of a sphere or spheroid (or part of them)
cannot spread out flat without distortion.
The method of representing of a spheroid surface upon a plane surface is
termed a chart projection.
To find the position of a point on the plane of any certain chart it is sufficient
to know its two coordinates: x=f1(  ,  ) and y=f2(  ,  ).
The explicit form of these functions stipulates for the method of
representation the Earth's surface on a flat plane.
A network of lines, representing meridians and parallels, is termed a graticule
and any arrangement of this network is known as a projection.
Each projection has distinctive features, which make it preferable for certain
use therefore, charts are designed for special purposes.
Local Natural Scale is coefficient of reduction of the length on the Earth S
to its representation on the chart ( S 0):
S 0/ S = 1/C =  ( S → 0)
Plan is such a flat representation of the portion of the Earth's surface, the
natural scale of which is the same every directionally in each point of the area, and
contains no angular and distance distortions. It is understood that the plan holds
good only, where the area covered is sufficiently small.
As to the chart, its Natural scale changes with the variation of a position and
directions.
One of the local scale is chosen to be a principal Natural Scale (M0), for
example, for the principal parallel. And g=M/M0 is so-called Scale Magnification
(or Modulus). The difference between the scale modulus and the unit is termed the
linear distortion; V=g-l.
The principal natural chart's scale is usually the local one for the chart's
point, situated in its middle, it is obviously shown in the title of the chart and
expressed as a fraction, for example, 1:500 000.
Line scale (Numerical scale) is in terms as "1 inch equals to miles". The
following two examples describe the rule of converting the natural scale, given into
the numerical one, and alternatively:
1. Natural scale equals 1:300 000. It is required to find the corresponding
numerical scale in terms of 1 centimeter; Solution: 300 000cm=1,62M (300 000/
(1852.100)= 1 ,62M).
2. Numerical scale given is "1 inch equals 10M", it is required to know the
corresponding Natural Scale
M = I/C = 1/1 0.6080.12 = 1/729600
The limiting scale accuracy is considered to be a linear distance on the Earth,
corresponding to 0,2 mm of the chart's area. It will be easily understood that the
quantity of Limiting Scale Accuracy depends on the chart's scale itself;
Example 3: Natural scale equals 1/1 000 000:

1 mm of the chart covers of the Earth 1 000 000 mm; 0,2 mm correspond to
200 000 mm =200 mt of the Earth.
Numerical Scale "1 inch equals 10 M". It is required to find Limiting Scale
Accuracy:
1 inch -> 10M 1 inch = 25.4mm;
25.4mm -> 10M
0.2mm -> xM x=145.9 mt
2.3.CLASSIFICATION OF CHART PROJECTIONS
Projections are usually classified primarily as to the type of distortions or as to

the form of the graticule.
2.3.1. Types of Distortions

a) The equal-angle projections (conformal). The local scale at each point
remains a constant value every directionally, being different at every point; in such
a case meridians and parallels are at right angle to each other, allowing to measure
all the angles by means of a protractor directly. on the chart. Two equal-area
circles, infinite contours of the Earth, would be represented as two circles, as well,
but of non-equal-area.
b) The equal-area projection is having no area distortions; two identical
contours, situated in different localities of the Earth, would be represented as two
equal-area figures of different shapes.
c) The aphylactic projections are those of some special properties, such as a
simplicity of constructing, convenience of solving some particular navigational
problems etc...
2.3.2. Forms of Graticules
a) Conical projection is one, in which points on the Earth's surface are

transferred to a tangent cone, and then rolling on the plane.
Thus, the conical projections are those, in which the geographical parallels are
represented as concentric circumferences and meridians appear as straight lines,
radiating from the common centre at angles proportional to the corresponding
difference of longitude.
b) Cylindrical projection is one, in which the points on the surface of the
Earth are transferred to a tangent cylinder and then rolling on the plane.
Thus, the cylindrical projections are those, in which the geographical parallels
are represented as straight horizontal lines and meridians are straight vertical lines,
distantly proportional to their longitudes from the original meridian.
c) Azimuthal projection (and Perspective projection as a particular case of
Azimuthal one, when the projecting rays originate from a certain constant point of
view) is one, in which points on the surface of the Earth are transferred directly to
a plane tangent to the Earth at any point All three projections may be of equal
angle, equal area or aphylactic one.
2.4. THE MERCATOR PROJECTION
The most important for navigational purposes are such types of charts, in
which:
- angles on the Earth are equal to angles on the chart; also allowing to
measure by means of a protractor directly on the chart;
- line, which makes a constant angle with all the meridians, would be as a
straight line and hence,
- all the meridians are straight lines at right angles to the Equator and
parallels.
Such a projection was constructed by Belgian inventor Gerard Kremer (who
adopted the name of Mercator) and called the equal-angle cylindrical projection of
Mercator.
To understand the principle of Mercator projection imagine a cylinder around
Earth tangent at the Equator and hence, parallel to the Earth's polar axis.
The stereographic projection. If the origin of the projection rays is the point on
the Earth's surface opposite to the point of tangency plane, a stereographic
projection will result.
This projection is a conformal one; besides, on the chart in stereographic

projection all the circumferences of the Earth's surface are also represented by
circumferences.
Lambert Conformal Projection is a conic projection; any straight line on
Lambert Conformal Projection is a close approximation to a Great Circle as well.
Moreover, all the angles are truly represented on a chart. The distance on the
Lambert conformal chart may be measured either by distance scale, usually printed
on the chart by means of the latitude scale (as Mercator chart).
The Gnomonic Projection
The Gnomonic Projection is a particular case of a Perspective Projection, if the

origin of the projection rays is the centre of the Earth. the Gnomonic Projection is not a
conformal and not an equal-area one. Great Circle (and all the meridians) projects into
the straight line (this property is the most important for navigational purposes);
parallels may be like circles, hyperbolas, parabolas.
2. 6. CLASSIFICATION OF CHARTS
The Hydrographic Department produces several thousand different charts,
which may be grouped into two types Navigational Charts and Non-Navigational
Charts Diagrams. Non-Navigational Charts are those, which cannot be used for
plotting the track and usually are marked: ''Not to be used for navigation". They
are: general purpose charts, meteorological, magnetic, pilot charts; route-and-track,
time zone, star charts and so on. Navigational Charts are those, on which the ship's
track can be plotted. Such charts, as a rule, are drawn on Mercator projection; they
may be subdivided into the following categories: Sailing Charts. These are charts
of a small scale (1:500 000 and smaller), covering a large portion of the globe.
These are planned for use in general studying the conditions of ship's steaming in a
large sea area, in fixing the mariner's position as he approaches the coast from the
open ocean, or for sailing between distant coastwise ports. On such charts the
shoreline and the topography are generalized, and there are shown offshore
soundings, the principal lights, outer buoys, landmarks, visible at considerable
distances, and other outstanding water and coastal features.
General Charts. Scale 1:1000 000-1:500 000. These are planned for coastwise
navigation outside of outlying reefs and shoals. On such charts all the navigational
dangers, lights, floating aids to navigation, landmarks and other water and coastal
features are shown, except those in the inner waters of harbours and estuaries.
Coast Charts. Scale 1:25000-1:75 000. These are used for inshore navigation,
for entering bays, harbours of considerable width and for navigating through large
inland waterways.
Plans (or Harbor). These are of a large scale (1:25 000 and greater) and cover
only a small area: harbour, anchorage area and smaller waterways. Everything of
use to mariners is shown in minute details.
Special Navigational Charts. They are, as a rule, drawn on Mercator
projection; namely, charts of Fishing Industry, Hyperbolic charts (Decca, Loran,
etc.).
Irrespective of the scale every navigational chart has a certain compulsory
information, namely:
- number of the chart, shown in all the charts corners;
- title of the chart, shown in the most convenient place, so that no essential
navigation information is missed from it;
- date of survey of the chart, given under the title;
- date of publication is shown outside the bottom margin of the chart;
- date of new edition;
- date of large corrections and small corrections;
- scale of the chart is shown beneath the title;
- non-standard abbreviations and symbols;
- the units, used for depths, are stated in bold lettering below the title of the
chart;
- tidal information is printed in a suitable position on the chart;
- tidal stream information may be shown by means of arrows or in notes,
giving the time of slack water and the rate of the tidal stream, or in tables, printed
in some convenient place on the chart.
The Chart Folio. The chart folios are issued in numbered geographical sets;
the charts in each folio being arranged as far as possible in numerical order and
contained in a buckram cover.
2.7. WATER FEATURES
Soundings on a chart is a figure that shows the depth of water at that spot
(depth refers the middle point of figures always).
Since the surface of sea is often rising and falling with the state of the tide, it
is necessary to know, at what level of sea the depth, shown by the sounding, is the
true depth. This level is known as the Reduction Level of Soundings, and charts
have a line in the title, stating that soundings have been reduced, as a rule, to the
lowest low water; e. g. the least depth that mariner can expect and he will know
that he will find more water under his keel at all other states.
Soundings are nearly always given in meters and for depth of less than 10
metres - in decimeters, thus: 45 means 4 meters and 5 decimeters. A number of
foreign chart show soundings in fathoms and feet, thus: 65 means 6 fathoms and
5 feet = 41 feet.
Isobaths (the lines of equal depth, contour line). All soundings of certain
depths are enclosed by lines so that the mariner will know that, if his track crosses
the line, he will be in a certain depth or less.
Underwater Dangers - Bank and Rock (patch of rock). Those that uncover as
tide goes down are serious dangers: area is enclosed with a dotted line, this
indicates that a mariner should not enter any such area.
Corals, which form so common a danger in tropical waters, are treated in a
similar manner.
Seaweed or kelp is shown by a pictorial symbol.
Wrecks are shown by different symbols.
Foul Ground. At area, which is full of small dangers, such as sunken rocks
debris of wrecks or other objects.
Obstructions. There some objects are dangers to shipping, of which the nature
is unknown or uncertain, or have been accidentally left or deposited.
The letters ED mean "Existence Doubtful",
PA mean "Position Approximate",
PO mean "Position Doubtful", (often the report is perfectly definite, but
uncertainty arises about the exact position).
Tidal races or tide rips and over falls are shown by a group of short wavy
lines.
Whirlpools and eddies are a group of spirals.
Oceanic currents are lines with arrow-heads.
Tidal stream is shown by straight arrows; the flood stream (or ingoing) – with
feathers on one side; while the ebb (or out-going) is shown with arrows, which
have no feathers at all.
Fishing stakes are various erections for catching fish.
Spoil Ground is an area, in which dredged - up material may be dumped.
Special areas are endorsed by lines of short fine pecks: Harbour Limits,
Prohibited Anchorage (usually on account of cables, lying on sea bed) and so on.
THE SEA BOTTOM

It is important for mariners to know the nature of sea bed, whether it is hard
or soft; sandy or muddy, gravel or rocks. By this information he can only decide,
what is good-holding ground for anchors. Series of abbreviations been designed:
M-mud; S-sand; St-stone; Cy-clay; Co-coral; G-gravel; Oz-ooze; P-pebbles;
R-rock; Sh-shell; Sn-shingle.
It is also necessary to describe, what sort and colour is the ground: these
qualities are always shown in small letters, thus:
b-blue, bl-black, br-brown, d-dark, gn-green, gy-grey, w-white, y-yeIIow;
bk-broken, c-coarse, f-fine, h-hard, I-large, so-soft, sm-small.
The complete description of all the abbreviations concerned is given in the
special publications:
US "Chart No l. Nautical Chart Symbols and Abbreviations",
UK "Chart No 5011. Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts".
2.8 Correction of Charts and Publications
HOW TO CORRECT YOUR CHARTS THE ADMIRALTY WAY “NP-294”

