Proceedings of the 20th World Congress

Proceedings
The of
of the
International
Proceedings 20th
20th World
Federation
the Worldof Congress
Automatic Control
Congress
Proceedings
The of the 20th World Congress Control
The International
Toulouse, France,Federation
International Federation of
of Automatic
July 9-14, 2017 Available
Automatic online at www.sciencedirect.com
Control
The International Federation
Toulouse, of Automatic Control
Toulouse, France,
France, July
July 9-14,
9-14, 2017
2017
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017
ScienceDirect
IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 4733–4738
Topology Comparison for 48V
Topology
Topology Comparison
Comparison for
for 48V
48V
Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid Energy
Battery-Supercapacitor
Battery-Supercapacitor Hybrid

Hybrid Energy
Energy
Storage System 
Storage
Storage System
System
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗
Sunil Sreedhar ∗ Jason B. Siegel ∗∗ Saemin Choi ∗∗∗
Sunil
Sunil Sreedhar ∗∗ Jason B. Siegel ∗∗ Saemin Choi ∗∗∗
∗
Sunil Sreedhar
Sreedhar Jason Jason B. B. Siegel
Siegel ∗∗ Saemin
Saemin Choi Choi ∗∗∗
∗
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗ University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗ University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
sunilsr@umich.edu) MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗∗ University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
sunilsr@umich.edu) MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗∗
University of Michigan,sunilsr@umich.edu)
Ann Arbor,
sunilsr@umich.edu) MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗∗ University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗∗ University of Michigan, Ann
University
∗∗∗ of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
Arbor,
siegeljb@umich.edu)
siegeljb@umich.edu)
MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
∗∗∗
Inmatech inc., siegeljb@umich.edu)
Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA, (e-mail:
siegeljb@umich.edu)
∗∗∗ Inmatech inc., Ann Arbor, MI 48109) USA, (e-mail:
∗∗∗
Inmatech
Inmatech inc., Ann
Ann Arbor,
Arbor, MI
schoi@inmatech-inc.com
inc., MI 48109
48109) USA,USA, (e-mail:
(e-mail:
schoi@inmatech-inc.com
schoi@inmatech-inc.com )
schoi@inmatech-inc.com )
Abstract: Simulation results show that a fourfold reduction in peak battery current, and a 40%
Abstract:
Abstract: in Simulation
Simulation results
results show
show that
that a fourfold reduction in peak battery current, and aa 40%
increase
Abstract:
increase in
vehicle range
Simulation
vehicle range
can be
results
can show
be that aa fourfold
achieved
achieved fourfold
by
reduction
by hybridization
reductionof
hybridization of
in
inaapeak
peak battery
battery current,
conventional
conventional
lead acid
current,
lead
and
acid a 40%
andbattery 40%
battery
increase
powered
increase in
in vehicle
neighborhood
vehicle range
range can
electric
can be
be achieved
vehicle
achieved with by
by hybridization
supercapacitors
hybridization of
and
of a
a conventional
a controlled
conventional lead
DC/DC
lead acid
acid battery
converter.
battery
powered
powered neighborhood
neighborhood electric
electric vehicle
lead with
vehicle with supercapacitors
supercapacitors and
and a controlled
ownershipDC/DC through converter.
The
powered
The
reduced
reduced
battery current
neighborhood
battery electric
current
could
vehicle
could lead
to lower
with
to lower
total vehicle cost
supercapacitors
total vehicle and aaof
cost of
controlled
controlled
ownership
DC/DC
DC/DC
through
converter.
reduction
converter.
reduction
The
in
The reduced
the battery
reduced battery current
replacement
battery current could
cost.
could lead
lead to
to lower
lower total
total vehicle
vehicle cost
cost of
of ownership
ownership through
through reduction
reduction
in
in the
the battery
battery replacement
replacement cost.
cost.
in the battery replacement cost.
© 2017, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Converter, Optimization
Keywords: Electric
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Converter,
Converter, Optimization
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Vehicle, Converter, Optimization Optimization
1. INTRODUCTION In an effort to reduce costs, NEVs typically use deep
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION In
In an
an effort
acidto
effort to reduce
reduce costs,
rather NEVs typically
metaluse deep
1. INTRODUCTION cycle
In
cycle anleadeffort
lead acid reduce costs,
tobatteries
batteries costs,
rather
NEVs
than nickel
NEVs
than
typically
typically
nickel metal
use
use deep
hydride
deep
hydride
Personal mobility is desirable for almost everyone. The cycle cycle
or lead
lithium
lead acid
ion.
acid batteries
As
batteriesa rather
result,
rather thethan
thanrange nickel
nickelis metal
no
