Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) are the building blocks of the new emerging field of nan-
otechnology that in broadest terms signifies the understanding and controlling of
properties of matter at dimensions of roughly 1–100nm.

From: Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microorganisms, 2018

Related terms:

Nanomaterial, Iron Oxides, Nanotechnology, Carbon Nanotubes, Adsorption, En-

zyme, Ion, Oxide, Toxicity

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Effects of Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparti-

cles on Plants
Hamaad R. Ahmad, ... Gohar Ishaq, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microor-
ganisms, 2018

11.3 Characterization, Types, and Synthesis of REONPs

11.3.1 Characterization of REONPs

REONPs have been manufactured in different shapes and sizes depending upon
the method of preparation. They are characterized through X-ray diffraction (XRD),
electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, selected area electron
diffraction, along with particle size analysis (Arruda et al., 2015). XRD pattern and
electron microscope imagery are mostly used to make a report about the dimensions
and shape of prepared NPs. Advanced techniques for the characterization of REONPs
are given in Fig. 11.1.
Figure 11.1. Different techniques employed for the characterization of rare earth
oxide nanoparticles (REONPs) in the environment. HPLC, Highperformance liquid
chromatography; ICP-MS, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry; SEM-
, scanning electron microscopy; TEM, transmission electron microscopy; UV-vis,
UV-visible spectrophotometry; XRD, X-ray diffraction.

11.3.2 Types of REONPs

Engineered REONPs are being produced on a commercial as well as laboratory scale.
A list of REONPs is given next.

Sr. No Name of REONP Chemical Formulae

1 Cerium oxide nanoparticles CeO/CeO2

2 Dysprosium oxide nanoparti- Dy2O3

cles
3 Erbium oxide nanoparticles Er2O3
4 Europium oxide nanoparticles Eu2O3
5 Gadolinium oxide nanoparti- Gd2O3
cles
6 Holmium oxide nanoparticles Ho2O3
7 Lanthanum oxide nanoparticles La2O3
8 Lutetium oxide nanoparticles Lu2O3
9 Neodymium oxide nanoparti- Nd2O3
cles
10 Praseodymium oxide nanopar- Pr6O11
ticles
11 Samarium oxide nanoparticles Sm2O3
12 Scandium oxide nanoparticles Sc2O3
13 Terbium oxide nanoparticles Tb4O7
14 Thulium oxide nanoparticles Tm2O3
15 Ytterbium oxide nanoparticles Yb2O3
16 Yttrium oxide nanoparticles Y2O3
17 Lanthanum oxide nanoparticles La2O3

11.3.3 Methods to Prepare REONPs

A wide range of laboratory and commercial production techniques have been used
since 1971 for REONP synthesis. A few well-known techniques with references are
listed next.