Information available from the Weekly Edition of Admiralty Notices to mariners.
NOTICES TO MERINERS:
One the front cover there is a list of Contents, reference to Copyright, important
Fax/Telephone numbers, e-mail and website addresses, and a request to inform
the UKHO on discovery of new dangers or shortcomings in Admiralty products.
Section I). Explanatory Notes and Publications List.
Searchable Notices to Mariners are now available on line at the UKHO Website.
For an explanation of how to access and use the website for ANMs see chapter 4.
The beginning of this section contains guidance notes for use of Admiralty
Notices to Mariners on-line. There are a number of explanatory notes about
specific items within the Weekly Notices to Mariners.
It is strongly recommended that you red thoroughly the “EXPLANATORY
NOTES”.
Admiralty Charts and Publications Now Published and Available. This part
contains a list of New Charts and Publications, followed by New Editions of
Charts and Publications published in the last week and available from Admiralty
Charts Agents. It is important to monitor this information in case you should be
left with an out-of-date edition of a chart which has been superseded by a new
version. When you receive a NC/NE, you mast destroy the old superseded copies
immediately. It is dangerous to use an out-of-date edition of a chart.
Admiralty Charts and Publications to be published a list of charts to be
published as New Charts or New Editions of Existing Charts and a list of New
Admiralty Publications scheduled to be published on a certain date in the future.
They will be available from Admiralty Chart Agent on this date. This is included
so that you can place advanced orders with your Admiralty Chart Agent.
Revised Publication dates This paragraph revises the publication date of a chart
or publication which has been announced in previous weeks. A reason for any
delay is given.
Section IA). Temporary and Preliminary Notices (Monthly).
This section contains a list of T&P notices cancelled during the previous month
and a list of those T&P notices previously published and in force.
Section IB). Current Hydrographic Publications(Quarterly)
In addition information is provided on Hydrographic Publications, every e.g.
the end of March, June, September, December. This section lists the current
editions of:
1. Admiralty Sailing Direction and their latest Supplements;
2. Admiralty List of lights and Fog Signal;
3. Admiralty List of Radio Signal;
4. Admiralty Tidal Publications.
This information is also contained in the Cumulative List of Admiralty Notices
to Mariners (NP 234), which is published every six months.
Section II). Indexes and Text of Admiralty Notices to Mariners
Geographical Index. This index gives you a quick reference to those pages
dealing with corrections to charts in a particular geographical area.
Index Pages on receipt of the weekly Edition you should look at the Index of
Charts affected by the Admiralty Notices to mariners (ANMs) and compare it
with your stock record to identify those charts to be corrected. The appropriate
ANM numbers should be inserted against the affected chart in your NP 133A or
other record as explained in chapter 1
Corrections. The first Notices in Section II refers to miscellaneous chart
corrections which normally arise because of the publication of a New Chart or
New Edition.
For example, the legend “see chart…” may nave to be insert on a chart covering
the some area as a new chart now covers or deleted because the chart referred to
has been withdrawn. Alternatively, chart limits may need to be inserted or
altered.
NOTES:
In this example some new depths have been inserted. This has changed the
position of the contours which now need to be extended around the depths.
Position the new depth, either by using the tracing (if you nave one) or by
accurately plotting from the notice to mariners. You may have to arrow the
depths in place. Extend the contour lines around the position of the new depths
then delete the old parts of the contour lines in the usual way.
Temporary and preliminary NMs: These are shown by (t) or (p) after the ANM
number and a reference to the year of publication, see the explanatory notes at
the beginning of section I of the Weekly edition. Temporary notices may be issued
to warn of temporary changes in aids to navigation or to warn you of hazards of a
temporary nature e.g. a naval exercise, exploratory drilling, dredging, etc…
Preliminary Notices may contain the latest information about new permanent
changes e.g. harbour works, or a bridge under construction. These may provide
you with
1. Advanced notice of changes about to take place,
2. An outline of changes found in an examination of a new survey or a foreign
chart which will later be promulgated by block correction or urgent New Edition.
Section (IIA).
Since the publication of Weekly Edition 9 dated 6th march 1993, it has been the
practice to edit the texts of New Zealand NMs and publish them as British
admiralty NMs. However, for those who require to know the full details for all
New Zealand chart correcting (i.e. Not T+P) NMs, there is an unabridged version
of these produced in this Section IIA.
At the end of Section II you will find Cautionary Notes, Blocks, Depth Table and
Diagrams associated with the corrections listed in section IIA.
NOTES:
Draw the “foul” symbol close by the light to be deleted. Replace the light symbol
with a small circle and arrow the foul symbol to the position of the light. Deleted
the remainder of the light and its description using two lines to strike through if
you are using a very thin nib.
Selection (III).
See the note at the start of section 3 of the Weekly Edition. More details
regarding this information can be found in the Annual Notices number 13 and the
Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume 3.
These warning are re-prints of those issued and promulgated through the
Worldwide Navigational Warning Service in the week preceding the in –force
date at the top of the page.
Section (IV). Amendments to Admiralty sailing directions (SDs).

These publications help give more information about the area covered by the
chart you are using so it is important to record any changes to the text and have
them on hand to refer to when needed. If a supplement for any SD has been
published you should correct the Supplement using this information. It is printed
on one side of the page so that you can cut it out and stick it in the appropriate
place. At the end of each calendar month a list is published of all Corrections to
Admiralty Sailing Directions which are in force.
NOTES:
This is a simple change to the light description. It is a good idea to rewrite the
range of the light with the “M” alongside it or it could be mistaken for a
sounding. Remember to delete the oil range.
Section (V). Amendments to Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals (ALLs).
Each week there are changes affecting the volumes of ALLs. The most
important of theses changes are reflected in the chart corrections but not
necessarily in the some weekly edition.
It is important to have the complete details of a light or fog signal which may
not be shown on the affected volume.
NOTES:
Despite the complicated look of this correction, it is really a simple deletion.
When deleting at light sector it is important to use double strike through lines to
signify the deletion. There is less chance that this will be confused with something
else on the chart. Be sure to delete all the detail of the light and sector lines as
shown on the tracing. Do not delete using the method shown on the tracing you
should be able to see what has been deleted.
Section (VI). Amendment to Admiralty list of Radio Signals (ALRS).

Equally important is the information contained in these volumes. The weekly
lists of alterations supply up to date information and you must correct you
volumes of ALRS accordingly.
At the end of each Weekly NM a Hydrographic Note (H102) and a
Hydrographic Note for Port Information (102a) is for your use if you find any
information of navigational importance which is not already on your chart and
which you wish to tell us about.

NOTES:
The easiest way to apply this correction is to use a clean fine toothed hacksaw
blade. Pilot the positions where the cable joins. Lay the hacksaw blade between
the first two positions ensuring that the blades are running the right way. You
don’t want to cut the end off your pen! Do not press too heavily on your pen, let it
run smoothly along the blade. Be careful not to run your cable through other
information on the chart such as soundings.
NAVIGATIONAL WARNING
General information
The two main systems used to provide the Mariner with the latest navigational
information are Admiralty Notices to Mariners, and Radio Navigational Warnings for
more urgent information.
Radio Navigational Warnings

There are three types of Radio Navigational Warnings:
NAVAREA Warnings, Coastal Warnings and Local Warnings.
Many navigational warnings" are of a temporary nature, but others remain in force
for several months or may be succeeded by Notices to Mariners.
NAVAREA Warnings are promulgated by the World-wide Navigational Warning
Service (WWNWS), established jointly by IHO and IMO. The service divides the world
into 16 NAVAREAs, identified by Roman numerals. Each area is under the authority
of an Area Co-coordinator, to whom National Coordinators pass navigational warnings
originated by their own countries, deemed suitable for promulgation in the appropriate
NAVAREA.
NAVAREA Warnings are normally sufficient for a vessel passing through main
shipping lanes clear of the coast, and for route planning purposes. The messages are in
English. 1.57
Navtex is a radio Telex broadcasting service which has been developed by IMO to form
an international marine safety information service for use in certain NAVAREAs. The
service broadcasts navigational warnings, meteorological information and initial
distress messages, which can be received and printed by a Navtex receiver left
operational continuously. For details, see Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol 5.
Coastal Warnings are issued by the National Coordinator of the country of origin and
give information which is of importance only in a particular region. They often
supplement the information in NAVAREA Warnings. The messages are in English, but
may also be in the local language. 1.59
Local Warnings are usually issued by port, pilot age or coastguard authorities. They
give information which normally is not required by oceangoing ships. The message may
only be in the local language. 1.60
ADMIRALTY NOTICES TO MARINERS
General information
Admiralty Notices to Mariners, Weekly Editions, contain information which enables
the Mariner to keep his charts and books published by the Hydrographic
Department up-to-date for the latest reports received.
The Notices are published in Weekly Editions, and are issued by the Hydrographic
Department on a daily basis to certain Admiralty Chart Agents.
Overlay Correction Tracings are used extensively by HM Ships, Admiralty Chart
Depots and Chart Agents which stock charts corrected to date.
The tracings show graphically the precise correction required to each chart by a
Notice, and enable positions to be pricked through onto the chart. Copies of the
tracings are reprinted by the British Nautical Instrument Trade Association and can
be purchased through Admiralty Chart Agents.
When using these tracings the text of the printed Notice must invariably be
consulted.
CORRECTION OF CHARTS
General information
No correction, except those given in Section II of Admiralty Notices to

Mariners, Weekly Editions, should be made to any chart in ink.
Corrections to charts from information received from authorities other
than the Hydrographic Department may be noted in pencil, but no
charted danger should be expunged without the authority of the
Hydrographer of the Navy.
All corrections given in Notices to Mariners should be inserted on the
charts affected. When they have been completed the numbers of the Notices
should be entered (1.94) clearly and neatly; permanent Notices in
waterproof violet ink, Temporary and Preliminary Notices in pencil.
Temporary and Preliminary Notices should be rubbed out as soon as the
Notice is received cancelling them.
Chart 5011—Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts should be
followed to ensure uniformity of corrections. These symbols are
invariably indicated on Overlay Correction Tracings (1.64).
If several charts are affected by one Notice, the largest scale chart should
be corrected first to appreciate the detail of the correction.
Last correction
When correcting a chart, first check that the last published correction to it,
which is given at the end of the new Notice, has been made to the chart
Detail required
Notices adding detail to charts indicate how much detail should be added to
each chart, but Notices deleting detail do not always make this distinction.
If a shortened description would result in ambiguity between adjacent aids,
detail should be retained.
The insertion of excessive detail not only clutters the chart, but can lead
to errors, since the charts quoted as affected in each Notice assume the
Mariner has reduced with the scale of the charts the details inserted by
previous Notices.
Alterations
Erasures should never be made. Where necessary, detail should be crossed
through, or in the case of lines, such as depth contours or limits, crossed
with a series of short double strokes, slanting across the line. Typing
correction fluids, such as 'Tipp-Ex', should not be used.
Alterations to depth contours, deletion of depths to make way for detail, etc,
are not mentioned in Notices unless they have some navigational significance.
Blocks
Some Notices are accompanied by reproductions of portions of charts (known as
'Blocks'). When correcting charts from blocks, the following points should be
borne in mind.
A block may not only indicate the insertion of new information, but also the omission
of matter previously shown. The text of the Notice should invariably be read
carefully. The limiting lines of a block are determined for convenience of
reproduction. They need not be adhered to when cutting out for pasting on the chart,
provided that the preceding paragraph is taken into consideration.
Owing to distortion the blocks do not always fit the chart exactly. When pasting a
block on a chart, therefore, care should be taken that the more important
navigational features fit as closely as possible. This is best done by fitting the block
while it is dry and making two or three pencil ticks round the edges for use as
fitting marks after the paste is applied to the chart.
Completion of corrections
Whenever a correction has been made to a chart the number of the Notice and the
year (if not already shown) should be entered in the bottom left-hand corner of the
chart: the entries for permanent Notices as Small Corrections, and those for
Temporary and Preliminary Notices, in pencil, below the line of Small Corrections.
Admiralty Sailing Directions

Scope
Admiralty Sailing Directions arc complementary to the chart and to the other
navigational publications of the Hydrographic Department. They are written with
the assumption that the reader has the appropriate chart before him and other
relevant publications to hand.
The information in Sailing Directions is intended primarily for vessels over 1 2 m in
length. It may, however, like that on the charts, affect any vessel, but it does not
take into account the special needs of hovercraft, submarines under water, deep
draught tows and other special vessels.
The limits of the various volumes are shown inside the front cover of this book.
Notice to Mariners:
Corrections
The text of an ANM always follows the same format :
a b
1868 North America , West coast – California – Humbollt bay – North spit
–
Radiobeacon
c
Delete radiobeacon, RC charts 2531
c
4801 & 4806 , radiobeacon, RC , at light (a) 40046'11''N ; 124013'22''W
(b) 40045'45''N ; 124013'06''W
Chart [hast correction] 3095 (plan, Humboltd bay) (a) [New edition 12/12/99] – 3121 (b)
[914/97] – 2531 (a) [914/97] – 2530(a) [1187/97] – 4801 (INT 801) (a )[4236/96] – 4806
(a) [298/96]
e
(a) the ANM number in the current year which should be recorded at the bottom left
land corner of the chart after you have corrected the chart.
(b) The retell of the correction include the geographical area or country , a more
specific region or port and the nature of the correction.
(c) The text of the correction comes next. Be careful when noting positions. Latitude
and Longitude can be shown in minutes ( ' ) and seconds ( '' ) or minutes and decimal
minutes. Depending on the chart graduation . the above example shows both .
(d) The charts affected include basic and latticed versions . you will note that not all
charts are affected by the entire ANM; the parts of ANM which do apply to a
particular chart are shown in rounded brackets( ). The square brackets [] contain the
previous correction number or NEW EDITION / PUBLICATION date for that chart.
The following points should be noted:
Charts are listed according to scale with the largest scale first.
If the information contained in the square brackets does not agree with the information
on your chart, you are missing one or more NMs onto the cart for the latest ANM.
NB. Tracings should always be filed number. That way all relevant information for
any particular chart is kept together and if that chart is cancelled or replaced by a New
Edition / New Chart, all the old tracings relating to that chart can be destroyed.
(e) When the correction affects a light and / or Admiralty List Of Radio Signals volume
and the appropriate number will be shown.
(f) The source of the information and the United Kingdom Hydrographic office
(UKHO) reference in brackets.
How to correct your charts:

Position must be clear, exact!
Depth and symbols must be clear!
Legends and descriptions must be readable!
2.9 AIDS TO NAVIGATION
Beacons are fixed structures, built on rocks or shoals, or land to act as

guides to the mariner. On the chart beacons appear to be as small circles;
they may be lighted.
Lights are established at suitable position around the coast and on off-
lying is lands. The precise position of such lights, as a rule, is shown by five-
pointed star with a dot. Each light has a different character (Type, period,
colour, elevation, visibility, etc.) from its neighbours. The principal types are:
F-fixed (is constantly visible);