metal more hydride
than
hydride
Personal mobility is desirable for almost everyone. The or
or
30-40lithium
lithiummiles. ion.
ion.The As
As a
a result,
result,
batteries the
the
also range
range
usually is
is no
no
need more
more
to bethan
thanre-
Personal
ability
Personal ofmobility
humans is
mobility istodesirable
transport
desirable for
for almost
themselves
almost everyone.
is vitalThe
everyone. to or
The 30-40lithiummiles. ion.The Asbatteries
a result, alsothe usually
range isneed no more to bethanre-
ability
ability
the of
of
economy. humans
humans to
to
Considering transport
transport themselves
themselves
the dependence is
is
on vital
vital
oil and to
to 30-40
placed
30-40 miles.
frequently,
miles. The batteries
almost
The almost
batterieseveryalso
alsofew usually
years
usually need
Luo
need et to
al. be
be re-
(2013).
to (2013). re-
ability of humans to transport themselves is vital to placed
placed frequently,
frequently, almost every
every few
highfew years
years Luo
Luo et
et al.
al.
the(2013).
the economy.
the
fossil
the
economy.
economy.
Considering the
Considering
fuels for transportation
Considering
the dependence
dependence
is intensively
the dependence
on oil
on
harmful
on oil the Though
oilto and
and
and placed the batteries
frequently, almosthave every energy
few years density,
Luo et al. depth
(2013).
fossil fuels
fossil fuels for
for transportation issustainable
intensivelytechnology
harmful to the Though
to the Though
of dischargethe
the batteries
the batteries
(DOD) and have
have high
high energy density,
high energy
energy density,
have charge/discharge rates the
the depth
depth
theimpact
fossil fuels for aatransportation
environment,
environment,
transition to is
transportation
transition to
intensively
issustainable harmful
harmful to like
intensivelytechnology the Though
like of
of
the discharge
discharge
capacity
batteries
(DOD)
(DOD)
and life and
and
of charge/discharge
charge/discharge
the battery
density,
Rodolfo rates
rates
depth
impact
impact
Dufo-Lopez
environment,
electric cars
environment, is a transition
the
athe right
transition stepto sustainable
ahead for a technology
better tomorrow. like of discharge (DOD) and charge/discharge rates impact
electric cars
electric
Electric cars
cars isis
can the steptoahead
right emissions
right
reduce step
sustainable
ahead for
offor aa
carbon
technology
better
better tomorrow.
tomorrow.
dioxide
like thethe
(CO2 ) (2013).
the
capacity
capacity
capacity
and
and
and life
In comparison life of
life of
with
of
the
the battery
battery
thebatteries,
Rodolfo
Rodolfo Dufo-Lopez
Rodolfo Dufo-Lopez
battery supercapacitors Dufo-Lopez (SC)
electric
Electric cars
cars is the
can reduceright
reduce step ahead
emissions for a
of carbon
carbonbetter tomorrow.
dioxide (2013).
(2013).
(CO22 )) can In
In
charge comparison
comparison
and dischargewith
with batteries,
batteries,
at a higher supercapacitors
supercapacitors
rate, providing (SC)
(SC)
the
Electric
which
Electric is cars
the
cars can
primary
can reduce emissions
cause for
emissions of
global warming
of carbon dioxide
and
dioxide (CO
climate
(CO2 ) (2013).
can In comparison
charge and dischargewithat batteries,
aa higher supercapacitors
rate, providing (SC)
the
which
which
change. is
is the
the
It primary
primary
is anticipatedcause
cause for
for
that global
global
a 42%warming
warming
national and
and climate
climate
average can
can charge
necessary
charge and
power
and discharge
for
discharge at
acceleration
at a higher
and
higher rate,
rate, providing
recovery
providingof the
brak-
the
which
change. is the
It primary
is anticipatedcause forthat global
a 42%warming
national and average
climate necessary
necessary
ing energy power
power
without for
for acceleration
acceleration
impacting their and
and life.recovery
recovery
But, the of
of brak-
brak-
energy
change.
reduction
change. It inis CO
It inis COanticipated
2 emissions
anticipated that
that a bea
will 42%
be national
achieved
42%achieved
nationalwhen average
when
averagewe necessary
ing energy power for acceleration and recovery of brak-
reduction
reduction
switch from in CO
vehicles
2 emissions
running will
2 emissions will be achieved
on conventional when
sources we
we ing
to density
ing energy
energy of awithout
without
without
impacting
impacting
supercapacitor
impactingis
their
muchlife.
their
their life.
lower
life.
But,
But,
But, thanthe
the energy
energy
the that
energy of
reduction in CO emissions will be achieved when we density
density of
of a
a supercapacitor
supercapacitor is
is much
much lower
lower than
than that
that of
that of
switch from
from 2
vehicles running(2006).on conventional
conventional sourcesuse to adensity
battery. Several researchers have investigated combining
switch
electric
switch vehicles
from vehicles
vehicles running
Heckeroth
running(2006).on The
on conventional sources
widespread
sourcesuse to