Sr. No. Mechanism REONPs References

1 Calcination of the met- Praseodymium oxide Borchert et al.
al salt NPs
(2008)
2 Pechini method Praseodymium oxide Borchert et al.
NPs
(2008)
3 Citrate method Praseodymium oxide Borchert et al.
NPs
(2008)
4 Combustion method Dysprosium oxide NPs Zelati et al.
(2014a,b)
5 Gas condensation Yttrium oxide NPs Gunter and Kump-
mann (1992) and
Skandan et al.
(1991)
Erbium oxide NPs Hong et al. (1998), Tissue (1998) and Eil-
ers and Tissue (1995)
Cerium oxide NPs Tschope et al. (1995) and Tschöpe and
Ying, (1994a,b)
6 Chemical vapor depo- Yttrium oxide NPs Sharma et al. (1998)
sition
and Tomaszewski
et al. (1997)
Cerium oxide NPs Hakuta et al. (1998), Chengyun et al.
(1996), Hirano and Kato (1996, 1999) and
Zhou and Rahaman (1993)
7 Precipitation method Scandium oxide NPs Li et al. (2003)
Yttrium oxide NPs Sordelet and Akinc (1998), Chen and
Chen (1996), Kobayashi, 1992 and
Ciftcioglu et al. (1987)
Lanthanum oxide NPs Xie et al. (1992)
Cerium oxide NPs Chen and Chen (1993) and Xie et al.
(1992)
Samarium oxide NPs Gao et al. (2002) and Matijević and Hsu
(1987)
Europium oxide NPs Ma and Yan (1995) and Matijević and Hsu
(1987)
Gadolinium oxide NPs, terbium oxide NPs Matijević and Hsu (1987)
Praseodymium oxide NPs Zinatloo-Ajabshir et al. (2015)
8 Hydrothermal and Yttrium oxide NPs Sharma et al. (1998)
solvothermal methods
and Tomaszewski
et al. (1997)
Cerium oxide NPs Hirano and Kato (1996, 1999), Hakuta
et al. (1998), Chengyun et al. (1996) and
Zhou and Rahaman (1993)
Neodymium oxide NPs Zawadzki and Kępiński (2004)
9 Sol–gel method Scandium oxide NPs, Grosso and Sermon
dysprosium oxide NPs,
erbium oxide NPs, yt- (2000)
terbium oxide NPs
Lanthanum oxide NPs, cerium oxide NPs, Imoto et al. (1988)
gadolinium oxide NPs
Dysprosium oxide NPs, erbium oxide NPs, ytter- Mazdiyasni and Brown (1971)
bium oxide NPs
Yttrium oxide NPs Abdulghani and Al-Ogedy (2015)
Praseodymium oxide NPs Borchert et al. (2008)
Ytterbium oxide NPs Dong et al. (2001)
Scandium oxide NPs Poirot et al. (2010)
10 Emulsion and mi- Yttrium oxide NPs Lee et al. (2000)
croemulsion method
Cerium oxide NPs He et al. (2003), Wu et al. (2001) and Ma-
sui et al. (1997)
Neodymium oxide NPs Que et al. (2001a)
Erbium oxide NPs Que et al. (2001b,c)
11 Ultrasound and mi- Yttrium oxide NPs, lan- Wang et al. (2002)
crowave irradiation thanum oxide NPs
method and Yin et al. (2002)
Cesium oxide NPs, samarium oxide NPs Wang et al. (2002) and Liao et al. (2001)
Europium oxide NPs, erbium oxide NPs Pol et al. (2002)
12 Electrospinning Ytterbium oxide NPs
 Henriques et al.
(2015)
13 Thermalization of Lanthanum oxide NPs Saravani and Jehali
[La(acacen) (NO3) (H2-
O)] (2015)
Biological Methods
14 Mycosynthesis method Cerium oxide NPs Gopinath et al.
(2015), Khan and
Ahmad (2013) and
Munusamy et al.
(2013)
Gadolinium oxide NPs Khan et al. (2014)
15 Solution combustion Cerium oxide NPs Yadav et al. (2016)
method using fruit ex-
tracts
16 Microbe (Lactobacil- Gadolinium oxide NPs Jha et al. (2010)
lus sp.)-mediated
biosynthesis
17 Biosynthesis using Cerium oxide NPs Priya et al. (2014)
plants
Yttrium oxide NPs Kannan and Sundrarajan (2015)
Lanthanum oxide NPs Chatterjee et al. (2016)

NPs, nanoparticles.

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Potential of Spectroscopic Techniques

in the Characterization of “Green Nano-
materials”
Gaurav Sharma, ... Prashant K. Rai, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microor-
ganisms, 2018

3.4.8 Other Factors

Nanoparticles synthesized from living systems are highly dynamic in nature.
Plant-extracted metabolites that can act as reducing and stabilizing agents for the
synthesis of nanoparticles are highly dependent on plant species, plant parts (root,
stem, leaf, seed, etc.) and methods/conditions used for extraction. In addition,
the different types of nanoparticles require a different purification method that
also controls the quality and quantity of synthesized nanoparticles. Moreover, the
behavior of synthesized nanoparticles is highly affected by experimental conditions
(Ghorbani et al., 2011). Previous studies have shown that stability, reactivity, and
physicochemical properties are influenced by reaction conditions. In a study it was
observed that the crystalline nature of zinc sulfide nanoparticles changed immedi-
ately when its environment was changed from a wet to a dry condition.

Although there are numerous factors that must be considered while synthesizing
nanoparticles, three main steps remain that must be evaluated for the formation of
green nanoparticles. These include solvent medium used for nanoparticle synthesis,
selection of reducing agent, and capping of nanoparticles with a nontoxic stabilizing
agent.