Fl- flashing (is visible for a short period and then obscured for a longer
one).
Occ - occulting (obscured for an interval shorter than visible);
Iso - isophase (light and darkness are equal in a period);
Gp - group;
Ait - alternating (colour of light is made to change).
Many lights have sector, showing the limit of their visibility. The bearings of
sector limits are always given from seaward. .
Elevation is used to denote the height of a light or other navigation mark
above the Mean High Water Springs.
Height is confined to the actual height of the object above the ground.
Light Vessels. At the important positions light vessels are established.
Buoys. There is an immense variety of shape and colour of buoys, but in
general they conform to a well - defined system. Many buoys have lights. (See
"LALA Maritime Buoyage System" 1980).
Leading Line. Two objects in line form a Transit. Examples are: two lights or
two beacons in line; a beacon and a church; the extreme edge of an island in line
with a conspicuous mountain, and so on.
All the isolated conspicuous objects, such as flagstaffs, masts, pylons,
chimneys, etc. are shown by a small circle with or without a dot in the middle.
A Magnetic Variation, date and statement that the Variation is "increasing or
decreasing" by a certain amount annually are always inserted.
2.10 ABBREVIATIONS OF BRITISH ADMIRALTY CHARTS
SEABED
ფსკერი
S sand ქვიშა
M mud ტალახი
Cy clay თიხა
Si silt ლამი
St stones ქვა
G gravel ზღვის ხრეში
P pebbles ღორღი
Cb cobbles მსხვილი ღორღი
R rock კლდე
Co coral მარჯანი
Sh shells ნიჟარა
S/M send over ქვიშა შლამზე
Fs.m.Sh mixed bottom: where the შერეული ნიადაგი:
seabed compises a mixture of ზღვის ფსკერი შედგება
materials, the main სხვადასხვა მასალისაგან,
constituent is given first, e.g.
ძირითადად ჭარბობს:
fine sand with mud and shells
წვრილი ქვიშა, შლამი,
ნიჟარები
Wd weed (including kelp) ზღვის მცენარე
kelp წყალმცენარეები
sandwaves წყალქვეშა ქვიშის
ტალღები
springs in seabed მინერალები ფსკერზე
Gd grd ground ნიადაგი
Oz ooze შლამი
ML marl მერგელი
Sn shin shingle ხრეში
BO boulders კაჭარი(ძალიან დიდი
ქვა)
CK chk chalk ცარცი
Qz qrtz quartz კვარცი
Ba basalt ბაზალტი
Lv lava ლავა
Pm pum pumice პემზა
T tufa ტუფი
LIGHTS
შუქები
F fixed მუდმივი
OOcculting (tota duration of light longer than შუქის ხანგრძლივობა მეტია
total duration o darkness) სიბნელეზე
Oc Occ single-occulting ქრობადი ერთი შუქი
Oc (2) GpOcc(2) group-occulting ჯგუფურად ქრობადი
რთული ჯგუფად
Oc(2+3) GpOcc(2+3) composite group-occulting
ქრობადი
იზოფაზა (შუქისა და სიბნელის
Isophase (duration of light and darkness equal)
ხანგრძლივობა ტოლია)
Iso isiphase იზოფაზა
Flashing (total duration of light shorter than შუქის ხანგეძლივობა ნაკლებია

total duration of darkness) სიბნელეზე
Fl single-flashing მქრთომარე ერთი შუქი
Fl(3) GpFl(3) group-flashing ჯგუფური მქრთომარე
შუქი
Fl(2+3) GpFl(2+3) composite group-flashing რთული ჯგუფად
მქთომარე
LFl long-flashing ხანგრძლივად
მქრთომარე
Quick სწრაფად მქრთომარე
Q QkFl continuous quick სწრაფად მქთომარე
Q(3) QkFl(3) group quick ჯგუფურად მქთომარე
LQ lntQkFl interrupted quick ჯგუფურად მქრთომარე
შეწყვეტით
veri quick ძალიან სწრაფი
VQ VQkFl continuous very quick ძალიან სწრაფად
VQ(3) VQkFl(3) group very quick ჯგუფურად ძალიან
სწრაფად მქთომარე
LVQ lntVQkFl interrupted very quick ძალიან სწრაფად
მქრთომარე შეწყვეტით
ultra quick ულტრა სწრაფი
UQ continuous ultra quick ულტრა სწრაფი
IUQ interrupted ultra quick ულტრა სწრაფად
მქთომარე შეწყვეტით
Mo(k) Morse Code მორზეს კოდი
FFl Fixde and Flashing მუდმივად მქრთომაე
Al.WR Alt.WR alternating ცვალებადი
LATERAL MARKS REGION A
PORT HAND STARBOARD

HAND
Colour: Red. Colour: Green.

Shape: Can, pillar or spar. Shape: Conical, pillar or spar.
Topmark: Single red can. Topmark; Single green cone
poin upward.
Retroreflector: Red band or square. Retroreflector: Green band or
triangle.
LIGHTS, when fitted, may have any rhythm other than composite group flashing (2 + 1)
used on
modified Lateral marks indicating a preferred channel. Examples are:
PREFERED CHANENELS
At the point where a channel divides, when proceeding in the conventional direction
of buoyage, a preferred channel is indicated by a modified port or starboard Lateral
mark as follows.
LATERAL MARKS REGION B
PORT HAND STARBOARD HAND
Colour: Green. Colour: Red.
Topmark; Single green cylinder (can). Topmark: Single red cone point
upward,
Retroreflector: Green band or square. Retroreflector: Red band or
triangle
LIGHTS, when fitted, may have any rhythm other than composite group flashing (2 + 1) used
on modified Lateral marks indicating a preferred channel. Examples are:
PREFERED CHANENELS
At the point where a channel divides, when proceeding in the conventional direction of
buoyage, a preferred channel is indicated by a modified port or starboard Lateral mark as
follows.
Preferred channel to starboard Preferred channel to port
Colour: Green with one broad red band.. Colour: Red with one broad green
band.
Topmark: Single. green can. Topmark: Single red cone point
upward.
Retroreflector: Green band or square. Retroreflector: Red band or triangle
CARDINAL MARKS
Topmarks are always fitted (when practicable) Buoy shapes are pillar or spar
ISOLATED DANGER MARKS
Topmark
(This is a very important feature by day and is fitted wherever practicable)
Shape: pillar or spar
SAFE WATER MARKS
Topmark
(if the buoy is not spherical, this is a
very important feature by day and is
fitted wherever practicable)
Shape: spherical, pillar or spar
Topmark
(if fitted)
Shape: optional
If these shapes are used they will indicate the

side on which the buoys should be passed
NOTES
Retroreflectors illustrated are those of the composite code.

In the standard code, these marks are distinguished by one
or more white bands, letters, numerals or symbols.
2.9.CORRECTION OF CHARTS
Charts are corrected from some modem information.

On the ship any small correction is supplied by the issue of a ''Notice to
Mariners" and "Local Notice to Mariners" - in USA, "Weekly Home Edition" - in
UK, from which a navigator can correct his copy' by hand. Sometimes a ''Notice
to Mariners" will include a reproduction of a small area of a chart, on which the
corrections have been carried out: this can be cut out and pasted over the chart.
The letters - T means "Temporary", P - "Preliminary".
Tracings for chart correction

Tracing to facilitate the correction of chart; they are provided (or all
permanent navigational chart corrections promulgated in the Weekly Edition of
Admiralty Notices to Mariners.
Each tracing is a pictorial presentation of the printed notice.
Nowadays transmitting stations are more and more coming on the air around
the world to provide automatic updating: NAVAREA, HYDROLANTC,
HYDROPACKS and so on. NAVTEX answers all the important requirements of
the automatic reception of all Marine Safety Information, including urgent
information to the ship.
NAVTEX is an international warning system which transmits navigational
data and weather information concerning searches, etc:
The type of information that is vital for all ships, regardless of size and
purpose. This system is available 24 hours a day, whenever you need it.
The NAVTEX system will become global, and cover all busy coastal areas by
1993.
Many transmitters are already in operation. The range of a transmitter is 200 -
400 nautical miles. NAVTEX receiver is developed and manufactured in
accordance with the strictest regulations. It is reliable and robust even under
extreme conditions. It is automatic and features the option of receiving from one or
more stations, or from all stations within range. NAVTEX reports are illuminated
and clearly written to ensure the user can easily read the message, day or night.
Receiver has a "silence" function. This means, that all reports are received,
but only the most recent and most relevant ones are saved.
The operator can decide when the reports should be printed. Operation.
requires only 4 control keys. All additional functions are carried out via a menu
written on the paper roll, with detailed applications.
2.10. DEGREE OF RELIANCE OF CHARTS
A charts is riot more accurate than the survey, on which it is based. In order to
judge the accuracy and completeness of a survey note its source and date, which are
generally given in the title; the earlier surveys were often made under the
circumstances that prevented from great accuracy of details.
The fullness of sounding i~ another method of estimating the completeness of
the survey; the large blank means that no soundings were obtained in these spots.
When surrounding water is shallow, or when the chart shows the presence of reefs
and banks in the vicinity, such blanks should be regarded with a suspicion; this is
especial. coral regions and off - rocky coasts. A wide berth should therefore be given
to these areas.
Bear in mind that even the closest sounding may not detect sharp inequalities
the bottom. In this connection the special remarks, included in the introduction to
each volume of "Sailing Directions", should be carefully studied before using the
chart.
2.11. PLOTTING PROBLEMS ON THE MERCATOR CHART
Plotting Equipment: Dividers (Compasses) should be tight enough to remain

as set, but not so tight that setting is difficult.
Protractors are intended for measuring direction on a chart; one is so
constructed that, the angle between the course (or bearing) and the meridian may be
read from the azimuth circle, where the meridian cuts it diametrically.
Parallel Ruler consists of two straight edges, connected by equal-length strips,
pivoted at both ends, so that, if one edge is fixed along a line, the other is restricted
to a motion parallel to the first. They are used to transfer courses and bearing.
However, if the held edge is allowed to slip or there is any lost motion, the errors are
cumulative.
1. To Find Latitude and Longitude of a Charted Position.
The Latitude of any position is determined by using the dividers to measure the
distance of a point to the nearest parallel; The Longitude is found in a similar way.
2. To Plot a Position, Described by its Longitude and Latitude.
On the East or West border of a chart (as convenient) mark the place,
corresponding to the latitude given, then to set the parallel of Latitude by Parallel
Ruler.
On the North or South border of a chart (as convenient) measure Longitude by
dividers and deposit along the edge of Parallel Ruler.
3. To Measure Distance Between two Positions.
Estimate the mean Latitude between two positions; set dividers to the distance
between positions and read off this on Latitude scale, 'so that mean Latitude is as
near half way, as may be judged. The limitation of a scale in accuracy must be born
in mind.
4. To Read a Bearing Between Two Positions.
Two positions are joined by a pencil line or by edges of Parallel Rulers; then
measure bearing by a protractor in such a way that its center coincides with the
nearest meridian, shows bearing required. One should be sure that the bearing is read
in the right direction, without the fault of reading 180° in error.
5. To Plot the Rhumb Line.
The center of a protractor and the given division of its azimuth circle must coin-
cide with a chart meridian: then, the distant scale indicates the direction of the
rhumb line required. Such a direction may be easily trasferred to shy desired position
on the chart by means of parallel - rulers.
6. To Transfer a Position from One Chart to Another.
Whenever possible, a position should be transferred from one chart to another
by bearing and distance from a distinguishing feature common to both and not by
Latitude and Longitude, the graduation of which may differ on two charts (owing to
one, being constructed on another ref/ellipsoid).
3. GRAPHIC RECKONING AND SAILINGS
The previous chapter have been devoted to the discussion in detail the basic
principles of navigation, the various charts and instruments, some other
problems, required for the safe navigation of the vessel. The purpose of the
present chapter, is to relate, each of these ones to the practice of reckoning, the
actual ship's ,track at open sea. A navigator uses reckoning to know an
approximate position of the ship at any time between observations and obtaining
her predictive position at any desired time
Dead - reckoning (DR), originally Ded (from Deduced), is now a method of
navigation, by which the approximate position of a vessel is deduced from the
course steered and speed through the water; including the full allowance for tidal
stream, current, wind, sea and other outer agencies as applicable. Sometimes, the
term "Estimated Position" is used instead of "Dead Reckoning".
DR may be c1assified as a process of graphic determining a ship's
approximate position; the graphic solution has many advantages, notably 'that
there is less chance ,of arithmetical errors, it enables the navigator to visualize his
work and position of his ship. with reference to dangers, to navigation aids and
landmarks; it provides rapid solution of practical accuracy. Occasionally,
however, it a navigator determines a ship's course and distance by computations
or tables; such a way of determining ship's position being usually entitled as the
Sailings (there is an essential difference between two meanings of the word
"sailing", namely: in singular it means proceeding under sail or departing from a
port);
3.1. DEAD RECKONING WITHOUT EFFECTS OF WIND AND