to athe battery. of Several
a supercapacitor
researchers is much
have lower than
investigated combining of
electric
electric
of cars in vehicles
vehicles
daily life Heckeroth
Heckeroth
highlights (2006).
the need The
The widespread
widespread
for research that use a
athebattery.
battery
battery. Several
and
Several a researchers
supercapacitor. have
researchers haveThe investigated
The specific
investigated combining
architecture
combining
electric vehicles Heckeroth (2006). The widespread use battery
the battery
and electrical and
and a supercapacitor.
aa supercapacitor.
active, The specific
specific architecture
or architecture
of
of cars
cars
cars in
improves
of
inthe
inthe
daily
daily
daily
life
life
efficiency highlights
life highlights
of city drive
highlights
the
the need
the need
electric
need
for
for research
research
for vehicles.
researchWith
that
that
that the and battery
electrical andconnection;
supercapacitor.
connection; active,
passive,
The specific
passive, or
semi-active,
architecture
semi-active,
improves
improves
the evolutionthe efficiency
efficiency
of electric of of
of city
city
cars, drive
drive
improvement electric
electric vehicles.
vehicles.
invehicles. With
With
efficiencyWith and and and
impactselectrical
the
electrical connection;
power split
connection; and active,
overall
active, passive,
system
passive, or
or semi-active,
efficiency Song
semi-active,
improves
the evolution
evolutionthe efficiency
ofofelectric
electric city drive
cars, improvement
improvement electric incar
efficiency impacts
impacts the
the
et al. (2015a,b).
anda impacts power
power split
split and
and overall
overall system
system efficiency
efficiency Song
Song
the
working
the range
evolution of the
ofofelectric cars,
battery powering
cars, improvement the in efficiency
incar has
efficiency beenand
anda et al. the
(2015a,b). power split and overall system efficiency Song
working
working
topic of range
range
research of the
the
for battery
battery
laboratories powering
powering
and has the
the
posedcar ahas
has been
been
challenge a et
et al.
al. (2015a,b).
(2015a,b).
working
topic of range offor
research thelaboratories
battery powering and has the
posedcar ahas been a In the hybrid energy storage system, the main energy
challenge
topic
to of research
industries for
to produce laboratories
them rapidlyand hasandposed a challenge
profitably. In
In the
the hybrid
hybrid energy storage system, the main energy
topic of research
to industries
to industries to for
to produce laboratories
produce them them rapidlyand has
rapidly and posed a
and profitably. challenge
profitably.
source
In
source hybrid energy
the (battery)
(battery)
supplies
energy
supplies
storage
storage
the
system,
the average
system, power
average
the
the main
power main energy
required
energy
required
to
to
to
A industries
Neighborhood to produce
Electricthem rapidly
Vehicle (NEV)and profitably.
is a U.S. des- source source
meet the(battery)
load.
(battery) The supplies
supplies the
supercapacitor average
the average is power
used
power to required
supply
required to
fast
to
A Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV) is a U.S. des- meet
meet
changing the
the load.
load.
power The
The supercapacitor
supercapacitor
requirements and is
is
peak used
used to
to
power supply
supply
demands. fast
fast
A
A Neighborhood
ignation for
Neighborhood low Electric
speed
Electric Vehicle
electric
Vehicle (NEV)
vehicles
(NEV)that is
that aare
is aare U.S.
U.S. des-
usually meet
des- changing the load.
power The supercapacitor
requirements is used to supply fast
ignation
ignation for
for for lowspeed
low speed
speed electric
electric vehicles
25 milesvehicles that are with a As
usually changing power
per Rodolfo Dufo-Lopez and
power requirements and
(2013),peak
peak
peakthe
power
power demands.
demands.
magnitude of
built
ignation
built for
a top
for
a top speedof
lowspeed of electric
25 miles
per hour
vehicles
per hour that are usually
(mph)
(mph) usually
with a
changing
As
As
the per
per Rodolfo
Rodolfo
charging and
requirements
Dufo-Lopez
Dufo-Lopez
discharge
and
(2013),
(2013),
current, as the
the
power
well
demands.
magnitude
magnitude
at the DOD of
of
built
maximum
built for a top
loaded
for a loaded speed
top speed weight of 25
of
of 25 miles
1,400kg. per
miles perBased hour
Based
hour on (mph)
on the
(mph) with
Federal a
with a the As per Rodolfo
charging and Dufo-Lopez
discharge (2013),
current, as the
well magnitude
at the DOD of
maximum
maximum
Motor loaded
Vehicle weight
weight
Safety of
of 1,400kg.
1,400kg.
Standard Based
(FMVSS) on
500,the
the anFederal
Federal
NEV the
the charging
determine
charging the and
number
and discharge
of
discharge current,
cycles to
current, as
failure.
as well
well at
at the
Reducing
the DOD
DOD the
maximum loaded weight of 1,400kg. Based on thean Federal determine
determine the
the number
