Chapter 9

The use of I. General Concepts on Statistics and

Learning Inquiry
STATISTICS Learning is more adequately achieved through research-

in
based inquiry. Research-based inquiry makes our academic
pursuit scientific and therefore reliable, while guarding us
against errors. Through the ages, many things that people knew
OUTCOMES were proven untrue. Until the middle ages, people thought the
world was flat and the earth was the center of the universe, but
ASSESSMENT the sciences notably, navigation and astronomy, proved them
false. As we look for truth in reality, science has laid down
criteria as solid bases for knowing based on empirical
perception. So as human inquiry became more conscious and rigorous, approaches and techniques
were devised supported by quantitative data and statistics.

In education, the use of statistics can cover much of the whole process of teaching and
learning. While this is not a book on statistics, it is relevant to make broad mention of the use of
statistics, particularly in an inquiry-directed or outcomes-based learning.

Definition of statistics
Statistics is a scientific discipline. It is a branch of Mathematics "that deals with the
collection, organization, presentation, computation and interpretation of data which are the,
outcomes of learning" (Santos et al, 2000). The statistician is an expert in the successful
application of statistical analysis or explanation of data. There are two general types of statistical
analysis:

A. Descriptive statistics uses methods to summarize a collection of data by describing

what was observed using numbers or graphs. Numerical descriptions include mean and standard
deviation for data types (such as, weights and heights) or frequency and percentage for describing
categories (such as race and religion). This is most useful in communicating the results of an
inquiry, particularly experiments or surveys.

B. Inferential statistics, also called predictive statistics, uses methods to draw patterns in
the collected data, and then makes conclusions, predictions or forecasts about a group (also referred
to as population) or about a process being studied. The conclusions may take the form of (a)
answering yes or no questions (hypothesis testing); (b) estimating numerical characteristics of
data (estimation); (c) describing relations among data (correlation); (d) modeling relationships
among the data (for example, hypothesis analysis); or (e) predicting, forecasting or estimating
what has not yet been observed but which can be related to the population under study; (O
extrapolation and interpolation of time series data or spatial data.
The meaning of statistics may be further exemplified through a number of relevant characteristics.

l. Statistical inference is inductive moving from samples to the dimensions of a larger

group of a total population ("From individual interviews, 9 of 10 students in the class are from
Metro-Manila, therefore 90% or majority of students in the class are Metro-Manilans'•'). It is
related, but different from the Probability Theory which is deductive and moves from a total
population to deduce probabilities about samples (This is as if to say "I guess 9 out of ten students
in the class are Metro Manilans; let's see how I can be proven right by asking the students their
place of residence").

2. Correlation does not imply causation, to exemplify, two characteristics or properties

(variables) of a population may be different, but are related, in studying household income and
mortality or death, for example, data may show that people of lower income die earlier than those
of higher income. The two variables (lower and higher income people) are said to be correlated,
although the cause of death may be different, such as by a non-considered factor, the natural
environment (called a confounding variable). If a non-considered factor exists, then a causal
relationship between the two considered variables may not be immediately established ("It cannot
be said that low household income causes household deaths").

3. Representative sampling is necessary to ensure that inferences and conclusions can be

extended from the sample to the overall population. Statistics offers methods to correct random
sample trending within the procedures of data collection. Methods of experimental design can also
be used to lessen issues on correlation, while strengthening or making "robust" conclusions on the
study of a population. Note that some national political surveys are based on only about 2000
survey respondents.

4. Misuse of statistics can cause either error in description or interpretation of data. Errors
may be so subtle that only experts can note the errors, serious enough as to cause grave errors in
conclusions affecting policies in governance, procedures in medical practice, or structures in
engineering projects. Hinting misuse of statistics, most politicians can therefore argue that
opinion survey results are inaccurate or wrong in case results are unfavorable to them. On the other
hand, survey experts say the margin of error in their surveys is too slim to be inaccurate or wrong.

5. Results of correctly applied statistical techniques are difficult to interpret, and may need
the expertise of those who have intuitive sense to draw significant conclusions. However, it may
suffce to have statistical literacy or basic statistical skills which people can use in dealing with
information in their daily lives. Without being a statistician, the ordinary learner in school, for
example, can provide numerical interpretation of newspaper data results, such as on high rate in
H-feyer cases, The ordinary student can mention reported numbers of those afflicted, and compare
these to numbers afflicted in previous months or year to draw conclusions on whether there is a
rise or fall in incidences of H-fever during the month or year.
Statistical methods
Statistics is useful in the teaching-learning process, along several research-based inquiries:

l. Experimental Studies
These inquiries investigate causes, in addition to drawing conclusions on the effect of
changes in elements (called variables) being studied. An actual experiment study, for example, can
focus on a class (called the experimental group) to which is applied a new method of learning,
such as technology integration in instruction. Through a set period, the learning achievement of
the class is accounted for and then compared with the achievement of another comparable class
(called the control group) which did not benefit from the new method of learning. Measurement
and comparison are made and the difference (variance) in learning achievement can be determined.
Results by way of a large numerical value of achievement can show that the new method of
learning is effective and can be formally introduced for regular classroom learning.