CURRENT
The abbreviation "DR" is here used to cover all the positions that are obtained
only from the course steered by the ship and her speed through the water and,
strictly speaking, from no other factors.
A set of rules has been developed which, when followed, will result in a plot
that can be read and understood by navigator. These rules may be briefly stated, as
follows:
1. An essential part of the plot is the proper labeling of all the lines and all the
points on the chart used. The labels indicating directions and rates of movement
along a DR ship's track (True Course TC) should lie along the top of that line. The
labels for any DR point consist of:
- a symbol, using a short dash perpendicularly to line of DR track.
- a label, which is always a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the time
and the denominator shows the corresponding ship's log readings.
2. A DR ship's position shall be plotted: every hour, at time of every course
and/or speed change, at time of obtaining a Line of Position.
3. As soon as the Fix has been determined and plotted on the chart, a new DR
track shall be plotted from this Fix.
4. The Bearing and distance from DR to Fix (obs) is discrepancy, labeled Disc
5. Other labeling - transference from another chart; - cutting out the log; -
anchoring; - drifting; - allowance for leeway and current; - turning (to starboard or
port) etc.
The navigator is usually faced with the problem of solving "three tasks": what
time and log's reading in moment:
Lighthouse X: a) Will it be abeam? b) Is the ship in the closest point of
approach to lighthouse X? c) Is the Lighthouse X light sighted?
a) First of all, it is necessary to calculate True Bearing under the formula
TB1 =TC  900 for the moment of abeam (RTB = 90°) to find the point of
intersection TB1 and the ship's track (TC).
To take from the chart used distance S from the above point of intersection
and that of DR at T1; using the ship's speed Vs and moment T, when the
lighthouse is abeam: T =S/Vs; solve also the difference of log's readings,
corresponding to this time T: R =S/K, where K is so - called Log's Coefficient;
Solve the instant T2 when the lighthouse X is abeam and the intended log's
reading R2 at the moment T2 : .
T2= T1 + T R2 = R1 +R.
b) In this case point b) coincides with point a).
c) First, one must find the distance of visibility of the object D0.
Then, determine Ss and Ts and Rs in a similar way.
In his routine work the navigator faces with the problem of finding the True
course, when he has worked out the True course on the chart (Right and back
tasks):
TC = CC + CC CC = TC -  CC
3.2. PLOTING WITH THE ACCOUNT OF WIND
First of all, let us note that the system of naming the direction, of the wind is
“in compass", i. e. wherefrom the wind blows. Certainly, a northerly wind blows
from the North. Let us take the action of the wind on a hull or a superstructure. The
ship's speed is reduced or increased by wind; the loss or gain of speed through the
water, caused by the wind, has been allowed for in DR by log.
The effect of the lateral movement of a vessel, produced by the pressure of the
wind, blowing across the direction of heading, in causing the track actually, was to
incline to leeward of the direction steered, by an amount, depending upon the force
and the direction of the wind and characteristics of the vessel.
The effect of the wind will vary with every type of a ship, and it is imperative
that the navigator should collect as much information as possible, concerning the
effect of force and direction of wind on behavior of his particular ship. Such data
should be noted in the Navigational Data Book.
Leeway DR Track is a track line, allowed for Leeway, labeled thus “LDRT".
The ship's rate of travel along LDRT equals its speed made good through the
water, i. e. speed of advance; since the ship's log indicates wind influences on
exchanging such a speed (labeled "VLTC"). Leeway is an amount, which a ship
drifts or makes to leeward of her True Course, when she is sailing or steaming with
the wind on sick . Expressed in degrees, labeled "  " and must be allowed: Leeway
True course = True course +  (course made good or course of advance); the
correction for Leeway is always when the wind is on the port side of a ship and
Minus when it is on the starboard.
The vessel close to the half wind will make more Leeway, then she was clean
full; and will make more Leeway, when she is flying light than she is more deeply
loaded.
The allowance for Leeway must always be an approximation as it is
sometimes estimated by looking simply astern and noting visually. the angle
between the ship's fore and - aft line and the wake she leaves behind her (as so
many degrees as an observer may decide).
As to a modem ship, its Leeway is normally determined by means of the most
accurate rated method or by Fix.
The navigator is faced with two problems ("right" and "back") of finding the
Leeway - in his routine work. They are: True course, when he has taken the
compass. course, and finding the compass - course, when he has worked out the
Leeway True course on the chart:
LTC = CC +  C +  ; CC = LTC - AC - 
And there are three tasks a) b) c), as mentioned above:
a) What Time and log's reading are when a Lighthouse is abeam?
b) What are they in the closest point of Approach?
c) What are they when sighting?
Points a) and c) coincide with the same item 3. 1.
B) To draw the straight line through the Lighthouse perpendicularly to the
LTC (one may use the dividers or compasses to determine the closest point of
Approach (CPA) and to mark the point of intersection between such a
perpendicular and LTC; to take the distance S from the above point of intersection
and that of DR at T1; then, use the ship's speed along Leeway DR ship's track to
determine time T, elapsed between T1 and the moment CPA:
T = S/VLTC ; also to solve the difference of log's readings corresponding to
this time, elapsed T: R = S/K; to solve the instant TCPA and the intended log's
reading RCPA at that moment:
TCPA=T1+T; RCPA=R1+R
3. 3. CURRENT SAILING
There are several well-defined Permanent Currents in the World Ocean,

caused by steady winds, seasonal movements of water, tidal streams, which are the
horizontal movements of water ,caused by periodic rise and fall of water due to the
tidal effect of Sun and Moon. Such movements of water toward the land are
termed Floods away from the land are Ebbs (streams). When Tidal Streams change
direction, the so - called Slack Water occurs. The Information, concerning
Currents, is given on navigational charts, in Sailing Directions, in Special Tidal
Stream Publications.
To allow for influence of a current is necessary to know two its elements,
namely the direction, towards which this current flows (from a compass) and its
velocity direction is termed Set; it is usually expressed in degrees. The velocity,
expected in knots, is normally named the Drift, labeled "V".
Allowing for Current, the Navigator is usually faced with the problem of
solving the so - called Current Triangle, that is a vector diagram, constructed
graphically in which one side represents the Leeway DR Track (or the DR Track
simply, if there is no Leeway effect at all), the other side represents Actual Track,
and the third side represents the Current. It is widely known that, if any two sides
of a triangle are known, third side of it can be determined.
First case - "right problem" - to find Actual Track and the Actual Speed along
it. The Course Steered, Set and Drift of Current are given.
Actual Track (AT) is the track line, actually followed in proceeding from One
point to another. The direction of AT, measured from 00 at North clockwise
through 3600 course made good .
The ship's rate of travel along AT is its Speed over the Ground (Speed of
Advance), labeled VAT. The following example will show the method of the
graphic solution of the problem in question. At T1/R1 the ship is known to be in
 1, 1 steering CC and making good speed VTC through water; the log correction is
l ; gyrocompass correction It is found from the pilot chart that a current should be
setting with a rate VC “Right problem": What are the actual ship's track and actual
ship's speed over the ground.
Take into account and do the following:
- starting point A and ship's course, steered TC, are plotted on the chart to
show. the hour run (or on the separate sheet of paper);
- measure off VTC miles and lay it of from the point along TC, thus obtaining
point B, which will be the ship's position at Ti + lh, provided there are no currents
at all;
- from B layoff line VC (vector, representing set of current and the length
equal to current drift). This represents the amount, the ship will be set by the
current per hour (mark this point C);
- complete the c4rient vector sailing, diagram by drawing line AC.
This line is the direction of the actual track (AT), while its length represents
actual speed VTC in knots:
=AT-TC; AT=TC+; TC=AT- (AT=CMG).
Since both these forces act simultaneously, the ship would remain on the
line AT Throughout.
"Back problem".
When a navigator knows the direction he wishes to proceed (AT), and the
direction and strength of current, his problem is to Find the Course to be Steered
and Actual Speed along the Given Actual Track, when speed VTC through the
water and set and drift are given.
The following example will show the method of graphic solution of the
problem in question.
At T1/ R1 the ship is known to be in  1, 1, making good the speed is VTC,
actual track is AT; both the log and gyrocompass corrections are known too. The
current should be setting at a rate VC "Back problem": What course (TC) must the
ship steer? What will VTC be?
- starting point A and ship's AT are plotted on a chart;
- from starting point A layoff line AD; vector VC represents the direction of
set of current, the length is equal to drift; .
- with centre D and radius equal to speed VTC through water cut the line of AT
at course direction DC is direction true course TC to be steered, while the length
AC presents actual speed VTC in knots.
TC=AT-
3.4. PLOTTNG WHEN LEEWAY OF WIND AND DRIFT

OF CURRENT MUST BE SIMULTANEOUSLY ALLOWED FOR
At T1/R1 the ship is known to be at point A; steering TC, VTC, both the log
and compass corrections are known. It is found that a tidal stream is setting at Vc.
The wind is NNW, force 8, Leeway 5°. "Right problem": What is the ship's AT?
VTC?

- starting point T1/R1. and line of TC are plotted in the usual manner;
- to allow for the drift effect of NNW wind plot the line LTC, the Leeway
being  =  5°;
- measure off VTC = VLTC miles and lay it off from T1/R1. along LTC, thus
obtaining the ship's position, provided there are no currents at all;
- from this point lay off Vector Vc
- complete "current vector sailing diagram" by drawing VAT, align of ship's
actual track in a manner, previously described, and measure CMG and VAT
"Back problem"
At T2/R2 it is estimated that a tidal stream changes the direction and rate,
such new elements being Set and Vc, respectively. In order to remain on the
former actual track of the ship, her course steered through the water was changed
too; the wind is NNW, force 6, Leeway 3° . "Back problem": What course must
the ship steer for to remain on this former track?
The following example will show the method of the graphic solution of the
problem in question.
- from point T2 1ay off vector Vc;
- with the centre end of the vector and radius equal to the ship's speed VLTC
through the water cut the line of AT; this direction is Leeway TC, while length
VAT represents the actual speed in knots along the former actual track;
- transfer line of LTC to point T2 and make the allowance for the drift effect
of NNW wind; use drawing and check it by the following formula
LTC=TC+  i. e. TC=LTC-
There are the following "Three tasks" to be solved:
a) When will a lighthouse be abeam? ( T , R ) .
b)When will the ship be in CPA? (TCPA RCPA)
c) When will a light of the Lighthouse be sighted? (Ts , Rs )
a) The Lighthouse is abeam, when its RTB = 90°, i. e. its TB = TC - 90°.
The Time interval T is elapsed, for instance, from T1 will be taken the time to

cover the distance AC = S AT at a speed, represented by VAT or the distance AB =

S LTC at a speed VLTC;
 
T  S AT / V AT  S LTC / V LTC .

S LTC is measured along LTC from T1 to point the intersection TC with line
11 vector Vc from C; T  T1  T . It is also necessary to solve the difference of
log’s readings corresponding to this time T: R = S/K1;

R = R1 +  R, S LTC  AB .
b) To find the point D, at which the ship passes closest to the Lighthouse one
must draw the Straight line  to AT (using a dividers or compasses), then to
CPA CPA
determine S LTC in a similar way TCPA, RCPA ( S LTC =AK)
c) In order to solve the "Third task" one must find the distance of visibility
S S
of object D0, then determine S LTC and in a similar way TS and RS ( S LTC = AL).
There is a problem in determining the actual current, affected the ship’s
movement.
In order to find Direction and Rate of an unknown current the latter must be
experienced between two quite reliable Fixes, at least.
3.5. RECKONING BY COMPUTATION
Reckoning by computation usually takes place, when it is necessary to

increase the accuracy of determination of ship's position at expense of excluding of
inaccurate plotting, or to compensate the absence of charts of needed scales, by
running celestial Fix and so on. Moreover, Method of Reckoning by Computation
is the only essential one, when courses steered and speeds maintained are so
frequently changed, that the traditional graphic plotting becomes
not rational and sometimes impossible at all. Automatic DR equipment is
constructed on a base of the formulae, derived from Reckoning by Computation.
The essence of Computation Reckoning consists of determining the difference
of latitudes and longitudes made good by a ship during its travel from the point of
departure to that of destination geographical coordinates of former being known,
and vice versa: 2=1+D. Lat; 2=1+D. Long, where D. Lat., D Long. are
functions of ship's movement, namely, D. Lat. = f1 (AT, S); D. Long.= F2 (AT, S).
When the Earth is regarded as a plane, the relation between the elements of
Rhumb Track may be considered from plane right triangle ABN,. formed by
Meridian AN of place A Left, parallel NB of place B arrived at and Rhumb Line
AB =S.
We have the following: Dep = "Departure" (NM); sin TC = Dep/S; cos TC =
D. Lat./S; tg TC =Dep/D. Lat; D. Long. = Dep. sec n; Dep = D. Long. cos n . In
case of moderate distances: sec n = sec (n + m)/2 = sec m, ; D. Long = DMP. tg
TC, where n is so - called Latitude of Conversation, DMP = MP2 – MP1; DMP -
Difference of Meridianal Parts; m is Mean (or Middle) Latitude; sec n = DMP/D.
Lat.; D. Long. = Dep. DMP/D. Lat: DMP = D. Lat. sec n. It is good practice to
note that, when the position involved suggests that Latitude of Conversion should
be used, the latter can be found by applying a small correction X to Mean Latitude:
n=m+X, X = arc. sec DMP/D. Lat - (n + m)/2.
It has also been stated that, where distances are sufficiently small sec n =sec
m D.Long = Dep. sec m =DMP. tg TC= Dep. DMP/D. Lat.; D Lat = S. sin TC;
Dep = S. sin TC. .
Formulae enable navigators to solve any problem of obtaining the length of all
sides of the triangle. The results of the solution is included in Nautical Tables.
So, there are some kinds of Sailings:
- ordinary Reckoning (a ship sails a single course);
- Compound Reckoning (a ship sails several course);
General D. Lat. =  D. Lat.; Gen. Dep. = Dep. ;
I
2 =1 + Gen. D. Lat.; m = (1 +2”)/2
Gen. D. Long. = Gen. Dep.. see <Pm; and after all 2 = 1+ Gen. D. Long.. It
is very important to note that the formula is correct only, when the distance,
covered by the ship, is less than 600 N. M. and mean Latitude does not exceed 60°.
ALLOWING FOR LEEWAY AND CURRENT