number of
of cycleswillto failure.
increaseReducing the
Motor
Motor
has
Motor to Vehicle
be able Safety
Vehicle
Vehicle Safety
to achieve
Safety
Standard
Standard
20 mph
Standard
(FMVSS)
within 500,
(FMVSS)
(FMVSS) 500,
1 mile,
500, an
an must peak
NEV
NEV
NEV determine
peak
current
currentthe on number
on the of cycles
the battery cycleswill
battery
to
to failure.
failure.
increase
Reducing
the battery
Reducing
the battery
the
the
has to
has
have tohead
be able
be able
and to
to
tail achieve
achieve
lights 20 mph
20
and mph
a within 1
within
windshield. 1 mile,
mile,
NEVs must
must
are peak
efficiency
peak current
reducing
current on
on the
the
the battery
DOD
battery andwill
will increase
increase
increase the the
the battery
number
battery of
has
have to be
head able
and to
tail achieve
lights 20
and mph
a within
windshield. 1 mile,
NEVs must
are efficiency
efficiency
cycles reducing
reducing
to failure, thus the
the DOD
DOD
extending and
and theincrease
batterythe
increase life number
the number
as per the of
of
have
have head
appropriate
head and and
for tail
closed lights
tail lights and
environments a windshield.
like
and a windshield. campuses NEVs
NEVsor are
gated efficiency
are cycles to reducing
failure, thus the DOD
extending and theincrease
battery the
life number
as per of
the
appropriate
appropriate
communities, for
for closed
closed
where environments
environments
they can be like
like
easily campuses
campuses
plugged or
oringated
gated
and cycles
“Rainflow”
cycles to
to failure,
counting
failure, thus
thus extending
degradation
extending the
the battery
models.
battery Thislife
life as
will
as per
per the
reduce
the
appropriate forwhere
closedthey environments like campuses oringated “Rainflow”
“Rainflow” counting
countingcost degradation
degradation models.
models. This
This will
costreduce
communities,
communities,
stored, and don’t
communities, where
whereoften run can
they
they can
at high
can
be
be
be
easily
speed. plugged
easily
easily plugged
People living
plugged in
in in the
and
and
and
replacement
“Rainflow”
the replacement countingcost
and justify the
degradation
and justify models.
the This will
additional
additional will
cost
reduce
of the
reduce
of the
stored,environments
stored,
urban and don’t
and don’t often
often suchrun
run as at
at highcities
high
small speed.
speed. andPeople
People
towns, living
living in
where the
in converter replacement
and cost and
supercapacitor justify
overthe a additional
battery-only cost of
of the
system.
stored,
urban and don’t often
environments suchrun as at highcities
small speed. andPeople
towns, living in the
where
replacement
converter
converter and
and
cost and justify
supercapacitor
supercapacitor over
over
thea additional
a battery-only
battery-only
costsystem.
system.
the
urban
speeds
urban environments
are typically low,
environments such
such as
may
as small
also cities
small be able
cities and
and totowns,
use a NEV.
towns, where
where converter
The controller and supercapacitor
ensures the battery over a battery-only
supplies the system. average
speeds are typically low, may also be able to use a NEV. The controller ensures
speeds
speeds areare typically
typically low, low, maymay alsoalso bebe able
able to to use
use a a NEV.
NEV. The
motor
The controller
power while
controller ensures
ensures the the
the
the
battery
battery supplies
battery supplies
supercapacitor supplies
supplies
the
the
thethe
average
average
peak
average
motor
motor
power power
power
and getswhile
while the
the
charged supercapacitor
supercapacitor
by the regenerativesupplies
supplies powerthe
the peak
peak
from
 This work was supported by the National Science Foundation motor
power power
and getswhile the
charged supercapacitor
by the regenerativesupplies powerthe peak
from
 power
the
power and
motor. gets
and getsThis charged
results
charged inby the regenerative
minimizing
byminimizing
the regenerative battery power from
discharge,
power from
 This
through
This work
an
work was
SBIR
was supported
Grant
supported by
by the
the National
National Science
Science Foundation
Foundation the motor. This results in battery discharge,
 This work was supported by the National Science Foundation
through an SBIR Grant
the
the motor.
motor. This
This results
results in
in minimizing
minimizing battery
battery discharge,
discharge,
through an SBIR Grant
through an SBIR Grant
Copyright
2405-8963 ©© 2017
2017, IFAC 4894Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control)
Copyright
Copyright
Peer review© 2017
2017 IFAC
© under IFAC
responsibility of International Federation of 4894
4894Control.
Automatic
Copyright © 2017 IFAC 4894
10.1016/j.ifacol.2017.08.864
Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress
4734
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Sunil Sreedhar et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 4733–4738