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Recent Progress of Nanotoxicolo-

gy in Plants
Muhammad Zia-ur-Rehman, ... Muhammad Azhar, in Nanomaterials in Plants,
Algae, and Microorganisms, 2018

Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) have various considerable implications, especially in agricul-
ture, biomedical engineering, and environmental remediation techniques, making
it critical to evaluate their role in the environment and plant species. NPs are
extensively being used widely in many industries because of their unique properties.
However, this leads to their discharge into the surrounding environments and
absorption by plants. The quality of foodstuff obtained from NP-enriched plants
is questionable and current research is focused on this environmental problem.
This chapter addresses the role of NPs in agriculture, and their toxic effects on
different physiological, biochemical, and quality parameters of plants. Moreover,
types and characteristics of NPs are also discussed in this chapter. There are different
types of NPs such as graphene, nanoscale zero-valent iron, NiO, fullerene, CuO,
ZnO, SiO2, carbon nanotube, Ag, and CeO2. The use, functions, and potential toxic
effects of NPs depend upon their physicochemical properties, concentration, and
interaction with plant species. The toxic effects of NPs can be avoided by controlling
various factors such as diameter, surface area, and appropriate route selection. It
is widely accepted that phytotoxicity of NPs is evidenced by genotoxicity, increase
in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduction in antioxidative enzymes. NPs first
interact with the cell walls. After entering the cells, they may aggravate alterations
of membranes, molecules, and cell organelles, increasing solubilization of harmful
NPs and ROS production. In addition, there is an intrinsic plant detoxification
mechanism of NPs when exposed to nanotoxicity. Free metal radicals, which are
produced during oxidative stress, work as signaling molecules, hence activating the
ROS detoxification and antioxidant defense mechanism in plants to cope with NP
toxicity. In the future, a closer view of nanomaterial-driven phytotoxicity is required
to specify how these NPs affect plant biota.

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Recent Developments in Green Syn-

thesis of Metal Nanoparticles Utilizing
Cyanobacterial Cell Factories
Jainendra Pathak, ... Rajeshwar P. Sinha, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae and
Microorganisms, 2019

Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) serve as connecting links between molecular structures and
macromolecules/bulk materials, hence they are of great scientific interest. Metallic
NPs find applications in various fields, such as cosmetics, electronics, packaging,
coatings, and biotechnology. In nanotechnology, synthesis of metallic NPs is an
active area of application research. There are numerous physical as well as chemical
methods of nanoparticle synthesis, but many of these methods are expensive or use
toxic substances and hence are not preferred. An alternate, feasible, and ecofriendly
way to synthesize metallic NPs is biological methods employing microbes and
plants. Recently use of microalgae has been emphasized in biological systems for
synthesis of metallic NPs. Several microalgae have excellent potential for bioremedi-
ation of toxic metals and their conversion into more amenable forms, and this makes
them desirable candidates for biological methods. Different microorganisms employ
extracellular or intracellular pathways for biosynthesis of NPs. Biological synthesis
of metallic NPs can be done by using whole cell masses of bacteria, fungi, and
algae or using culture supernatant or cell extract of microorganisms. Cyanobacteria
constitute the most promising group of photosynthetic microorganisms, and pro-
duce a plethora of natural compounds of industrial and pharmaceutical importance.
Additionally, the cell extract of cyanobacteria contains numerous biomolecules which
facilitate synthesis and stabilization of NPs. This chapter presents the advancements
achieved so far in the rapidly growing field of green synthesis of NPs using cyanobac-
teria.
> Read full chapter

Role of Nanoparticles on Photosynthe-

sis
Sunita Kataria, ... Durgesh Kumar Tripathi, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae and
Microorganisms, 2019

Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are one of the most widely studied substances of this century,
resulting in the establishment of a new branch of science, “nanotechnology.” NPs are
defined as particles having at least one dimension ranging between 1 and 100 nm
in diameter that can change their physicochemical properties compared to their
parent bulk material. In various aspects of daily life and energy production, NPs are
widely used because of their exclusive characteristics and novel features. NPs can be
synthesized from a variety of bulk materials, and their actions depend upon both
their chemical composition and the size and/or shape of the particles. The rate of
entry of NPs into plant cells depends on their size and surface properties: smaller
NPs are able to enter easily, whereas larger NPs are unable to enter the cells or
affect the metabolic pathways of cells. Some of the large NPs have been reported to
form large pores to facilitate their entry through plant cell walls. The function of NPs
on photosynthesis are different on various plants, even they also varies from plants
to plants at species level also. Therefore, in this chapter a brief attempt has been
made to summarize the present status associated with the effect of nanoparticles on
photosynthesis in plants. To be very specific, NPs either boost up the photosynthesis
processes by improving LHC (Light Harvesting Complex) in plants or hinder their
pathways by blocking ETC (Electron Transport Chain) and they affect photosynthetic
rate by change in several genes and enzymes like Carbonic anhydrase, RUBISCO
and PEP caboxylase.

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Synthesis of Nanoparticles Utilizing

Sources From the Mangrove Environ-
ment and Their Potential Applications
Sushanto Gouda, ... Jayanta Kumar Patra, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae and
Microorganisms, 2019

11.4 Future Prospects

Nanoparticles have gained a high reputation in recent decades due to their diverse
applications. With increased demand for nanoparticles, different methods have
been developed for their synthesis in different sectors. However, application of
nanoparticles as biomedicines and their implementation in healthcare are restricted
widely for reasons of nonbiocompatibility. In view of this, biosynthesis methods have
been developed for synthesis of nanoparticles in the last two decades. Biosynthesis
of nanoparticles using mangrove sources and its novel metabolites for large-scale
production is an important step in the field of material science. Studies confirm
that plant-mediated nanoparticles have the potential to be used in sectors like
pharmaceuticals, biomedicine, therapeutics, sustainable energy, and other aspects
of daily healthcare. In future, nanotechnology must give priority to introducing new
sources of nanoparticles, and mangroves offer promising applications as medicines
and storehouses of bioactive compounds. Development of biocompatible nanoma-
terials with the use of biological systems that in time can be utilized for biomedical,
agricultural, and industrial research should also be explored. Additionally, nan-
otechnology can be used to create a multifunctional nanoparticle system for use in
new multidisciplinary biomedical fields like nanobiotechnology and nanotoxicology.
These nanoparticle systems could also be used in neuroscience in understanding the
mode of interaction of nanomaterials with neurological systems (Suh et al., 2009).

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Gold Nanomaterials to Plants

Nitin Kumar, ... Seema Nara, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microorgan-
isms, 2018

9.2.2 Transmission and Translocation

ENPs that move from the soil to the plant roots face various barriers imposed by
the plant root physiology. ENPs apoplastically enter the plants by adsorbing to the
root surfaces and passing through the root epidermis and root cortex. The cell
walls of the endodermal cells present in the interior of the root cortex contain
casparian bands, which are hydrophobic layers of suberin and lignin. ENPs move
into the stele symplastically either by crossing the cell wall or plasma membrane
of the endodermal or exodermal root, or cross the root cell wall at the exodermis
or the exterior of the endodermis. To be transported to the shoot system and the
leaves, the ENPs must be able to move without hindrance in the xylem after entering
the symplast (Fig. 9.3) (Hose et al., 2001). However, multiple factors such as plant
species, growth conditions, geometry and size of the ENPs, surface chemistry of
the ENPs, and cultivars impact the translocation of NPs in plants. The metal and
metal oxide NPs translocate to the aerial parts of the plant by accumulating at the
roots. The amount of NPs required for this translocation depends on the species
of the plant, exposure concentration, and the size and type of NPs along with their
accumulation (Le et al., 2014; Rico et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2011;
Larue et al., 2012a,b,c; Gorczyca et al., 2015; Song et al., 2013). Cifuentes et al. (2010)
showed that in plants such as pea (Pisum sativum L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.),
tomato (S. lycopersicum L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum), magnetic carbon-coated
NPs entered the plants by penetrating the roots. The NPs then translocate through
vasculature to reach the aerial parts via transpiration in the xylem. NPs that are
applied via foliar spray are taken up by leaves and translocated to other parts of the
plant. CaO NPs of 69.9 nm reach leaves and stems via phloem in groundnut plants as
compared to bulk sources of sprayed Ca (calcium oxide and calcium nitrate). In two
independent studies by Hong et al. (2014) and Larue et al. (2014), it has been shown
that CeO2 NPs in cucumber and TiO2 NPs in lettuce are internalized and seen in
different parts of the crop after their foliar application. Studies on rice and CuO NPs
have shown that NPs entered the root stele via lateral roots and are then translocated
to the leaves. Although these studies show that NPs are accumulated at the roots and
then translocated to aerial parts of plants there are still studies that show opposite
results. An et al. (2008) demonstrated that increase in concentration of CeO2 NPs
showed increased accumulation of Ce at the roots. However, the concentration
remains constant in leaves, grains, and hull, suggesting that translocation of Ce
has not taken place. Wang et al. (2013) have reported that when maize is exposed
to CuO NPs of size 20–40 nm, the xylem vessels serve to translocate the NPs from
roots to parts of the shoot and the reverse translocation from the shoots to the roots
occurs through phloem. Further studies on ZnO NPs by Wang et al. (2013) have
shown that no upward translocation took place in cowpea when grown in both soil
and media. In ryegrass, it is seen that ZnO NPs are accumulated at the roots and are
also observed in the endodermis and stele of the roots, specifically in the apoplast
and the protoplast (Cui et al., 2014; Foltête et al., 2011; Vannini et al., 2013).
Figure 9.3. Gold nanoparticles (NPs) in roots (A–C) and leaves (D–F) of poplars
exposed to 15 nm gold NPs on day 6. CC, companion cell; CP, cytoplasm; CW,
cell wall; M, mitochondria; P, plastid; PL, plasmodesmata; PP, P-protein; STM, sieve
tube member; V, vacuole; VP, vascular parenchyma cell; X, xylem.Reprinted (adapted)
with permission from Zhai, G., Walters, K.S., Peate, D.W., Alvarez, P.J., Schnoor, J.L.,
2014. Transport of gold nanoparticles through plasmodesmata and precipitation of
gold ions in woody poplar. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 1, 146–151. Copyright (2014)
American Chemical Society.