Leeway is normally allowed for by entering Table with LTC as an argument,
for TC usually employed (substitution TC), while making reckoning by
Computation.
Tidal Stream and Permanent Current are considered to be additional true
course, their velocities being multiplied by a time interval of a current, affecting a
ship furnishes distances traveled by a ship along the direction that a current flows.
The other way is considered the Current Triangle; it is easy to establish that
sin P/sin B=VTC/VC; and hence it follows cosec B = cosec P/M, where M =Vc/VTC
and P = AT-Set: .
From the same Current Triangle it is seen that the following expressions are
correct, namely:
Ctg  cosecq/m + ctgq; K=VAT/ VTC 1  2m  cos q  m 2
q = Set- TC (= Set-LTC).
Using this formulae (or Nautical Tables), we can find AT, VAT or course TC
to be steered to remain on the former actual track.
The following equations are the mathematical basis of automatic reckoning
by means of an auto plot:
' = Scos TC (1 +0,005 cos 2) ;
' = VNS (l +0,005 cos 2)  t ;
t2
D. Lat = t1 V NS 1  0.005 cos 2 dt (with the allowance for the spheroidal shape
of the Earth).
λ' = 0,9982  S sin TC (1- e2 sin2 )1/2 see ;
λ ' = 0,9982 VEW (l- e2 sin2 )1/2 sec ;
t2
at last D.Long = 0,9982 t1 VEW 1  e 2 sin 2    sec dt where VNE component of
1/ 2
the ship's speed along the meridian, VWE is one along the parallel of latitude .
3.6. ACCURACY OF RECKONING
Any navigator proud of his rank will ensure his reckoning work to be quite
accurate and timely, as his best efforts and professional duty can provide it. It is
axiomatic that a navigator, who demonstrate the accuracy in reckoning of ship's
travel, will demonstrate the same attributes very likely in the other phases of
navigation.
In all the cases, however, the navigator should determine the reliability of
ship's position irrespective of the method, by which it has been obtained, i. e.
whether it is being got by Fix or by graphic or computation reckoning.
Such errors may be introduced into reckoning:
- Errors in plotting on a chart;
- Errors due to the fact that the course, laid down on the chart, differ from the
course, actually made good, and the distance on the chart differs from the correct
distance made good;
- Errors, caused by differences between Leeway and Current allowed for and
those actually performed.
Plotting or Graphic Reckoning of ship's movements are made by means of
drawings on the chart used. There are three principal errors, caused by the
following reasons:
- Errors in Measurement and plotting of Directions. It has been
experimentally ascertained that mean square quantity does not exceed 0.3° ;
- Errors in Measuring and Plotting Distances. Mean square value of total Error
(Md) is twice of "limiting accuracy of chart's scale" - and equals approximately 0.2
mm, i. e. Md = 0.4 mm in the chart's scale;
- Mean Square error (m. s. e.) in the. course Mc = 0.5° - 1,0° ; in distance or in
speed is Ml =  1%
Error results from the incorrect value of Leeway allowed for and gives the
same effect as an error from the incorrect course does M. S. E., assumed normally
to be in the limits of (0.1 - 0.5) 0 (of Leeway's value allowed do). The same is
also Error, arising from the incorrect direction of the current; but the trouble is that
all the modem guides to currents do not contain the information about M. S. E. of
direction (limit = 90° and more).
Values for M. S. E. of speed are .assumed:
- if the area of sailing is fully researched, mv =0,2 kns;
- if there is a lack of information, then mv =0.5 kns
It is important to note that there may exist considerably greater errors in the
areas, where tidal streams are performing.
The position of a ship is inside the Position Circle Error with radius equals
Square error
MDR = L12  L22 is with the probability of 68%
The latter criterion is much more convenient one, and, being doubled, gives
the so- called Standard Error 2MDR ; the ship's position is inside this Position
Circle Error With the probability of about 95% (2M68 = M95); the dependence may
be roughly described by the following expression:
M95 = k. T, T < 2 hs; M95 =k T , T> 2 hs, k  0.5 - 4,
where k is so- termed coefficient of accuracy of ship's track reckoning; and T
is the number of hours under sailing with reckoning; k is different for each type of
ships and varies with changing localities. It can be determined empirically only.
Variable errors compensate partially each other for T > 2 hs.
From the foregoing it is clearly seen that the ship's position by reckoning is
liable to error, and it is essential, therefore, that a navigator should always obtain
the ship's position, whenever possible, by observations of terrestrial objects or
heavenly bodies.
4. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF SHIP'S POSITION FINDING
4.1. NAVIGATIONAL PARAMETERS AND ISOLINES
Considering different methods of reckoning the ship's track, we have

described their demerits because of accumulating errors with running of time.
For this reason the DR ship's position is required to be corrected from time to
time by determining the ship's position by means of observations, not
depending upon the elements of reckoning at all. To do so the ship's location
is found by observing objects, the positions of which are accurately known in
advance, and such objects being accessible to be sighted by a navigator.
To determine the ship's position is necessary to get her geographical
coordinates at some particular moment of time. Such coordinates are fixed on
the Earth's surface at some point C, in which the ship is located at the moment
in question. To determine this location is quite enough to draw two curves on
a chart.
5. FIXING BY VISUAL OBSERVATIONS OF

TERRESTRIAL OBJECTS
The DR track line and the DR position may be considered as a statement of

intention only or a graphic history of courses and speed ordered. On the contrary
the LOP were qualified as a statement of-fact hi other words the ship is actually
located somewhere on the LOP at a time of observation, regardless of course
steered and speed used. Thus, there is no connection between the DR track and
LOP, there isn't any connection between the DR position and those determined by
observations (fixing).
Before fixing the navigator should identify all the objects he is going to use.
Moreover, he should also make sure that all such objects are marked on the chart.
If the ship is in a channel (or it steams, for example, between two islands),
where it is possible to survey two sides separately, all the objects, used in fixing
her position, should be on the same side of the channel (on the same island).
When piloting in good visibility, the navigator normally fixes his ship's
position quite accurately and most easily uses bearings of two or three objects.
5.1. TWO AND THREE BEARINGS

To get the corresponding navigational parameter, i.e. the bearing of the
object observed, the navigator sight across his compass, bearing circle or gyro-
repeater toward a fixed known object and thus determines the direction of his line
of sight compass bearing (CB). Then True Bearing TB=CB+AC and the navigator
would be able to draw on the chart (by means of the parallel rulers and the
protractor) a line, which shall pass through the respective object in the direction
that was the Reciprocal of the True Bearing.
When "lines of bearing" are obtained from two different objects at the same
time, the ship must be on both lines simultaneously, as well the position of the
ship lies at the point of their intersection. It is necessary to choose such objects,
whose position on the chart can be unmistaken identified and whose respective
bearing from the ship differ as nearly as possible by 90°, taking one after other as
quickly as possible. The bearing taken must be trained to take the fastest moving
bearing then.
Rec TB=TB±1800
This meant taking the bearing of an object closest to the beam second (as it would be
most rapidly changing bearing) and first taking the bearing of the object more nearly
ahead or astern. Otherwise, the navigational parameters must be adjusted to a
common time. As a rule, such an adjusting is carried out by means of additional
observations or constructions (in one of the following ways):
a) The navigator observes two objects in turn, and then immediately repeats the ob
servation of the first object; thus, he obtain two reading for such an object, the
arithmetical mean, of which will practically correspond to the instant of the sec-
ond object observation, the time of such an observation being generally consid-
ered as that of fix itself.
b) The first PL must be transferred along the course made good (parallel to the origi-
nal PL) in the point, which Lay off on the distance steamed by the ship in the
interval (distance run) AT=T2-T1 (from any point on the original PL).
better will be measured first LOP2-2

It is necessary to keep in mind that the ship is to be on an even keel at the time,
the observation is made. The navigator commence plotting as soon as bearings have
been taken, then he labels his plot in a specified manner, by placing the time and the
corresponding log's reading, and calculate the Radius of 95%- Circle of Errors:
When third object as available, a bearing of that should always be taken and
plotted too. This bearing should pass through or sufficiently close to the point of
intersection of the other two bearings. If it is really so, the navigator may have a
reasonable assurance that his "fix" is correct. If it does not so, it indicates an
error somewhere, arisen either from inaccurate observations or incorrect
determination or application of the compass error, or a fault in the chart, etc.
(thus, increase reliance of fix). Triangle of Error is usually called as a "Cocked
Hat"; if sides do not exceed 0,5 nautical mile (Cocked Hat is small enough) - it
produced random errors; if even one of the sides exceeds 0,5', then it produces
systematic (repetitive) errors.
For three bearings the navigator can exclude the systematic compass error,
using the so-called Method of Two Horizontal Angles.
If the Cocked Hat cannot be reduced by any of the methods described, the
position of the ship should be taken as the corner of this "Cocked Hat", which
will place the ship nearest to the danger in the direction of the ship's intended
movements.
5.2. CROSS DISTANCES

It may happen so that ranges can be obtained from two or three objects. In
such circumstances the navigator is able to fix the ship's position by drawing the
corresponding position circles on a chart, used appropriately and making the
intersection of the range arcs concerned (Distance Circle of Position)
Bearings and Distance of different Objects
When only one object is available, the ship's position may be found by an
observation its bearing and distance: first taking, correcting and plotting the
bearing. Then on this line lay off the distance from the object, which will give the
point, occupied by the ship.
It is desirable to measure such distances simultaneously as far as possible

and, fastest moving D. This meant measured D on an object closest to beam first
(as it would be slowly changing) and then taking distance of the object motion
nearly ahead or astern.
Distance at sea is obtained by Range Finder, by Radar, by the
synchronized radio and submarine (air) sound signals, by a sextant or stadimeter.
a) Distance by vertical sextant angle.

The object is between the observer and the horizon.
This situation is shown, in which complications introduced by the observer's

height of an eye, refraction and the Earth's curvature have been omitted for the
sake of clarity. In such a case, if object В is at the known height H above sea-
level, and this height when measured with a sextant is found D=H/tga; since
angle a is usually small enough, and
The accuracy of D depends on two factors:

- the accuracy of measured angle  ;
- the accuracy, with which height H is known.
The M.S.E. of determination of distance will be:
Where mH and ma are mean square errors of height H and of

angle  measured (mH=0,5mα =0,6').
Example: H=30m (lighthouse), observed a0=0°30,6' (index error i+s=5,3').
αc= 0o35,9'; D  =1,8 nautical miles, mD=0,04'.
b) Angle between the object and the line of sea horizon beyond it.
There is another method of determining the distance of an object, which is
available under certain circumstances.
SO is the observer's eye height;

OH is the plane of the true observer's
horizon;
d is that of a dip;
a is that measured by a sextant as an angle between the water line of
object В and the line of sea horizon beyond,
D' is the distance required in nautical miles.
The accuracy of the distance obtained by the described method exceeds

that of the distance, received by means of radar (D  l  ), the error of the first
ones being not more than 20 metres.
c) Horizontal angle distance.
There is a particular case, when, a horizontal angle measured gives a

possibility to calculate a distance.
In such a circumstance the navigator will be able to observe the sextant

angle a between edges A and B:
5.3. THE RUNNING FIX

Careful navigators use every opportunity to get a fix of any kind. A method
of fixing, usually called as "Running Fix" (Transferred PL) - obtaining the
position by two PL, taken at different times but of the same object.
5.3.1. BEARINGS ON THE SAME OBJECT

he process is to take bearing and at the same moment Tt read the log.
Then, after running the convenient distance (AB=40°+70°), take a seeond
bearing of the same object and again read the log. The difference in log readings
gives the intervening run (S1). Therefore, a navigator is able to move earlier LOP
parallel to itself by the time of second observation. There is no definite rule as to
how far PL can be advanced. This is a matter for judgement and depends upon
the individual circumstances. Good general rule is to avoid transferring a
terrestrial PL for more than 30 minutes.
5.3.2. BEARINGS OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS
A running fix can also be obtained by plotting two bearings of different

objects as illustrated in the following.
5.3.3. RUNNING FIX TRANSFERRING DISTANCE CIRCLE
The method of transferring the position of objects observed is pretty convenient,
when it is necessary to advance a distance circle of the position by moving the centre of
such a circle illustrated in.
А running can be determined even, if the ship’s course and/or speed are
changed in the period between two observations.
If the navigator knows the set and drift of the current within reasonable limits,
he can get a running fix by allowing this current (and/or wind) - obtaining the actual
course and distance made good for the period of time under consideration.
5.3.4. SPECIAL CASES