2. Inferential Studies
This does not involve any experimental group and control group. Instead, data are
gathered and the correlations between intervention (predictors) and the results derived from a
single group are investigated. For example, the correlation between smoking and lung cancer may
be explored. A survey may be used to collect observations followed by statistical analysis of
collected data.
Generally, statistical inquiries observe five basic steps:
a) planning the research-based inquiry around size, hypothesis, variability, subjects, etc;
b) designing the experiment by blocking to reduce error; random assignment for unbiased
estimates, and mapping the procedures (experimental protocol);
c) implementation and analyzing data;
d) further examination of data for secondary analysis; and
e) documentation and presentation of results of the study.

II. Conceptualization, Operationalization and Measurement

The use of statistics can help in the whole process of outcomes based, teaching and
learning. If the instructor, for example, wishes to teach concepts about abstract ideas such as
patriotic love, religious fanaticism, and political patronage, it is good to know that statistics can
help clarify such concepts. Ideas that the instructor wishes to communicate are actually idea-
images, not the physical or social realities themselves which are the subject of learning. This is the
same as saying, the instructor does not communicate external realities (01 phenomena) but
concepts about external realities. This entails the process called conceptualization.

Concepts as constructs
There are three classes of phenomena which can be statistically measured:
(a) direct observables, like color of a dress or heat of fire
(b) Indirect observables which require indirect observations, such as the idea of a "female"
indirectly observed through signs of a person's gender
(c) constructs or creations we form in the mind resulting from observations. An example
of these mind-constructs is intelligence quotient (IQ) which cannot be observed directly
 and indirectly, but which educators have created. After assuming that IQ and other
constructs such as patriotic love or religious fanaticism have real meaning, we can begin
to fry to understand their meanings, forming measurements of these constructs. in order. to
better understand, relate and make predictions about them.

Indicators and dimensions

An indicator is a sign of the presence of a concept (variable) under study. For example,
visiting a home for the aged can be an indicator of human compassion. Then we can assign
numbers; as indicators of levels or intensity of compassion to individuals, possibly judged by way
of the number of visits they made: 5 for Claire, 4 for Donna, 3 for Clarissa (girls); and 4 for Rafael,
3 for Justine and 2 for Jayron. We may calculate and conclude that the girls displayed an average
(mean) of 6.00, while the boys got an average (mean) of only 4.5. On the other basis of quantitative
analysis of group difference, we may conclude that girls are more compassionate than boys.
Dimension is a specific aspect of a concept combined into groups or sub-groups, such as
compassion toward neighbors/fellow nationals/foreigners/animals/plants. Various numerical
indicators can be assigned for each dimension. Then we can determine which group can help
clarify such concepts. Ideas that the instructor wishes to communicate are actually idea-images,
not the physical or social realities themselves which are the subject of learning. This is the same
as saying, the instructor does not communicate external realities (01 phenomena) but concepts
about external realities, this entails the process called conceptualization.

Concepts as constructs
There are three classes of phenomena which can be statistically measured:
(a) direct observables, like color of a dress or heat of fire
(b) Indirect observables which require indirect observations, such as the idea of a "female"
indirectly observed through signs of a person's gender
(c) constructs or creations we form in the mind resulting from observations. An example
of these mind-constructs is intelligence quotient (IQ) which cannot be observed directly
and indirectly, but which educators have created. After assuming that IQ and other
constructs such as patriotic love or religious fanaticism have real meaning, we can begin
to try to understand their meanings, forming measurements of these constructs. in order. to
better understand, relate and make predictions about them.

Indicators and dimensions

An indicator is a sign of the presence of a concept (variable) under study. For example,
visiting a home for the aged can be an indicator of human compassion, then we can assign numbers;
as indicators of levels or intensity of compassion to individuals, possibly judged by way of the
number of visits they made: 5 for Claire, 4 for Donna, 3 for Clarissa (girls); and 4 for Rafael, 3 for
Justine and 2 for Jayron. We may calculate and conclude that the girls displayed an average (mean)
of 6.00, while the boys got an average (mean) of only 4.5. On the other basis of quantitative
analysis of group difference, we may conclude that girls are more compassionate than boys.
Dimension is a specific aspect of a concept combined into groups or sub-groups, such as
compassion toward neighbors/fellow nationals/foreigners/animals/plants. Various numerical
indicators can be assigned for each dimension. Then we can determine which group (neighbors,
animals, plants, etc.) the population-respondents have more compassion for.
Creating conceptual order
 Concepts can become more clarified by a process of clarification called specification. This
can also be done by categorization or the ordering or ranking of data. For example, we may
categorize answers such as income in society by way of higher/middle/lower income levels or P
100,000/50,000/10,000 per month. The progression from our vague sense of what a term means to
specific measurements can be diagrammed as follows:

Conceptualization (process to specify what we mean)

Nominal definition (assigned to a term, not the real entity)

Operational definition (specifies how a concept is measured)

Real definition (better, clarified status of a real thing)

Levels of Measurement
Variables are a logical set of attributes, e.g. gender. On the other hand, an attribute is a
quality or characteristic of something, e.g.. male, female. Attributes may represent any of the 4
levels of measurement:
Nominal measure is ae level of measurement describing a variable that has attributes which
are different, e.g. gender, birthplace, college major, etc. Male and female, for example, are distinct
and have no additional structures, thus they exhaust the possibilities of gender. This kind of
measurement simply counts and draws conclusions from the number of e.g. males, females,
birthplace, major subjects, etc.
Ordinal measure-a level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that can be
in a rank-order along some dimension. For example, socioeconomic status of communities can be
ranked along their attributes, such as their high, medium and low economic whose attributes are
rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes, e.g. Fahrenheit temperature
scale in which the distance between 15 and 16 is the same as 87-88.
Ratio measure-a level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that have all
the qualities of nominal, ordinal and interval, and based on a "true zero" point, e.g. age, length of
residence in a place, number of organizations in which one is a member, number of times in
attending worship number of times divorced, and number of animal pets, etc.
Implications of the levels of measurement are relevant to the analysis of data. For example,
certain quantitative analysis techniques may require variables that meet certain minimum levels of
measurement, such as ordinal. And so, you should plan analytical techniques accordingly. It may
be noted, however, that the use of measures does not guarantee reliability. For example, assessment
tests established and used for a period of time may need fundamental revision due to outdated
topics or new trends in educational assessments.
III. Indexes, Scales, Typologies
Some learning inputs may not be easy to quantify, and may need added statistical
techniques to be understood. For example, the concept of age may require composite measures,
equivalent to asking several questions as an object of inquiry. The use of an index or scale may
help to explain and elicit understanding of concepts with a range of conceptual variations.
In an Index, scores for individual attributes are constructed. On the other hand, in a scale,
scores are assigned to patterns of ideas. For example, civics can be signified through various
actions showing participation in political governance, such as: joining a tree planting activity,
running for a barangay position, supporting a socio-civic organization, etc.
On the other hand, a Scale is constructed by assigning scores to patterns of responses
according to higher and lower degrees of civic participation: 10 for running for public office, 7
joining a non-government organization, 5 voting on election day, 0 for no participation at all.
Typolou is the classification of observations in terms of attributes on two or more variables, an
example is the classification of broadcast networks as: commercial-urban, commercial-rural, non-
commercial national, etc.
There are quantification techniques which the research-based learner can use to subject
data or concepts for better understanding, analysis or statistical interpretation. The simplest of
quantitative data analysis is the univariate analysis, which involves one variable; the multivariate
analysis involves two variables, and: the multivariate analysis examines several variables
simultaneously such as age, education, and racial identity.

Quantification of data

Quantitative analysis can be handled by computer programs, as long as these computers

are able to read the data collected during research-inquiries. In case of a survey, some data are by
themselves numerical, such as age and income. Other data are easily quantifiable since numerical
representations can be assigned variables, such as "l" for male and "2" for female. Some data may,
however, be problematic, as these may require a coding process. This is especially ü-ue in open-
ended questions in which responses are non-numerical code to each reported occupation; e.g. "1"
manager, "2" craftsman, 3 artists, "4" non-skilled, etc.

Table 2 — Example of Student Concerns data which can be

 Univariate Analysis

This is an analysis of a single variable for purposes of description. For example, gender
can be measured looking at how many of the respondents are men and women. The most basic
format in presenting univariate data is to show individual cases, listing the attribute for each case
under study. An example is data on attendance in church worship:

Table 3 — Data on Attendance at religious service

Attendance
Value level Value Frequency Percent

Never 0 538 20.7

Once a year 2 334 7.8
Several times a year 3 369 13.1
Once a month 4 197 7.0
Every Sunday 7 488 17.8

Valid responses 2,737 No responses 30

Bar chart on church attendance

Percentage
30%

Never Once a Several Once a Every

year time a year month Sunday
Figure 3 — How often respondents attend church worship/service
 Bivariate analysis

A bivariate relationship refers to two variables. For example, in measuring the respondents'
support for a student council organization for the Reproductive Health Bill, there arc to indicators
of levels of support asked along two questions: (a) Do you feel the students support the RH Bill is
High, Moderate, Low, No Support at all? (b) Should the Student Council issue its decision to
support the RH Bill? The two items reflect degrees of support for the same thing with (a)
corresponding with (b). It may be expected that in case the support is overwhelming, the support
of the Student Council can be justified. Thus, if opinions of support are met or not met, there is a
bivariate relationship between the two items.