thereby improving the range of the battery. A power con- iD

verter is required between the battery and supercapacitor
to facilitate controlled power flow.

2. HESS CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES AND POWER

REQUIREMENTS iL VC

Several topologies can be considered to combine a super-

capacitor and battery to run an electric motor. RSC
A) Direct parallel connection of battery and supercapac-
itor : In this configuration the power split is deter- Vbat imotor
mined by the internal resistance of each device and
the amount of stored charge. Since the supercapac-
itor voltage changes rapidly with stored charge, the iC CSC
power split cannot be controlled during long periods
of acceleration.
B) Battery in series with a diode and supercapacitor
(Fig. 1) : The diode blocks battery charging current Fig. 2. Circuit Diagram of modified DC/DC Converter.
during the capture of regenerative braking energy
thus eliminating irregular charging cycles. There is as the velocity is low and compatible with the vehicle
significant energy losses due to the voltage drop specifications.
across the diode. Once the supercapacitor is depleted,
and its voltage drops below that of the battery, the 15
power split can no-longer be controlled during further Velocity (m/s)
discharging. 10
C) DC/DC converter with battery parallel to the motor
: In this configuration only the regenerative energy 5
passes though the converter to charge the capacitor,
but the regenerative energy passes twice and with 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
potentially high currents reducing the converter effi-
ciency. The bi-directional converter has to be sized for 4000
the peak demand power (current) of the drive cycle
Power (W)

2000
which increases system cost and weight.
D) DC/DC converter with supercapacitor parallel to 0
the motor (Fig. 2) : This topology ensures that -2000
the ability of supercapacitors to charge/discharge at -4000
rapid rates is used and braking energy is recovered 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
most efficiently, thus extending the working range Time (s)
of the battery. The converter only has to be sized
to match the average power demand of the cycle
resulting in a lower cost system. Fig. 3. Vehicle velocity (top) and power required (bottom)
to complete the New York City Drive Cycle for a
480kg vehicle.

Figure 3 represents the power required to complete the

+ duration Agency (2016). The velocity vs time is converted
48V 50F Motor
−
Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of battery driven topology without
converter.
The cost of the converter in the [D] topology is justified by
the observed improvement in efficiency. Also, this structure
is simple and can be controlled easily. The [B] and [D]
topologies have been selected for detailed analysis and
comparison in this paper. The New York city driving cycle
has been chosen to evaluate the converter performance,
New York drive cycle used for the tests. The drive cycle
consists of the velocity of the vehicle in m/s for a 600s time
to instantaneous power consumption in W using a simple
electric vehicle model Markel et al. (2002). The peak
tractive power is almost 6kW, however the average tractive
power is much lower, around 450W, and the recapture of
breaking energy has the potential to lower the average
power demand even further.
3. STATE-SPACE AVERAGED MODEL OF THE
CONVERTER
The battery is modeled as voltage source VSOC in series
with a internal resistance R1,bat and a parallel combination
of resistance R2,bat and capacitor Cbat as shown in Fig. 4
Jackey (2007). The battery terminal voltage is given by
Vbat = V0,SOC +α·SOC −VCbat −(iL +iD )·R1,bat , and the

4895
Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Sunil Sreedhar et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 4733–4738 4735
battery state of charge is calculated using the traditional
coulomb counting model,
SOC˙ = −(iL + iD ) · η ,
Q a better control logic to use the combination of battery
i + i V (1)
˙ = L D C,bat
VC,bat − ,
Cbat Cbat · R1,bat
with coulombic efficiency η, and capacity Q in A s. The
relevant parameters for the battery model can be found
in Table 1. Similarly the supercapacitor is modeled by an
ideal capacitor (CSC ) in series with a resistor (RSC ) as
shown in 2.
R2,bat
−
R1,bat
VSOC Vbat
Cbat
Fig. 4. Battery Model
The equations pertaining to the modified boost converter
are written for different modes of the converter operation,
which can be described as a hybrid dynamical system.
The state space model as shown in Eq. 3 is then obtained
by averaging the state variable equations over a switch-
ing period of the converter as shown in W.Erickson and
Maksimovic (2001). The imotor = Pmotor /VC is obtained
using the motor power and bus voltage, which is the out-
put capacitor voltage VC Mayo-Maldonado et al. (2010);
Moubayed et al. (2008); Peng (2011).
The diode current can be found by the following relation-
ship.
0, if Vbat < VC
iD = (2)
iL − iC − imotor , if Vbat − VD > VC
where the current into the output capacitor given by
iC = C · V˙C , which equals zero in steady state.
Where the variables and model parameters are described
in Table 1. Note that the system is non-linear in the input
d. so the controller must be designed around a linearized
nominal operating current of 30A, gain scheduled based
on the output voltage.
4. SIMULATION OF THE TOPOLOGIES
4.1 Battery driven electric car without the converter
The topology A is the most trivial configuration involves
connecting the battery to the supercapacitor, which is
in parallel with the motor. Regenerative power from the
motor due to braking, would be captured by the super-
capacitor and/or the battery but the power split cannot
be individually controlled. The capacity of the lead-acid
battery is decreased when high power charging occurs
even during relatively short regenerative braking periods.
4896
Therefore, we consider the addition of a diode between the
battery and the supercapacitor to form topology B. The
diode helps to extend battery life by blocking the charging
current [Luo et al. (2013)]. Hence a circuit, as shown in Fig.
1, is simulated to test the idea and analyze the need for
and supercapacitor. It was observed that peak battery
current is 87 A over the cycle. The power split in Fig. 5
shows that majority of the motor power is supplied by the
battery, due to the limited range of voltage allowed for the
supercapacitor, which is not the ideal case. A simulation
with the battery parallel to the supercapacitor is done
using Matlab Simulink.
Fig. 5. Power split for battery driven topology without
converter
4.2 DC/DC Boost Converter and control strategy
Considering the inability to obtain an ideal power split
between battery and supercapacitor using a simple parallel
configuration, we considered the addition of a DC/DC
converter. [Shuo et al. (2015)] and [Song et al. (2015a)] pro-
posed a modified DC/DC converter to utilize the energy
from a backpack. Based on this idea, a modified DC/DC
converter is used to implement a better power split strat-
egy which can be controlled. A control logic to operate
the converter ensures that the battery power is used only
when there is a necessity and output voltage is lower than
the reference value. The traditional converter is modified
by adding a parallel diode to bypass the converter. When
the power drawn by the motor exceeds that supplied by
the converter and the supercapacitor voltage drops below
the battery voltage, the bypass parallel diode comes into
action and charges the supercapacitor faster. This ensures
that the output voltage does not drop below the battery
voltage while the higher currents bypass the converter. The
circuit diagram of this converter is shown in Fig. 2.
Once the converter design was developed, the controller
was designed to control the input current (inductor cur-
rent) and output voltage (supercapacitor voltage) using
a cascaded double PI controller as shown in Fig 7. The
reference for the voltage controller is set using the velocity
of the car. Velocity data determines the power requirement
of the motor, which in-turn decides the power required to
be delivered by the supercapacitor and its voltage. Higher
velocity implies that the supercapacitor would be dis-
charged and thus a lower voltage reference is set. Allowing
the supercapacitor to discharge as speed increases ensures
Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress
4736
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Sunil Sreedhar et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 4733–4738