Take the time, when the angle on the bow (relative bearing) is, for instance, 45°°,
and again, when it is 90°°, do it .
If so, then the distance runs over the ground S will be approximately the
distance, the ship will pass abeam of the object (D1=S). This is a special form of
running fix, when the angle a2 -2·a1 - the distance run S between bearings equals
the distance of the object at the second bearing.
The accuracy of running fixes is that of transferred position lines, and under
consideration must be supplemented on account of allowing accuracy DR.
5.4. THE HORIZONTAL ANGLES

A horizontal angle between two objects observed may be obtained, as a result
of measuring the angle be means of a marine sextant.
ft is known at the same time that all the angles, subtended by a chord in the
same segment of a circle are equal. Therefore, if the observer measures the
horizontal angle aa between two objects A and B, he must be somewhere on the
arc of a circle. To draw such a circle is necessary to find the position of its
centre 0. To do this with the complement of a, 90°-a, draw the lines АО and
BO; the point 0 of their intersection will be the centre. The observer must be on
some point of a circumference isoline.
- To obtain the horizontal angle a and  ;
- To construct the angles on the chart used.
The construction shown in Figure 64 is successfully substituted by a sheet
tracing (transparent) paper or the plastic with angles, drawn on it. the sides of
these angles look like three rays (arms), radiating from centre (C0), which is
really the ship's position observed. Having manufactured such three-arm
protractor, the navigator uses it in the following way: he places the tracing paper
(protractor) on the chart with the centre ray, passing through the centre object
observed. He moves the paper then about until the right and left rays pass
through the charted of the right and left objects. The centre of the protractor
(point C0) is now accurately at the position of the ship at a time, the angles were
taken
The method of horizontal angles is generally more accurate than most other
methods commonly used in navigation; it is for this reason often used in marine
surveying (in order to check the position of the anchor and so on). "Cocked
Hat" may be eliminated and the compass error found as well as giving the
possibility to get a ship's chart position that are independent on the compass
systematic error:
- angles a and  can be obtained as differences between three compass bearing
of the objects А, В, С;
- the navigator is then able to get three true bearings of the objects A, В, С
observed; such true bearings being compared with compass ones give three
meanings of the compass error to be estimated.
Such three meanings aren't equal to each other due to accidental errors, but
the arithmetical meanings of them will be the most probable value of the compass
error.
When three observed objects А, В, С and the observer's position С fall upon
the same circle, i.e. two circles are identical and there is no intersection at all,
the ship's position is indeterminate. This circle is usually called as "Circle of
Ambiguity" or "Revolver Case"; this can take place, when a+  +θ = 1800,
where θ is an angle at the middle object.
There are the several appearances (features), which indicate a witting absence
of the above "Ambiguity" and thus result in a good fix:
- when three objects are on (or near) the same straight line;
- when the ship is inside a figure from objects;
- when two objects are in range (transit);
- when the centre lies nearer;
- when a+   1800
- all three objects are equally distant from the ship.
Another way to make sure of a doubtful fix is to take one compass bearing,
by means of which even “Revolver” may be made to give a good position.
6. THE USE OF RADAR
Radar is a Radio Detection and Ranging aid to navigation, by which the bearing and
distance of an object are found in day, at night and during periods of reduced visibility.
Radar fixes can be obtained rapidly and often more accurately than by other methods.
Moreover, Radar can be used for such important purposes, as the prevention of a collision,
the location and track of violent tropical storms, etc.
6.1. THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF RADAR

Radar measures bearings and distance of an object simultaneously by means of the
emission of a radio pulse and an observation of the direction of its return (echoes) and the
measurement of the time, elapsed between the emission and return. For this purpose the
marine radar equipment consists of the means for generating radio-frequency oscillations
and emission of a radio- pulse-sending it into space as a narrow beam, which is rotated
continuously in azimuth; receiving the echoes, returned from any target in the area,
surrounding the ship; and displaying the returned echoes visually on a screen in such a
way that the bearing and range of each target from the object are immediately evident.
From this brief description it will be seen that the main parts of a radar are a transmitter, an
aerial (antenna, scanner), a receiver and the display (or PPI - Plan Position Indicator).
On PPI the spot starts at the centre (and at the same time a signal from the
rotating antenna is transmitted) and moves radially outward. At the end of its travel
such a spot is blacked put and flies back to the centre to start next time, when next pulse
will be transmitted. At the same time such a radial line of a trace rotates, being
synchronized with the revolving scanner. A compass rose around the outer edge penults
reading of the direction.
The screen of the cathod ray tube is provided with "after-glow" (persistence),
so that the trace and its signal (brighter spots caused by echoes) persist for
several "paints"; because of that a continuous chart-like picture of the surrounding area is
presented.
6.2. THE MAIN FEATURES
The main factors, affecting the accuracy of radar, are:

- Peak Power (in pulse) P = 20 ÷ 90 kw;
- Frequency f= 3000 ÷ 10000 Mc/s (MHZ);
- Wavelength   10cm  3cm,   c / f , c-speed at about 300 million metres
per second;
- Pulse Length (or duration of the pulse)   0,1  2 s;
- Period of Repetition of Pulse (TP), or pulse repetition frequency (PRF) - number of
pulses per second (TP=I/PRF), is usually between 500 and 3000 pulses per second;
- Beam (main-lobe) Width – the length of the arc that a single echo will form,
  I 0  20 ;
In the vertical plane the beam is made wider, so that rolling of the ship will not cause it to
miss targets (  v  15 0  30 0 ).
- Resolution in Range - is the minimum difference in range between such objects that can be
separated by a radar. The ability to make this separation depends primarily on the pulse
length. When two targets are relatively close together, the false interpretation may
occur.
- Resolution in Bearing - is the minimum difference in bearing between targets at
the same range that can be separated by a radar.
The ability is dependent on the beam width.
- Minimum Range (Rmin) is dependent on the pulse length, reduced by shortening
the pulse, and some other factors too; practical Rmin =30 ÷ 90 m;
- Radar Horizon distance D (for standard atmospheric conditions
D=2,2 H m [NM]), where H is the antenna height in metres;
- Maximum Range (Rmax) is usually limited by the curvature of the Earth, shape,
size and material of targets. During calm water the navigator should keep
in mind the following figures of Detection ranges:
First-class buoy 3÷4 NM
Second-class buoy 2
Radar reflector buoy 7÷ 9
Small ship 3 ÷9
Large ship 10÷20
Cliffs 15÷20
Hills, mountain 20÷40
Sand bank 1÷5
Sea wave 1÷4
Berth 5÷10
Radar echoes are produced by diffuse (or scattered) reflections from

rough surface or by specular (or direct) reflections from smooth surface at
appropriate angles. From water there will be little diffuse reflection unless the
sea is rough. Specular reflections will also occur from cliffs, buildings, hills; so
towns, for instance, will appear as bright patches. Ships and buoys at sea will
be shown up as bright spots; shore lines will be shown up at long ranges,
although low sand banks may be invisible.
As we have seen, even with considerable training a navigator may not
always find it easy to interpret an echo properly. There exist some factors,
making the problem of interpretation more difficult;
- Rain Clutter - echoes cause of a downpour or a snow storm; storm
clouds will appear as fuzzy patches. Clutter is reduced by shortening the pulse
(т) and/or increasing wavelength λ.
- Sea Clutter - powerful clutter occurs at sea, where the reflections

from the waves will be a maximum at zero range, gradually diminishing
outwards. Sea return can be reduced by reducing the signal strength of close-in
echoes at a small range;
- Blind Sectors cause by the funnel, mast, etc.; needless to say, regular
examination of blind sectors by altering course of one's own ship;
- Clutter from other radars (electronic interference effect) will cause
echoes from other radars and appear as sporadic spiral of dots;
- Side-lobe effect-false echoes from large targets cause side-lobes;
- Overhead Power cable appears on the PPI as a echo always at right
angles to the line;
- The Navigator should be alert to unusual ranges, which may be
obtained under abnormal atmospheric conditions:
Super-refraction increases the horizon range, and thus maximum detection
range by a considerable extent. It is likely to occur when either a temperature
inversion (an increase of temperature with height) or a hydrolapse (a decrease in
humidity with height) is present (offshore winds often carry warm dry air out above
the cooler and damper air over the sea).
Sub-refraction decreases normal detection range; radar wave to be bent
upwards instead of downwards. Decrease of temperature with height may be greater
then the standard lapse rate, and humidity may increase with height Detection
ranges may be reduced to the point where contacts are visible to the eye but are
not displayed on radar. (A wind blowing from a cold land mass over a relatively
warm sea).
Radar shadow areas cast by mountains or high land may be extensive and
may contain large blind zones. High mountains inland may well be screened by
lower hills nearer the coast and thus not appear on the display.
To overcome this difficulty, the identification may be facilitated by
either so-called passive or active devices.
Passive Devices. Targets that have very small equivalent echoing area,
such as buoys and small craft, will give weak fluctuating echoes, which will
often be detected only at short range, even in the absence of sea clutter.
This suggests а reason for the development of the corner reflector as a
way of improving the radar response, especially when they form a distinctive
pattern to provide an identifiable picture on the PPI.
The comer reflector consists of three mutually perpendicular intersecting
metallic plates, so that’s ray, entering such a corner, reflects back in exactly
opposite direction. To ensure that the target will return good echoes from all
the directions, the corner reflectors are assembled in groups or clusters. The
detection range of a buoy, fitted with a cluster, is likely to be increased from 2'
to 8' and since there is a better chance of seeing the buoy echo through the
sea clutter.
The active devices are generally of two types — Ramark and Racon.
Each is designed to produce a distinctive image on the screen of ship's radar sets
operating within range, thus enabling the mariner to determine his position with
greater certainity than would be possible by means of a normal radar display
alone.
RACON (Radar Beacon): A radar transponder beacon which emits a
characteristic signal when triggered by the emissions of ship's radars. They
transmit in one of the marine radar bands (2920-3100 MHz and 9320-9500
MHz) so that their signals are superimposed automatically on a ship's normal
radar display.
Except where otherwise indicated, the characteristic signal, the "racon
flash", takes the form of a single line or narrow sector, extending rapidly towards
the circumference of the P.P.I., from a. point slightly beyond the spot (if any) formed
by the echo from the lighthouse, ect., at the racon site. Thus/'distance off' may be
measured to the point at which the racon flash begins, but the figure obtained will be a
few hundred feet greater than the ship's distance from the racon; this is due to the
slight response delay in the radar beacon apparatus. The same applies where the
radar beacon response is coded to provide a means of identification; in such cases, the
identifying characteristic signal is described.
RAMARK (Radar Marker): A radar beacon which transmits independently,
without having to be triggered by the emissions of ship's radars. The ramark flash ex-
tends radially from own ship's position, through the position of the remark, and to the
circumference of the PPI. Since this flash does not indicate the position of the beacon,
remark gives no indication of distance off, This type of beacon is little used.
Radar beacons are usually arranged to "sweep" a certain range of frequencies,
so that reception of their signals does not require returning or the use of special equip-
ment
The sweep period affects both the appearance of the racon flash and the inter-
val at which it appears on the PPI. The fast-sweep racon flash appears as a series of
dots; the slow-sweep racon flash appears as a solid line. Both flashes may be coded. In
the fast-sweep operation, there is virtually no delay in triggering the beacon. Accord-
ingly, the display on the PPI is continuous. But in the slow-sweep operation, the delay
due to the time required for sweeping the band may result in intervals up to 2 minutes
between racon flashes.
Suppression controls may be used to reduce or remove rain clutter, sea returns
and side or back echoes, but care must be taken not to eliminate all small contacts.
Swept gain (sensitivity time control STC, anti-clutter sea). This control re-
duce the amplitude of clutter at short ranges; However, it is very easy to sweep the
display clean not only of sea clutter but also of close-range echoes, like small craft
and buoys, that give a poor echo response. Care must be taken not to use this danger-
ous control indiscriminately. Note: the higher the aerial, greater the range of the clut-
ter.
Differentiation (fast time constant - FTC, differentiation time constant - DTC
or anti-clutter rain) - this control is used to reduce the effect of rain and other blocks of
unwanted echoes; penalty is loss of maximum range. Rain clutter varies with the wave-
length - the longer the wavelength, the less the clutter.
Clipping - is a process which removes the bases of the signals to allow echoes
which are close together to be seen separately on the display without having to adjust
the normal controls (gain, focus, brilliance). The penalties of using the clipping control
are to introduce range errors and to lose all small contacts; it is dangerous to use this
control indiscriminately.
Comparison of 10 cm and 3 cm radars. Both 10 cm and 3 cm radars
may be available for navigation and it is important to appreciate the fundamental
differences between the two. Generally, 10 cm radars have a longer pulse length
and greater beam width then 3 cm radars. Thus, minimum range and range and
bearing discrimination, will be larger on a TO cm.
On the other hand, because of the longer wavelength, the effects of clutter,
rain, etc. will be much less on 10 cm. Thus, in bad weather, it is quite probable
that 10 cm radar will give a better picture. Long-range detection on 10 cm is
usually better, particularly when switched to long pulse.
6.3. OBTAINING NAVIGATIONAL PARAMETERS

AND FIXES
The size of the field of view, displayed on the radar's screen is selected by
means of the special range-scale switch. For the range measurement rangerings
and a Variable range marker are provided; the usual convention Is to align it so
that the outer edge of the marker just touches the inner edge of the echo. The
Accuracy mR about 1 per cent of the Range-scale in use can be obtained.
For bearings measurement there are a special mechanical and electronic
cursors. When such a cursor rotates, its outer edge moves over a bearing scale.
The accuracy mR is a value of about 1° ÷ 2°.
The descending order of the accuracy of radar position fixed may,

therefore, be stated as:
- radar ranges of several radar-conspicuous objects;
- radar range and visual bearing of the prominent isolated object;
- radar range and radar bearing of a single charted feature.
Obviously the closer the ship is or may be to a navigational danger, the
greater the accuracy is, which will be required and the less the time, which will be
available to make sure of it.
Two Radar Ranges (or more)

The most accurate method of obtaining a fix is that of using radar ranges,
since the accuracy of radar ranges is very good, when it is possible to select two
prominent isolated objects. An extremely accurate fix can be obtained, when the
third range provides a good check against an improper interpretation of the point,
on which ranges are taken.
Radar bearing accuracy is low compared with that of a visual observation.