Graphite-coated iron ENPs are injected into the pith cavity of the leaf of pumpkin
plants to study the transport of ENPs in the xylem. It is found that ENPs of 46 nm
entered the xylem and could be seen at a distance from the injection site. This
suggested that, perhaps, ENPs larger than 46 nm cannot be transported through
the xylem (Corredor et al., 2009). Other reports suggested the role of phloem for
the loading and transport process of ENPs. One such study is performed by Wang
et al. (2012) in which 20–40 nm CuO ENPs are exposed to corn plants and their
translocation is analyzed in the plant vascular system. These CuO ENPs are found
in the xylem sap, and to confirm that these ENPs are indeed the ones used for
treatment, electron diffraction is used. Furthermore, to analyze root exposures and
phloem loading and transport, plant roots are exposed to a suspension of ENPs or
placed in deionized water. The separate studies show that ENPs are present in the
root. The work of Lin et al. (2009) served to bolster these claims where they show the
translocation of ENPs to the embryo through phloem and demonstrate that it is the
only possible pathway for the translocation to occur (Lin et al., 2009).

> Read full chapter

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Reclama-

tion of Mine Sites
Abin Sebastian, ... Majeti N.V. Prasad, in Bio-Geotechnologies for Mine Site Reha-
bilitation, 2018

11.6 Outlook
Iron oxides nanoparticles are promising mine site remediation agents. These par-
ticles are attractive because of biocompatibility. The synthetic process of these
particles can be improved with decreasing the steps involved in the synthesis and
green synthetic approaches. Fabrication of IOPs deserves attention because this
increased efficiency of IOPs based adsorption process. It is noteworthy that
fabricated IOPs are easily generated from plant extracts, and hence the plant ex-
tracts capable of producing IOPs need to be identified. Ion adsorption is the key
processes involved in the utilization of IOPs for mine site remediation, and hence
the adsorption isotherms of IOPs with various metal ions and metalloids need to
be standardized for immediate field applications. Technological improvements of
IOPs based remediation systems help to enhance metal ion adsorption and filtration
process. It is important to develop strategies for disposing of heavy metal bound
IOPs for constructive works. Sustainable IOPs based methods must be focused to
ensure low cost and eco-friendly mine site remediation.

