Chapter 7

Human Memory and Intelligence

1. What is memory?
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve
information.

2. What are the three major processes involved in memory?

They are encoding, storage and retrieval.

3. What is encoding?
It is the process we use to transform information into psychological formats so that it can be
stored. This is done in three ways: visual, auditory and semantic codes. For example, you look
at your professor’s phone number on the syllabus because you have a question about an
assignment. As you look at the number, you are using visual coding. If you say the number to
yourself a couple of times as you reach for the phone, you are coding acoustically as well. You
might notice that the phone number is just one digit off from an old number your parents used
to have when you were younger. The words that you use in your self-talk give meaning to the
number, so you have also semantic coding.

4. What does storage mean?

It simply means holding onto the information so that it can be recalled at a later point.

5. What does retrieval mean?

It means bringing the information out of storage and returning it to consciousness when it is
needed.

6. What are the three memory systems introduced in Atkinson –Shiffrin model?
They are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

7. What happens to the information which comes to us through our senses?

It is stored for a very short period of time within the sensory register.

8. What are the five senses associated with the sensory register?
They are seeing , hearing , doing, feeling and smelling.

9. What are the two senses that received the most attention?
They are seeing (visual) and hearing (auditory) senses.

10. What are the two types of sensory memory? How long does each type last?
They are:
 Iconic memory which lasts for less than one second
 Echoic memory which lasts for less than four seconds

11. Sensory memory has a large capacity and very short duration. True/False. If it is false, correct it.
12. What is the gate that lies between sensory memory and working memory? How can it be
effective?
The gate is attention and it can be effective if it discriminates between useful and non-useful
information.

13. Briefly talk about short term memory.

It is system we use to store and process information we are currently thinking about or
conscious of. Some of the information processed in the sensory memory moves into the next
compartment which is called short memory or working memory or conscious thought. Short
memory is a major workplace in the mind. It is the seat of conscious thought. The storage
capacity is small (around 7 plus or minus 2 items. The duration of each item in short term
memory is approximately 20 seconds. If an item is not attended to, it is lost.

14. How can the storage capacity of the short term memory be increased? Give example.
It can be increased by chunking information. This means items are organized into familiar or
manageable units or chunks that can be letters, words or sentences. For example words can be
combined into sentences; then more than seven words can be held in working memory.

15. What is rote rehearsal?

It means saying a new piece of information over and over again in your head enables you to
keep it in your short term memory for more than 30 seconds.

16. Rote rehearsal is an efficient way to move information to long term memory. True/False. If false
correct the statement. It is not an efficient way to move information to long term memory.

17. Focusing on meaning can help you in chunking and also in getting information into and out of
long term memory in the most efficient way. True/False. If false correct the statement.

18. What is elaborative rehearsal?

It is a type of encoding that links new information to information already being maintained in
the long term memory. It is easier to remember something that you are learning if you
associate it with something you already know. For example, when I came across the English
word ‘aloof’ for the first time, it was not easy for me to remember the meaning of this word.
However, when I associated it with an Arabic word that exactly has the same pronunciation but
completely has the opposite meaning, it was easier for me to remember the meaning of the
word aloof and I never forget its meaning. How about you?

19. What is long term memory?

It is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy period of time.

20. If we cannot retrieve information from long term memory, does this mean that the information
is lost?
No, the information is not lost.
21. Why can’t we sometimes retrieve information in the long – term memory?
Because we don’t have enough cues that help in finding it.

22. Retrieval of information from long memory is usually easiest if we focus on the meaning of the
information while learning it. True/False If false correct the statement. We should focus on the
meaning of the information both while learning it and while retrieving it.

23. What are the two types of long term memory?

1. Explicit memories (declarative memories) include all of the memories that are available in
consciousness such as recalling who came to dinner last night. It is called explicit memory
because you can name and describe each of the remembered things explicitly. Explicit
memory can be divided into two types:
a. Episodic memory (specific events):  They are the memories of the things that happened to
us or took place in our presence. Your memories of what you ate for breakfast and what
your professor told you about your grade in the afternoon are examples of episodic
memory. The most distinctive feature of episodic memory is that you see yourself as an
actor in the events you remember. Any past event in which we played a part and which
we remember as an ‘episode ( a scene of events) is episodic.

b. Semantic memory (knowledge about the world). It concerns ideas, meanings, and
concepts which are not related to personal experiences. It accounts for general
knowledge. It’s what enables us to say, without knowing exactly when and where we
learned, that a zebra is a striped animal, or Paris is the major city in France.

2. Implicit memories (non-declarative memories) are those that are mostly unconscious and
allow you to do things by rote. They are not always easy to verbalize, since it flows
effortlessly in our actions. This type of memory includes procedural memory that enables us
to carry out commonly learned tasks without consciously thinking about them. How to drive
a car or use a computer are examples of procedural memories. Riding a bike, tying a shoe and
washing dishes are all tasks that require procedural memory. Even what we think of as
‘natural’ tasks such as walking, require procedural memory.

24. The first theory for forgetting explanation is called encoding failure theory. What does it mean?
It means that the inability to remember is sometimes a result of encoding failure – the
information was never put into long-term memory.