There are two cases: the first is when all the measurements are made with
relatively one and the same object; the second is when RR is obtained with
relatively one object and VB – with relatively another.
6.4. RADAR IDENTIFICATION
In the approach to coastal regions, which possess some useful long-range fea-
tures, there will be a period between the appearance of the early echoes and the moment
when the coastline itself becomes recognizable, during which the picture may be confused
with a number of echoes, which will be difficult to identify If it is important to obtain a
position as soon as possible, an effort to do so should therefore be made with the early
echoes.
The most convenient method of plotting the position from three or more prominent
echoes is to transfer the echoes to a sheet of a tracing paper: from a point on a sheet,
representing the ship's position, the echoes are plotted in true bearing and range. The
tracing paper is placed over the chart and correctly orientated to true North. The sheet is
then moved around until all the plotted echoes correspond to the charted features, which
may be expected to give responses. The ship's position can then be pricked through on to
the chart.
This method is known as a "Fan" of radar bearings and ranges.

Sometimes there are one radar-conspicuous object A and several radar-incon-
spicuous objects B,C,D, etc., displaced on the radar's screen. Measure the distances AB, AC,
AD and the bearings of the inconspicuous objects B, C, D, from A. After this, from the chart it
will be indicated the position of the radar-inconspicuous objects В, С, D in the direction
of the above determined bearings В, С, D from A.
Being identified, such objects may then be used in navigational purposes.
7. RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION (ELECTRONIC

POSITION FIXING SYSTEMS)
The terms "Electronic Navigation", "Radio Aids to Navigation" or simply "Radio

Aids" are used to embrace all Radio Systems, which provide the means of fixing
the ship's position as well as those which give warning of the other ships and above-
water obstructions; that's now considered to be one of the most important branches.
But even the most enthusiastic supporters of this newest radio form of
navigation recognise, however, that it has disadvantages and limitations and that it
will probably never render other methods obsolete.
In accordance with a function all the Radio Aids may be divided into three
categories: Ocean, Landfall (or Coastal Navigation), Pilotage. It is comprehensible
that the degree of accuracy, required for each category, is different.
Besides being a method of fixing and general communication, radio provides
means of obtaining certain specific information of interest to the navigator: radio
time signals, weather information (particularly, regarding tropical hurricanes);
urgent navigational warnings are broadcast daily; even medical information is
obtainable by radio.
Thus, the radio is the most important means of providing safety of shipping in
general.
6.5. ARPA. INTEGRATED BRIDGE SYSTEM

AH ships of 10000 Gross Tons (or larger) must have a collision-avoidance system
ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid) for: -collision warning;
- positioning and navigation;
- traffic assessment;
- trial manoeuvre;
- complete search area control;
- fairway control for "off track" warning.
The history of shipping is one of advancing technology and reducing
manpower.
Today, with the One Man Bridge quickly becoming a reality, manufacturers
of bridge equipnent, though the use of up to the minute technology, have to provide
systems that combine the utmost sophistication with the highest reliability.
Kelvin Hughes, through major investment in time and engineering, has
developed, an Integrated. Bridge System (IBS) to meet the demands of modern
bridge technology well into the 21st Century.
Electronic Chart Workstation (ECDIS). This display provides continuous
chart information fed from an optical disc reader. It provides the operator input for
route planning and database handling operations in conjunction with the NAVDIS.
The work station provides the following functionally: Chart Display, Own-ship's
Position, Course and Speed Indicated on the Chart, Output of Cursor Position to
IBS, Warnings of Scale Changes. The following will be visible on the charts:
- ECDIS Marker;
- Radar Marker (on demand);
- Chart Table Marker (on demand);
- Own-ship's Latitude and Longitude;
- Route Plan and Way-points (as required);
- Electronic (radar) Maps (as required);
- Tracked Radar Targe ts (as required);
- Off Track Alarm Limits.
Lights, Strategic Points and Chart Corrections will be Highlighted on the chart.
Navigation Display Workstation (NAVDIS). This is a graphics and text mode dis-
play and provides the main operator interface for the IBS.
It contains all the navigation software within the system and interfaces to the
ship's sensors. Two NAVDIS workstations can be used in an IBS. To maintain 100%
functionality both can be supplied from one interface unit or two parallel interfaces,
these in turn can be battery-backed to provide functional continuity in the event of a
power failure.
Functionality: System Configuration-Sensor selection; Vessel parameters; Data
logger setup; Tape Back up control; ECTAB Interface; Plotter Setup; Alarms
Configuration; Navtex Interfacing; Weather Data Chart Selection; Barcode
interface for chart initialisation; Database Information for Lights, Corns Frequencies
and gazetteer within the charted areas. -
Navigation Monitor (NAVMON). Continuous real time display of the following
ship's parameters:
-Time(UTC);
- Gyro Heading;
- Actual Rate of Turn;
- Heading Made Good;
- Log Speed and Status;
- Speed Made Good (Ahead/Astern);
- Rudder Angle;
- Rate of Turn/Turn Radius (from A/P);
- Revolutions (and Pitch) Port/Stbd;
- Depth Under Keel/Depth Alarms;
- Way-point Off Track Alarms;
- A/P Steering Mode-Man, Track, Off, Auto;
Barometric Pressure Trend Indicator;
In addition to the above the following data may be displayed:
- Way-point Alarm On/Off;
- CTS (coarse to steer) To Next WP;
- Distance to Next WP;
- ETA Next WP (Expected Time of Arrival);
- Cross Track Distance;
- Drift Set, Rate;
- Navaid Status (in use/available);
- Berthing;
- Doppler Speed Indicator (Fore/Aft/Abeam);
- Bow Thruster Status;
- Actual Rate of Turn;
- Winds Direction/Speed.
Ship Control Station (SHIPCON). This unit forms the centre limb of the IBS and
houses the following units: Autopilot; Auxiliary Steering Tiller; Hydraulic Steering
Pump; Controls and Indicators; Ship's Helm; Steering Mode Switches; Ship's
Audio Control; "Man Overboard" Button; Analogue Gyro Repeater; Ship's Helm;
Bow Thruster Controls and Indicators, Main Engine Telegraph and Indicators; Ship-
Ship VHF Radio; Group Alarm Panel; Intercom; Compass Repeater.
Communication Workstation(COMDIS). This workstation will provide the
operator with a graphical operational interface to the SSB HF radio, the SATCOMM
system and the VHF. It will provide automatic call routing and data upload and
download to shore. All features displayed on the workstation will be repeated in the
Radio Room.
Vessel Monitoring Workstation (MONDIS). This display provides the bridge
with a remote monitoring station for sensors located at critical areas within the ship,
providing the bridge officer with greater diagnostic capabilities in addition to
regulatory group alarms. The following types of monitoring are supported: Main
Engines; Propulsion; Generators; Electrical Switchboard; Fuel;
Tanks and Bilges; Fire control; Hotel Services; Sea Water; Video Windows - Car
deck/Bow doors, etc; Data/Log to SatComm; Off-line Loading Calculation Package.
Electronic Chart Table (ECTAB). This unit will provide the following functions:
Indication of
- Current Own-ship's Position R/B or Latitude/Longitude of Position
Transmission of
- "Puck" Position to ECDIS, RADAR;
- Chart Number to System;
- Route Plan/Way-points to System;
Construction of
- Steering Sequences and Route Plans;
- Maps for the Radar Mapping System;
-Entry of Chart Corrections from Electronic Database;
- Bar-code Initialisation of Chart Data;
- Plotting of Tracked Targets from the Radar System.
The comprehensive use of multiple colours based on IMO/IHO 1990 recom-
mendations provides an easy to view display of radar picture, selectable functions,
warnings, target information, and own-ship navigation data.
Bar-code System. The bar-code system enables labels to be created for the
chart initialisation data. These are read when a new chart is initialised on the system.
In addition operator entered data on routes and passage plans can be printed in bar-
code format to provide "hard copy" storage of data.
Data Logger Backup Unit (tape streamer). The NAVDIS workstation incorpo-
rates a 40MB tape streamer which will store the same data as is printed on the data
logger during the voyage. Tapes created may only be modified or reformatted under
password control.
Data Logging Printer. The printer attached to the NAV computer may be set to
print the following data at intervals of between 30 seconds and 10 minutes:
- Time (UTC) and Date;
- Systems Status;
- Own-ship Data- Gyro Heading;
- Log Speed;
- Course Made Good;
- Speed Made Good;
- Latitude and Longtitude (sensor);
- Latitude and Longitude (computed);
- Track Error;
- Revolutions and Pitch; -Rudder Angle;
- Steering Mode;
- Engine Monitor Data (when fitted);
- Notice to Mariners (from SATCOMM);
- Event Data;
- Position Plot;
- Logs in Sound Signals, Light Signals, Deck Machinery. Plotter. The plotter will
provide the following functions:
- Position Plot - Continuous Trade Line;
- Radar Map Plot (Coastlines/Boundaries, etc);
- Mercator Grid;
- Radar Tracked Target plot (with labels).
Voyage planning
The purpose of voyage planning is support the bridge team and ensure
that can be navigated safely between ports from berth to berth . A voyage
plan also should contain the costal and pilotage waters.
If the plan for any reason needs to changed , all navigators must be
briefed about the changes .
According the STCW the intended voyage should be planned in
advanced and taken into consideration all information and any course laid
down should be checked before the voyage commences .
Every management of the ship owning company should have a safety
management policy . It should provide practical guidance concerning safe
navigation and include :
 A clear statement of safety of life and safety of the ship .
 Allocation of bridge watch keeping duties and responsibilities for
navigation procedures .
 Use clear procedures and procedures for voyage .
 Use updated charts and publications
 Ensure that all equipment is working properly . main engine

auxiliary machinery and steering gear are available and fully
operational.
 Advice concerning emergency responses .
 Follow reporting procedures . Accident and near missies , ship’s
reporting procedure .
 Log all events . record every procedure in the log.
 Use standard procedures for crew change .
 Try seagull CES . Use of recognize system for identified special
training needs company contents including designated persons .
A voyage plan should aim established the most favorable route while
maintaining appropriate margins of safety and safe passing distances
offshore .
When deciding upon the rout , the factors are among those that should
be taken into consideration :
 The marine environment .
 Lighthouses and seamark . A available reliability , seamarks ,
lighthouses for fixing the ship’s position .
 Type of cargo can influence on route selection
 If possible avoid areas with onshore safety.
 Follow traffic separation scheme .
 Check technical systems before departure
Remember :
Good voyage planning includes good seamanship
Intended voyage should be planned prior to departure using the proper

and corrected charts .
The master should check that the tracks are safe .also the Master
should exercise professional judgment .
The voyage plan should be planned and thoroughly checked before
departure .When a route planning process is completed , it is highly
recommended that the whole route is validated and checked against
required safety limits .
If an ECDIS is used for route planning , validation against pre-set
limits can be executed by the system . whatever method of validation is used
, always remember that the responsibility for safe routing remains with the
navigator .
In most deep sea ships the master delegate any sure responsibility for
preparing the voyage plan , to the officer responsible for the navigational
equipment and publications . In small ships the master may plan the voyage
himself .
While pilotage waters responsibility for the plan rest with the ship. the
pilot on boarding can advice to the master about the local circumstances ,
than the master can make changes in the voyage plan .
Before planning is commence the charts publications and other
information appropriate for the voyage will gather together and studied . in
this situation the use of following check list highly recommended :
Only official charts and publications should be used for voyage

planning and they should be fully corrected . Any missing charts and
publication needed for the intended voyage should be identified and be
obtained before the ship sails .
An ocean passage or open sea passage must be used small scale charts .
For coastal , pilotage water passage planning , and plotting should be
used large scale charts and requires concentration of preparations .
The route plan should take into account the need to monitor the ship’s
position along the route .
The main elements of a route plan are :
 Planned track showing the true course of each leg (between the
WP (way points) ).
 Leg distance (distance between WP).
 Any speed changes required en route .
 Wheel over positions where appropriate .
 Planed turn radius or turn rate where appropriate.
 Maximum allowed off track margins for each leg .
The main detail of the route plan should be recorded using sketches , if
appropriate , so that the plan can be readily referred to at the main conning
position .
The voyage plan can be done use of ECDIS (Electronic Chart display
and Information System ) is subject to the approval of the Flag State .
Digital charts may be used in conjunction with paper charts .
The voyage planning on ECDIS offers the navigator a number of
options , such it is established a safety control of safety area around the ship
.
Safe voyage planning remains the fully responsibility of the Master
In case if the whole route is not covered by Raster Navigational Charts
(RNC) it is strongly recommended to do the whole planning on the paper
charts .
The following points should be given special attention :