 1 1 1   
− 0 0 1 1
  RSC RSC C   − 0 0 − 0  
V˙C  1 1  VC  C C  d · iL
 
˙
 VSC  
− 0 0 0   VSC   0 0 0 0 0
d · VC
 iL˙  = 
τSC
1
τSC
R1,bat + RL α 1
 i    RON 1 R1,bat 1 
·


 ˙    − 0 − −  L  
 SOC
+ − − 0   iD
 (3)
SOC  L L L L   0L L
0 −η/Q
L L
0 0 imotor
˙
VC,bat  0 0 −η/Q 0 0  VC,bat  1
 V0,SOC − (1 − d) · VD
1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 − Cbat
Cbat τbat

Table 1. Description of the parameters and This process helps in reducing battery power consump-
values used for simulation tion and maximum extraction of braking energy. Also,
Parameter Value Description compared to the existing battery driven motor case, this
VC Output capacitor voltage scheme allows motor terminal voltage to be greater than
VSC Supercapacitor voltage battery voltage. Currently, a 3-level voltage reference de-
Vbat Battery voltage termined using the velocity of the car at each time step, is
VCbat Capacitor voltage in battery model used to control the output voltage between 47V and 58V.
iD Parallel diode current The discrete reference values eases the control process and
d Converter duty cycle
determine steadier duty cycle values. The control voltage
V0,SOC 48V Fully charged battery voltage
α 2.4 Linearized slope of Vbat v/s SOC
values are chosen to ensure that battery current is not
η 0.95 Coulombic efficiency of the battery too large due to voltage drop in the supercapacitor under
Q 48Ah Capacity of the battery heavy acceleration.
τbat Cbat R2,bat =1.7 s battery time constant
A controller is designed to determine the duty cycle for the
R1,bat 0.019 ohms battery series resistance
Cbat 400 F battery capacitance
converter based on the inductor current and supercapaci-
τSC CSC RSC SC time constant tor voltage output generated from the state space model.
CSC 50 F SC Capacitance The voltage reference is generated based on the velocity
RSC 0.01 ohms SC resistance of the car. As the velocity increases, the voltage reference
L 1mH Inductance drops in order to prepare the SC to receive regenerative
RL 1.35mΩ Series resistance of inductor braking energy. Note that SC voltage for Topology D is
RON 12.9mΩ ON resistance of MOSFET always higher than that for cases A and B, so no loss
VD 0.95V Forward voltage drop of the diode in performance results from the control policy. Since the
aim is to control the input current and output voltage, a
the capability to utilize the regenerative power to its fullest cascaded structure is required to control the two states.
to charge the supercapacitor. The supercapacitor voltage The inner current loop runs with faster dynamics and the
which allows full regenerative brake energy capture can outer voltage loop runs with slower dynamics. The voltage
be found by relating the stored energy in the capacitor to PI controller gains are tuned so that the current reference
the kinetic energy of the vehicle times the motor efficiency matches the desired level of inductor current. The current
(ηM ), controller gains are tuned to minimize the duty cycle and
1 1 the anti-windup scheme of back-calculation ensures faster
2 2 2
ηM Mv Vvel = CSC (Vmax,SC − VSC ) (4) attainment of the steady state value.
2 2
where Vmax,SC = 60 V is the maximum supercapacitor
voltage. The resulting voltage is plotted in Fig. 6.