25. The second theory for forgetting explanation is called retrieval failure. What does it mean?
It means that the information is retained in the memory store, but it cannot be accessed
because the retrieval cues are not present.

26. The third theory for forgetting explanation is called storage decay theory. What does it mean?
It means that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time. Under this theory, you
need to follow a certain pathway or trace to recall a memory. If this pathway goes unused for
some amount of time, the memory decays, which leads to difficulty recalling, or the inability to
recall, the memory.
27. The fourth theory for forgetting explanation is called interference theory. What does it mean?
It means interference occurs when information gets confused with other information in our long-
term memory. There are two types of interference:
1. Retroactive interference: It occurs when new information interferes with the ability to
remember previously learned information. Old information is lost because it is mixed up with
new information.
2. Proactive interference: It occurs when an old memory makes it difficult to remember new
information. Current information is lost because it is mixed up with previously learned
information.

28. The fifth theory for forgetting explanation is called motivated forgetting theory. What does it
mean? What does repression mean?
It suggests that we have a tendency to forget things that are too painful to think about. Sigmund
Freud used the term repression to explain this common memory phenomenon. Repression refers
to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in one’s unconscious. However, other
researchers argue that repression may not exist. Instead, we might reconstruct or revise painful
memories so that they are less distressing.

29. How can you improve your memory?

1. Focus your attention on the materials you are studying. Try to study in a place free of
distractions such as television.
2. Avoid cramming by establishing regular study sessions. Students who study regularly
remember the material far better than those who do all of their studying in one marathon
session.
3. Structure and organize the information you are studying. Information is organized in
memory in related clusters. Try grouping similar concepts and terms together, or make an
outline of your notes and textbook readings to help group related concepts.
4. Utilize mnemonic devices to remember information. Mnemonic devices are a technique
often used by students to aid in recall. For example, you might associate a term you need
to remember with a common item that you are very familiar with.
5. Rehearse the information you are studying.
6. Visualize concepts to improve memory and recall. Pay attention to the photographs, and
other graphics in your textbooks. Draw charts in the margins of your notes or use
highlighters or pens in different colors to group related ideas in your written materials.
7. Relate new information to things you already know.
8. Teach new concepts to another person. Reading materials out loud significantly improves
memory of the material. Also having students actually teach new concepts to others
enhances understanding and recall. 
9. Pay extra attention to difficult information.
10. Vary your study routine. If you are accustomed to study in one specific location or at a
certain time, try to move a different spot or a different next time.
11. Get some sleep. Some recent research has shown that taking a nap after you learn
something new can help you learn faster and remember better.

30. What was the point of view about what determines intelligence (genes or environment) in late
1800 in the UK?
Genes determines intelligence in late 1800 in the UK.
31 What was the point of view about what determines intelligence (genes or environment) in
1960’s in the USA?
The environment determines intelligence in 1960’s in the USA.

32. What is the current point of view about what determines intelligence (genes or environment)?
The current point of view is that both genes and environment determine intelligence.

33. Write down briefly the seven intelligences proposed by in Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligence?
1. Logical and mathematical intelligence: It consists of the capacity to analyze problems
logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.
2. Linguistic Intelligence: It involves the ability to learn , the ability to use language to express
oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information.
Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having
high linguistic intelligence.
3. Spatial intelligence: You have visual intelligence if you picture ideas and make mind maps.
A successful architect is a good example of this kind of intelligence because when he designs
buildings, he can visualize spatial patterns such as building design before they are built.
4. Musical intelligence: The ability to master music as well as rhythms, tones and beats.
5. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence: It is the ability to use one’s mental abilities to coordinate
one’s own bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Athletes, surgeons and dancers use ‘body smarts’ when they execute physical tasks.
6. Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to communicate effectively with other people and to
be able to develop relationships.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence: It is the ability to understand one’s own feelings and
motivations.
8. Natural intelligence: It is the ability to discriminate among living things such as plants and
animals and sensitivity to other features of natural world such as could.
9. Existential intelligence: It is the ability to pose and ponder questions about life, death, and
ultimate realities.

34. Sir Francis Galton was a key figure in modern intelligence testing. What did he say about
intelligence?
He said that intelligence is quantifiable and that we could assign a score for intelligence.

35. Who developed the first workable intelligence test?

The French psychologist Alfred Binet.

36. What is the intelligence formula of Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon?
It is stated as MA/CA X 100 (mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by one
hundred).

37. What do IQ letters stand for?

‘I’ stands for intelligence and ‘Q’ stands for quotient.

38. At which score do mental and chronological ages coincide?

At 100.
39. What does a score above 100 mean?
It means that your mental age is higher than your chronological age.

40. A normal IQ score ranges between 90 and 120. True/False. If false correct the statement.

41. IQ scores over 120 are considered high. True/False. If false correct the statement.

42. There are two types of IQ tests available for use: individual tests and group tests. True/False. If
false correct the statement.

43. What is the problem of individual IQ tests?

They are expensive and time-consuming to administer.

44. Why are group tests more popular than individual tests?
Because of their cost-effectiveness.