 Positions transferred to electronic system must be checked .
 Know datum difference must be applied .
 The whole voyage plan must be checked before use .
Care should be taken when transferring route plan to the Electronic
Navigational Aids such as GPS . routes and maps displayed on the radar are
positioned with reference to the position of the ship . core must be taken to
ensure the maps and positions transferred to the radar are using the same
datum .
Area in own ship’s is transferred to map route information an
consequently everything displayed may be wrong .
When planning the Ocean passage the following should be taken into
consideration ;
 Small scale ocean planning and routing chart providing
information on ocean currents , winds , ice limits .
 Gnomonetic projection ocean charts for plotting great circle

plotting .
 Load line zone chart to ensure that the load line rules are
completed with .
 Charts showing any relevant ship routing schemes .
 Ocean current charts .
 Ice information .
 Meteorological information chart , weather , routing
information , etc.
 Other available services along the route .
Landfall targets need to be considered and identified as to their likely
radar and visual ranges and in respect of light , their rising and dripping
ranges and areas /colors of sectored lights .
Voyage planning in ocean waters shall normally allow for larger safety
margins than coastal sailing .
PREPEARING OF ROUTING CHARTS AND PLANS
COURSE ALTERNATION
In the open sea and offshore coastal waters when navigating on small-
scale large-area charts, course alterations will usually coincide with the
planned track intersections- This will not be the case in confined waters
when navigating on large-scale charts and where the margins of safety may
require the ship to commence altering course at the wheel-over position
some distance before the track intersection in order to achieve the new
planned track. Often such wheel-over positions will be determined by the
pilot using his own judgment, based upon experience. Planned wheel-over
positions should be determined from the ship's maneuvering data and
marked on the chart. Suitable visual and radar cues should then be chosen
to determine when the ship is at the wheel over position. The best cues for
large alterations of course consist of parallel indexes or bearings parallel to
the new track, whereas for small alterations a near beam bearing is often
better. Even when the pilot has the cant, the wheel-over position should be
shown on the chart so that the OOW will be aware of its imminence and
importance.
PARALLEL INDEXING
The parallel index (PI) is a useful method of monitoring cross-track

tendency in both poor and good visibility. It is a good practice to mark the
planned PI on the chart inconspicuously at the planning stage. Like any
radar technique, it is advisable to practice using Pis extensively in good
visibility before placing total reliance on them when thick weather makes
visual navigation methods impossible. This simple and effective method of
continuously monitoring a ship's progress is carried out by observing the
movement of the echo of a radar-conspicuous navigation mark with respect
to track lines previously prepared on the reflection plotter or by using
ARPA index lines. It is most effective when the radar is in the north-up,
relative motion mode. A fixed radar target, such as a lighthouse or a
headland, will apparently track past the own ship, depicted as being at the
centre of the screen, as a line parallel and opposite to the ship's ground
track. Any cross track tendency, such as may be caused by a tidal stream,
will become apparent by the target moving off the parallel line. The parallel
index may also be used to monitor other events—e.g., wheel-over position.
In this case the range and bearing of the target at the wheel-over point is
marked on the PI. This also allows for a distance countdown to be made.
WAYPOINTS
A waypoint is a position, shown on the chart, where a planned change

of status will occur. It will often be a change of course but may also be an
event such as:
End or beginning of sea passage.
Change of speed.
Pilot embarkation point.
Anchor stations etc.
Waypoints may also be used as useful reference points to determine the
ship's passage time and whether or not a schedule is being maintained,
particularly when they have been included in the appropriate electronic
navigational system. Where an electronic nevoid which stores waypoint
information is in use, care should be taken to ensure that waypoint
designators remain uniform throughout the plan.
ABORTS & CONTINGENCIES

No matter how well planned and conducted a passage may be, there
may come the time when, due to a change in circumstances, the planned
passage will have to be abandoned.
CONTINGENCIES
Having passed the abort position and point of no return, the bridge
team still needs to be aware that events may not go as planned and that the
ship may have to take emergency action. Contingency plans will have been
made at the planning stage and clearly shown on the chart, so that the
OOW does not have to spend time looking for and planning safe action
when his duties require him to be elsewhere.
1. Contingency planning will include:

2. Alternative routes.
3. Safe anchorages.
4. Waiting areas.
5. Emergency berths.
POSITION FIXING
A variety of position fixing methods is now available but it must not be

assumed that any one of these methods will suit all circumstances.
SHIP'S POSITION CONTROLING RELIABILITY
FIXING OF THE POSITION

General information
The position of a ship at sea can be fixed by means of two or more

position lines. These can be obtained in a variety of ways and can be
referred to terrestrial or celestial objects; the resulting position lines may be
plotted directly on a chart, or converted to Latitude and Longitude. It must
be emphasized that a fix by only two position lines is the most likely to be in
error and should be confirmed with an additional position line or by other
means. On coastal passages a ship's position will normally be fixed by visual
bearings, angles or ranges to fixed objects on shore, corroborated by the
Dead Reckoning or Estimated Position. The accuracy of such fixes depends
on the relative positions and distances from the ship of the objects used for
the observations-Radar or one of the radio position-fixing systems described
below may often give
equally, or more accurate, fixes than visual ones, but whenever
circumstances allow, fixing should be carried out simultaneously by more
than one method. This will confirm the accuracy of both the observations
and the systems.
Visual fixes
General remarks
Simultaneous bearings. A fix by only two observations is liable to

undetected errors, in taking the bearings, or in applying compass errors, or
in laying off the bearing on the chart. A third bearing of another suitably
placed object should be taken whenever possible to confirm the position
plotted from the original bearings.
Simultaneous bearing and distance. In this method the distance is
normally obtained by radar, but an optical rangefinder or vertical sextant
angle (see below) may be used. An approximate range may also be obtained
by using the dipping distance of an object of known height and the
Geographical Range Table given in each volume of Admiralty List of
Lights, or in other nautical tables or almanacs.
It should be noted that the charted range of a light is not, except on
certain older charts, the geographical range.
Running fix. If two position lines are obtained at different times the
position of the ship may be found by transferring the first position line up to
the time of taking the second, making due allowance for the vessel's ground
track and ground speed. Accuracy of the fix will depend on how precisely
these factors are known.
Transits. To enable a transit to be sufficiently sensitive for the
movement of one object relative to another to be immediately apparent, it is
best for the distance between the observer and the nearer object to
be less than 3 times the distance between the objects in transit.
RADAR FIXING
It is important to appreciate the limitations of a radar set when
interpreting the information obtained from it. For detailed
recommendations on fixing by radar, see Admiralty-Manual of Navigation.
In general the ranges obtained from navigational radar sets are appreciably
more accurate than the bearings on account of die width of the radar beam.
If therefore radar information alone is available, the best fixes will be
derived from use of three or more radar ranges as position arcs
Voyage planning in restricted waters compared to the sailing in ocean
waters , can be difficult . in case of any damage of the ship’s main
machinery , steering system the voyage plan may be changed also VTS
(vessels traffic service ) should be taken into consideration when planning
the passage plan .
VTS (vessels traffic service ) –the main purpose of VTS is to make
shipping safer in a particular area by monitoring the ship’s position and
providing relevant and updated information to all ships in the area .
VTS systems can be divided into two main groups :
1. VTS providing information services only
2. VTS providing traffic advise and information in order to
maintain compliance with local regulations and improve safety
of the ships in vicinity .
Information about VTS can be found in sailing directions and the VTS
port guide .
 Margins of the safety in restricted waters can be critical
 The ships ability to maneuver , may influence the route selection .
 Coastal weather bulletins and navigational warnings may require
changes to the original route plan .
PREPARATION FOR ARRIVAL IN PORT
• In preparing the passage for arrival in port, has a pre-pilotage

information exchange taken place?
• Has the passage plan been updated following receipt of the shore to
ship pilot/master exchange form and all latest navigational warnings?
• Has the ETA been sent with all relevant information required by
local regulations
• Is it necessary to rearrange cargo/ballast?
Has the following equipment been prepared and checked?
• Course and engine movement recorders
• Clock synchronization
• Communications with the engine control room and mooring stations
• Signaling equipment, including flags/lights
• Deck lighting
• Mooring winches and lines including heaving lines » Pressure on
fire main
• Anchors cleared away
• Stabilizers and log tubes housed, if fitted
• Has the steering gear been tested, and has manual steering been
engaged in sufficient time for the helmsman to become accustomed before
maneuvering commences?
• Have the engines been tested and prepared for maneuvering?
• Has the pilot card been completed and are the pilot embarkation
arrangements in hand?
• Have VHF channels for the various services been noted and a radio
check carried out?
• Has the port been made fully aware of any special berthing
requirements that the ship may have?
• Other checks:
Monitoring of the ship’s intended tracks can be done visually or by

instruments . in practice the combination of this two method is usually used
, most of the time .
ECDIS , INC and other modern systems can provide a lot of useful
information to the navigator .
A preliminary plan should be prepared the coverage of pilotage waters
.
Navigation with the pilot
In order to prepare for the pilot an information exchange between the
ship and the pilot should take place prior to boarding .
Once the pilot is on board the passage plan may need to be discussed in
more detail .
“ship maneuvering “ and “ship’s particulars “ information should be
available on the bridge .
The sample of information exchange forms between the pilot and ship ,
spit to pilot are followings :
Ship’s routing measures have been introduced in a number of coastal

waters to:
 Reduce the risk of collision between ships in area of high traffic
densities.
 Keep shipping away from environmentally sensitive sea areas .
 Reduce the risk of grounding in shallow waters .

Nautical publications should be consulted for up to date , information
about traffic separation schemes .
The following elements are used in the IMO routing system :
 Separation of opposite traffic .
 Traffic lane .
 Separation zone .
 Roundabouts .
 Inshore traffic zones.
 Recommended route .
 Deep water route .
 Recommended tracks , through archipelagic areas .
 Two-way route with one way sections through a precautionary
areas .
 Area to be avoided .

Basic Principles of Navigation

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Basic Principles of Navigation

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Short course of Sea Navigation Shota Kuntchulia

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION

1.2. THE PRINCIPAL POINTS. CIRCLE. PLANES AND LINES ON

If the cutting plane does not pass through the Earth's

1.3 THE GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES

To fix the position of any place on the Earth's

1.4. THE DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE AND THE DIFFERENCE OF

Let us imagine, for instance, that a ship

1Nautical Mile =10 Cable

Speed at sea is measured

1.7. DEVICES FOR MEASURING SHIP'S SPEED AND DISTANCE

1.8. DETERMINING AND THE LOG CORRECTION USAGE

1.9. THE VISIBLE HORIZON AND THE LIGHT'S VISIBILITY

As a rule, the heights of

1.10. THE DIVISION OF TRUE HORIZON

The intersection of True Meridian by the plane of True

1.12. THE GYRO BEARING AND COURSE

1.13. THE MAGNETIC BEARING AND COURSE

1.14. THE COMPASS BEARING AND COURSE

The vertical plane through the compass-needle

WHITH LEADING LINE

1.15. CORRECTING AND UNCORRECTING BEARINGS AND

2. MAP PROJECTIONS AND SEA CHARTS

2.1. GREAT CIRCLE. RHUMB LINE

Now let us analyze the formula (**):

2.2. SCALES OF PLANS AND CHARTS

For ordinary navigational purposes it is convenient to represent the Earth's

Example 3: Natural scale equals 1/1 000 000:

2.3.CLASSIFICATION OF CHART PROJECTIONS

Projections are usually classified primarily as to the type of distortions or as to

2.3.1. Types of Distortions

2.3.2. Forms of Graticules

a) Conical projection is one, in which points on the Earth's surface are

2.4. THE MERCATOR PROJECTION

This projection is a conformal one; besides, on the chart in stereographic

The Gnomonic Projection

The Gnomonic Projection is a particular case of a Perspective Projection, if the

2.7. WATER FEATURES

THE SEA BOTTOM

2.8 Correction of Charts and Publications

HOW TO CORRECT YOUR CHARTS THE ADMIRALTY WAY “NP-294”

Section (IV). Amendments to Admiralty sailing directions (SDs).

Section (VI). Amendment to Admiralty list of Radio Signals (ALRS).

which you wish to tell us about.

Radio Navigational Warnings

No correction, except those given in Section II of Admiralty Notices to

Admiralty Sailing Directions

How to correct your charts:

2.9 AIDS TO NAVIGATION

Beacons are fixed structures, built on rocks or shoals, or land to act as

F-fixed (is constantly visible);

Flashing (total duration of light shorter than შუქის ხანგეძლივობა ნაკლებია

PORT HAND STARBOARD

Colour: Red. Colour: Green.

Shape: pillar or spar

SAFE WATER MARKS

If these shapes are used they will indicate the

Retroreflectors illustrated are those of the composite code.

Charts are corrected from some modem information.

Tracings for chart correction

2.10. DEGREE OF RELIANCE OF CHARTS

2.11. PLOTTING PROBLEMS ON THE MERCATOR CHART

Plotting Equipment: Dividers (Compasses) should be tight enough to remain

3. GRAPHIC RECKONING AND SAILINGS