4
10
60 3.5

3
58
SC Voltage (V) for full Regen

2.5
Fig. 7. Sequential loop controller
Kinetic Energy (J)

56
2

58.5, if 0 ≤ r < 3
1.5
54 Vref = 54, if 3 ≤ r < 7 (5)
1
48, if r ≥ 7
52 where, r is the velocity of the car in m/s and Vref is the
0.5 voltage reference in V.
50 0 In certain circumstances the potential regenerative energy
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 from the drive cycle could not be harvested while keeping
Velocity (m/s) the supercapacitor module voltage less than 60V (2.5V
per supercapacitor). In such cases, the excess regenera-
Fig. 6. Kinetic energy vs vehicle velocity and maximum SC tive power is diverted to the friction brakes, implemented
voltage to enable full capture of regenerative braking within the motor block in the Simulink model. The simu-
energy at 80% motor efficiency (ignoring I 2 R losses). lations were run for the New York drive cycle and impor-

4897
Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress

Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Sunil Sreedhar et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 4733–4738 4737

tant parameters like output voltage, converter current and supplied. The advantage of the converter and a control
battery SOC were observed and the converter and bypass logic is clearly shown when Fig. 9 is compared with Fig. 5
diode currents were compared as shown in Fig. 8. wherein the peak battery currents are greatly reduced.

4.3 Comparison of the topologies

Based on the simulations, a comparison of the important
deciding parameters like the ability of the system to utilize
braking energy, extending the range of the battery, losses
in the system, and maximum current drawn from the
battery, which determines the size of the traces on the
PCB, is performed. The results summarized in Table 2
hilight the fourfold reduction in peak battery current
that can be achieved with the DC/DC converter topology
D, resulting in upto a 40% increase in vehicle range as
compared to the battery only case which did not allow
capture of regenerative braking energy.
Table 2. Comparison parameters
Topology Peak Batt Dis Peak Batt Chg inc run-time
Batt only
no regen 167 A 0A –
Batt only 166 A -68 A 28
A 86 A -58 A 36 %
B 87 A 0A 38%
D 44 A 0A 42 %

Fig. 8. Observations of the Simulation

Based on the observations as shown in Table 2 and
In Fig. 8, the capacitor voltage is shown along with its hardware manufacturing issues, the DC/DC converter in
reference value generated based on the velocity. It can topology D to combine supercapacitors and battery to run
be seen that the voltage is maintained within the desired a city electric car is an attractive option.
range. The inductor averaged current is maintained within
the 30A limit as is the battery current, except for a To justify the cost of adding the converter module to
few seconds in the drive cycle where the parallel diode existing NEV drive systems, the bill of materials is listed,
conducts. Also, a SOC drop of 3.1% is observed for the as shown in Table 3. The commercial production cost
10 min time window of the drive cycle. The bypass diode Table 3. Bill of Materials
conducts when output voltage drops below the battery
voltage minus diode forward voltage. This ensures faster Component Cost
Inductor 1mH 44A $12.36
charging of the supercapacitor. As seen in Fig. 8, the con-
MOSFET 180A 250V $8.16
verter diode current is mostly within 30A and the bypass Diode 0.95V 120A X 2 $7.10
diode is only active toward the end of the most aggressive ACS722 50A $2.15
acceleration periods in the cycle when the supercapacitor Heat Sink TO-264 $2.01
becomes depleted. Voltage Regulator 3.3V $2.26
Voltage Regulator 12V $10.65
MOSFET Driver $1.66

for the converter is $50 which will help in improving

efficiency of the car, the working range of the battery by
1.5 hours on 5 hour cycle and is a simple addition to the
existing EV propulsion system. The cost of the superca-
pacitor is currently the limiting factor in acceptance of the
technology, at $1000 for Electric double Layer Capacitors
[Burke (2007)]. Further analysis of the lead acid battery
degeneration and prolonged life though hybridization is
needed to compare the system cost with that of recent
advances in Lithium-ion batteries.

5. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF DC/DC

Fig. 9. Power Split between battery and supercapacitor
It is observed that battery power is used only when su-
percapacitor cannot supply the required motor power, for
example when the supercapacitor voltage drops below the
reference, the battery not only boosts the output voltage
but also ensures that the required motor power is being
CONVERTER
Upon completion of a satisfactory simulation, the modified
boost converter circuit was designed on Eagle software.
The PCB developed is shown in Fig. 10. The controller
developed on Simulink was adjusted with hardware pa-
rameters of the TI Piccolo C2000 board . Using the code

4898
Proceedings of the 20th IFAC World Congress
4738
Toulouse, France, July 9-14, 2017 Sunil Sreedhar et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 50-1 (2017) 4733–4738
Fig. 10. Converter implementation for hardware in the
loop simulation
generation tool in Simulink, an executable file was gener-
ated, which was flashed onto the board.
The inductor current is measured using a Hall effect
sensor ACS722. The converter output voltage is measured
using the on-board 12-bit analog to digital converter
through a resistor voltage divider. The vehicle velocity
values are obtained via UART (Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter). The controller uses these inputs
and implements the cascaded PI controllers to calculate
the switching pattern (duty cycle) to run the MOSFET
at 15 kHz. In order to conduct tests, hardware in the loop
vehicle simulator controlling An electronic load along with
a 48V lead acid battery and 24 cell Maxwell ultracapacitor
module was used to test the converter. The velocity values
of the drive cycle were fed to the C2000 board (controller)
via serial connection.
6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
The reduction in peak and RMS battery currents though
the hybridization of the traditional battery electric vehicle
with a super capacitor module is demonstrated in this
work via simulation. The supercapacitor can handle the
high power during acceleration and capture the regener-
ative braking energy without any loss in performance in
comparison with lead acid batteries which quickly loose
capacity and efficiency when subjected to these harsh
demands. We demonstrate a fourfold reduction in peak
battery current and an extension in battery runtime of 2
hours on a 5 hour drive cycle as compared to a battery
without regen. Future experiments are planned using a
hardware in the loop simulation of the electric vehicle
motor with the physical battery, DC/DC converter and
UC module, to verify the performance gains achieved in
simulation. Further the battery life extension predicted
by the reduced current will be quantified according the
model in [Rodolfo Dufo-Lopez (2013)] and experimentally
validated.
4899
REFERENCES
Agency, U.E.P. (2016). Dynamometer drive sched-
ules. https://www.epa.gov/vehicle-and-fuel-emissions-
testing/dynamometer-drive-schedules.
Burke, A.F. (2007). Batteries and ultracapaci-
tors for electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles.
Proceedings of the IEEE, 95(4), 806–820. doi:
10.1109/JPROC.2007.892490.
Heckeroth, S. (2006). Why we need electric cars.
Jackey, R.A. (2007). A simple, effective lead-acid battery
modeling process for electrical system component selec-
tion. Technical report, The Mathworks Inc.
Luo, W., Yang, Y., Li, H., and Jiang, Y. (2013).
Design of intelligent battery charger based on scm
double closed-loop control. In Proc. IEEE Int.
Conf. Mechatronics and Automation, 1413–1418. doi:
10.1109/ICMA.2013.6618120.
Markel, T., Brooker, A., Hendricks, T., Johnson, V., Kelly,
K., Kramer, B., OKeefe, M., Sprik, S., and Wipke, K.
(2002). Advisor: a systems analysis tool for advanced
vehicle modeling. Journal of Power Sources, 110(2), 255
– 266. doi:10.1016/s0378-7753(02)00189-1.
Mayo-Maldonado, J.C., Rosas-Caro, J.C., Salas-Cabrera,
R., Gonzalez-Rodriguez, A., Ruiz-Martinez, O.F.,
Castillo-Gutierrez, R., Castillo-Ibarra, J.R., and
Cisneros-Villegas, H. (2010). State space modeling
and control of the dc-dc multilevel boost converter.
In Proc. 20th Int Electronics, Communications and
Computer (CONIELECOMP) Conf, 232–236. doi:
10.1109/CONIELECOMP.2010.5440763.
Moubayed, N., Kouta, J., El-Ali, A., Dernayka, H.,
and Outbib, R. (2008). Parameter identification of
the lead-acid battery model. In Proc. 33rd IEEE
Photovoltaic Specialists Conf. PVSC ’08, 1–6. doi:
10.1109/PVSC.2008.4922517.
Peng, W. (2011). Accurate Circuit Model For Predicting
The Performance Of Lead-acid AGM Batteries. Mas-
ter’s thesis, University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
Rodolfo Dufo-Lopez, Juan M. Lujano-Rojas, J.L.B.A.
(2013). Comparison of different leadacid battery lifetime
prediction models for use in simulation of stand-alone
photovoltaic systems. Applied Energy.
Shuo, Z., Xiong, R., and Zhou, X. (2015). Comparison
of the topologies for a hybrid energy-storage system
of electric vehicles via a novel optimization method.
Science China Technological Sciences, 58, 1173–1185.
Song, Z., Hofmann, H., et al. (2015a). A comparison study
of different semi-active hybrid energy storage system
topologies for electric vehicles. Power sources, 274, 400–
411.
Song, Z., Hofmann, H., et al. (2015b). Optimization for a
hybrid energy storage system in electric vehicles using
dynamic programming approach. Applied Energy, 139,
151–162.
W.Erickson, R. and Maksimovic, D. (2001). Fundamentals
of Power Electronics. Kluwer Academic.