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Effects of Nanoparticles in Plants

Lucia Giorgetti, in Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae and Microorganisms, 2019

4.2 Plant Uptake of NPs

NPs dispersed in the atmosphere can directly affect the aerial part of the plant, since
some NPs (<100 nm) in aerosol could enter the leaf following the stomatal pathway,
pass through the stem, and reach other plant cellular districts (Wang et al., 2013).
More frequently, however, since NPs usually accumulate in soil and water, plants
absorb the different NPs in their root systems as a result of selective uptake, and
subsequently via biotransformation and translocation mechanisms they store NPs
in different organs (Rico et al., 2011; Tripathi et al., 2017a,b).

Compared to corresponding bulk materials, the physicochemical properties of NPs

(increased surface/volume ratio) mean they react more to their environs and can
easily interact with root exudates and specific membrane transporters. Three dif-
ferent mechanisms are reported for NPs' penetration into cells, mainly depending
on the NP's size, shape, charge, hydrophobicity, chemical composition, and stability
(Karami Mehrian and Lima, 2016). The first mechanism involves direct NP diffusion,
passing across the lipid bilayer; the second is penetration by endocytosis, in which
the plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward around the NPs, invagi-
nates to surround the NPs, and subsequently forms a vesicle that is internalized in
cell; and the third mechanism uses ion channels and membrane transporter proteins
passing through aquaporins, in which selectivity and small-size pores are limiting
factors. Moreover, the formation of new pores induced by NPs' mechanical action is
observed on the cell membrane lipid bilayer (Schmidt, 2015).

Once internalized in the plant cell, NPs can be transported via an apoplastic or
symplastic pathway, crossing the plasmodesms, and via xylem vessels throughout
the whole plant. The efficiency of uptake and transport of NPs is greater in some
plants than in others, depending on the peculiar physiology of the plant species, and
sometime using still-unknown mechanisms.

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Aquatic Chemistry and Biology

M. Baalousha, ... Y. Ju-Nam, in Treatise on Water Science, 2011

3.05.8.3 Fate in Wastewater

NPs used in different applications can be released by material degradation or erosion
and these NPs may find their way into wastewater treatment facilities and may end
up either in the wastewater sludge or in the water effluent. Nonetheless, the fate
and behavior of NPs, the impact they might have on wastewater treatment, and the
impact that wastewater has on NPs are largely unknown and need further investiga-
tion. For an overview of the potential behavior of NPs in different compartments
of a wastewater treatment plant, the reader is referred to the review by Brar et
al. (2010). Generally, NPs fate and behavior in wastewater treatment facilities are
likely to be governed by processes such as aggregation/disaggregation, adsorption
to colloidal or micron particles in the wastewater, and sedimentation. In a study on
 the behavior of model NP (cerium oxide) in a model wastewater treatment plant,
Limach et al. (2008) found that the majority of the NPs could be captured through
adhesion to cleaning sludge. Nonetheless, they found that a significant fraction of
the NPs escaped the wastewater plant clearing system and up to 6 wt.% of cerium
oxide was found in the effluent stream (Limbach et al., 2008). Another study on the
removal of TiO2 in wastewater treatment plant suggests the removal of majority
of the particles which was accumulated in the settled solids. Nonetheless, a small
fraction in the effluent which was mainly in the size range <0.7 μm (Kiser et al., 2009).
The sedimentation of NPs in sludge in wastewater treatment plant may result in the
release of NPs into soil and subsequently into groundwater (Benn and Westerhoff,
2008).

Surface coating and surface charge will potentially play an important role in their
behavior in wastewater systems (Limbach et al., 2008). Uncoated NPs are likely to
sediment and form part of the waste sludge as they are borne to aggregation.
However, coated or functionalized NPs might be partitioned between the water
effluent and waste sludge due to their inherent stability induced by the surface
coating. In both cases, NPs need to be removed from both compartments to prevent
further pollution.

On the other hand, interaction of NPs with microorganisms might potentially inhibit
activated sludge process, a major process in wastewater treatment, which may
result in jeopardizing water treatment plant (Brar et al., 2010). Several studies have
suggested different types of NPs, including silver, iron, ZnO, CuO, La2O3, SnO2,
TiO2, CNTs, nC60, and other NPs are toxic to bacteria (Kang et al., 2007; Pal et al.,
2007; Auffan et al., 2008; Hu et al., 2009; Fabrega et al., 2009a), and to biofilm
(Fabrega et al., 2009b).

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