Tests of statistical significance

Given the results of findings, there are inferential statistics which can assist in persuading
the audience/readers as to the significance, strength, deserved interest in a completed research.
These are called parametric tests of significance. Short of stating the research is generally
significant, the tests refer to the likelihood that relationships between variables is significant
enough to be meaningful.

Other tests of statistical significance:

Chi Square. This is useful in social science and is based on the null hypothesis: the
assumption that there is no relationship between two variables, for example that there is no marked
difference between men and women favoring equality of the sexes,
An illustration of Chi Square: Issue on support for government program sterilizing men
through castration and women through tubal ligation in a rural setting.

Table 4 — An Illustration of Chi Square

 Path analysis. This assumes that the values of one variable are caused by the value of
another variable, this makes the distinction between independent and dependent to be important.
Multivariate techniques, Other than the rudimentary statistical data manipulation, such as
through the use of tables and percentages, there are more elaborate models of statistical analysis.
For our purpose of orienting students to the use of statistics for the teaching-learning process, it
will suffice to provide some information on these more complex modes of data analysis.

.03

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The above diagram exemplifies the use of a multivariate technique known as Path analysis.
It is a causal model for understanding relationship between many variables. It is a useful graphic
illustration of relationships among several variables which assumes that the values of one variable
are used by another. In this case global free trading, which mandates zero tariff for imports, is
claimed to be a form of neo-colonialism victimizing developing or third world economies. The
hypothesis (initial supposition or guess) is that zero tariff will cause harm to developing countries,
especially affecting local labor, business and industry. After the research study, however, it was
shown that while developed economies are strongly feared to fear to perpetrate neo-colonialism
(.25 numerical value), the effect of free trading has no major detrimental effect (.00 numerical
value) on local sectors (labor, business, industry) given the time frame in which developed
countries takes the lead, giving developing economies ample time to adjust to zero tariff trading.
There are other Multivariate Techniques, and it will serve our purpose to identify them. They are
as follows:

a) Time-Series Analysis. This represents changes in one or more variables over time. The
crime rate in society, for example, can be expressed along time fluctuations allowing
prediction of crime rate in coming years.

b) Factor Analysis. This is used to discover patterns among the variations in values of
several factors, using a complex algebraic method, the problem of delinquency can be
studied using a questionnaire which asks respondents, e.g. young people to report if
they have committed delinquent acts according to types of delinquent acts. Responses
are then subjected to factor analysis.
c) Analysis of variance (ANOVA). Cases under study are combined into groups
representing an independent variable, and the extent to which the groups differ from
one another is analyzed in relation some dependent variable. The One-way Analysis of
Variance can study, for example, income levels of households in the Dasmarinas
Village and Corinthian Gardens Subdivision. Calculations may be performed by
computer programs, simplest of which is known as "t-test" which determines the
difference between two means (averages.) On the other hand, the Two-way Analysis
of Variance allows the simultaneous study of more than two variables. For example, in
determining the difference in household incomes of two villages, the function of
education may be included. Possible result may be that more educated households get
higher income.

Other multivariate techniques are the Discriminant Analysis, Log Linear Models and the
Geographic Information systems which require more sophisticated statistical procedures which
can be learned in Statistics or formal Research classes.
 ACTIVITY

-Group yourselves into 10 and discuss The use of STATISTICS in OUTCOMES

ASSESSMENT a minimum of 5-minute video and be as creative as you can be.

The goal is simple – Just answer the following questions:

- Be informative. Discuss the way how you understand it.

MECHANICS
• The video must run in a minimum time of five (5) minutes.
• Creativity is encouraged thus execution of the materials may be in any
form – it can be a form of vlogging, documentary, reporting and
the like.
• Dialogue can be in English, Filipino and Vernacular (Bisaya), ONLY.

SUBMISSION OF ACTIVITY
• Submission of activity starts form From November 28, 2020 until December 7, 2020, 1:00
P.M. and should be sent via gmail (matronaldabiol.spc@gmail.com) or
google drive.
• All submitted activity must be in a digital video format (mp4)
• The title of the video must be EDUC 11_L10_(FAMILY NAME OF THE LEADER)
example: EDUC 11_L10_ABIOL