Chapter 4

Memory and Information

Processing
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Identify and describe the three basic functions of memory
• Differentiate between sensory, short-term, and long-term memory
• Identify and describe methods for information retrieval
• Describe the forgetting curve and its implications for learning
• Describe strategies for deciding which course content to learn and retain
• Recognize and apply strategies for strengthening your memory
 Memory

• Memory is an information processing system that we often compare to a

computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve
information over different periods of time.

Three processes are involved in memory: encoding, storage, and

retrieval. All three of these processes determine whether something is
remembered or forgotten.

Encoding involves the input of information into the memory

system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information.
Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back
into awareness, is the third function
Encoding
Processing information into memory is called Encoding. People automatically encode some types
of information without being aware of it. For example, most people probably can recall where they
ate lunch yesterday, even though they didn’t try to remember this information. However, other
types of information become encoded only if people pay attention to it. College students will
probably not remember all the material in their textbooks unless they pay close attention while
they’re reading.

There are several different ways of encoding verbal information:

•Structural Encoding focuses on what words look like. For instance, one might note whether
words are long or short, in uppercase or lowercase, or handwritten or typed.
•Phonemic Encoding focuses on how words sound.
•Semantic Encoding focuses on the meaning of words. Semantic encoding requires a deeper level
of processing than structural or phonemic encoding and usually results in better memory.
Storage
After information enters the brain, it has to be stored or maintained. To describe the process of
storage, many psychologists use the three-stage model proposed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. According to this model, information is stored sequentially in
three memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
Sensory Memory
 Sensory Memory stores incoming sensory information in detail but only for an instant.
The capacity of sensory memory is very large, but the information in it is unprocessed. If a
flashlight moves quickly in a circle inside a dark room, people will see a circle of light
rather than the individual points through which the flashlight moved. This happens because
sensory memory holds the successive images of the moving flashlight long enough for the
brain to see a circle. Visual sensory memory is called Iconic Memory; auditory sensory
memory is called Echoic Memory.
Short-Term Memory
Some of the information in sensory memory transfers to Short-Term Memory, which can hold
information for approximately twenty seconds. Rehearsing can help keep information in short-
term memory longer. When people repeat a new phone number over and over to themselves, they
are rehearsing it and keeping it in short-term memory.

 Short-term memory has a limited capacity: it can store about seven pieces of information,
plus or minus two pieces. A method called chunking can help to increase the capacity of
short-term memory. Chunking combines small bits of information into bigger, familiar
pieces.
Long-Term Memory
Information can be transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory and from long-
term memory back to short-term memory. Long-Term Memory has an almost infinite capacity,
and information in long-term memory usually stays there for the duration of a person’s life.
However, this doesn’t mean that people will always be able to remember what’s in their long-
term memory—they may not be able to retrieve information that’s there.
Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory. Retrieval Cues are stimuli
that help the process of retrieval. Retrieval cues include associations, context, and mood.

Lost Memories
The fact that people can often recall lost memories when hypnotized suggests that
information in long-term memory is usually not lost— it may just be difficult to retrieve.
Associations
Because the brain stores information as networks of associated concepts, recalling a
particular word becomes easier if another, related word is recalled first. This process is
called Priming.
Example: If Tim shows his roommate a picture of sunbathers on a nude beach and then asks
him to spell the word bear, the roommate may be more likely to spell bare because the
picture primed him to recall that form of the word.
Context
People can often remember an event by placing themselves in the same context they were in
when the event happened.
Example: If a woman loses her car keys, she may be able to recall where she put them if she re-
creates in her mind exactly what she did when she last came in from parking her car.
Mood
If people are in the same mood they were in during an event, they may have an easier time
recalling the event.
There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory storage system: recall,
recognition, and relearning. 
Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access
information without cues. For example, you would use recall for an essay test. 
Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it
again. It involves a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on
recognition to help you choose the correct answer. Here is another example. Let’s say you graduated from
high school 10 years ago, and you have returned to your hometown for your 10-year reunion. You may not be
able to recall all of your classmates, but you recognize many of them based on their yearbook photos.
The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it’s just what it sounds like. It involves learning
information that you previously learned. Whitney took Spanish in high school, but after high
school she did not have the opportunity to speak Spanish. Whitney is now 31, and her company
has offered her an opportunity to work in their Mexico City office. In order to prepare herself,
she enrolls in a Spanish course at the local community center. She’s surprised at how quickly
she’s able to pick up the language after not speaking it for 13 years; this is an example of
relearning.

Forgetting:
• The forgetting curve hypothesizes the decline of memory retention
over time.
• This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no
attempt to retain it.
In 1885, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus hypothesized that the rate of forgetting is
exponential. Using himself as the sole subject in his experiment, he memorized lists of three letter
nonsense syllable words—two consonants and one vowel in the middle. He then measured his own
capacity to relearn a given list of words after a variety of given time period. He found that forgetting
occurs in a systematic manner, beginning rapidly and then leveling off, represented graphically in the
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve. From this research Ebbinghaus concluded that much of what we forget is
lost soon after it is originally learned, but that the amount of forgetting eventually levels off.

Types of Memory
Psychologists often make distinctions among different types of
memory. There are three main distinctions:
1.Implicit vs. explicit memory
2.Declarative vs. procedural memory
3.Semantic vs. episodic memory
Implicit vs. Explicit Memory
Sometimes information that unconsciously enters the memory affects thoughts and behavior,
even though the event and the memory of the event remain unknown. Such unconscious retention
of information is called Implicit Memory.
Example: Hina once visited Hotel California with her parents when she was ten years old. She
may not remember ever having been there, but when she makes a trip there later, she knows
exactly how to get to the swimming pool.
Explicit Memory is conscious, intentional remembering of information. Remembering a social security
number involves explicit memory.
Declarative vs. Procedural Memory
Declarative Memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces, events, and concepts.
Remembering the capital of France, the rules for playing football, and what happened in the last game of
the World Series involves declarative memory. Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit
because it involves conscious, intentional remembering.
Procedural Memory is recall of how to do things such as swimming or driving a car. Procedural memory
is usually considered implicit because people don’t have to consciously remember how to perform actions
or skills.
Semantic vs. Episodic Memory
Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic. Semantic Memory is recall of general facts,
while Episodic Memory is recall of personal facts. Remembering the capital of France and the rules for
playing football uses semantic memory. Remembering what happened in the last game of the World Series
uses episodic memory.

Knowledge Acquisition Strategies

Jennifer felt anxious about an upcoming history exam. This would be her first test in a college
class, and she wanted to do well. Jennifer took lots of notes during class and while reading
the textbook. In preparation for the exam, she tried to review all five textbook chapters along
with all of her notes. 
The morning of the exam, Jennifer felt nervous and unprepared. After so much studying and
review, why wasn’t she more confident? 
Knowing What to Know
•Think about concepts rather than facts: From time to time, you’ll need to memorize cold, hard facts—like a
list of math equations or a vocabulary list in a Spanish class. Most of the time, though, instructors will care much
more that you are learning about the key concepts in a subject or course—such as how photosynthesis works,
how to write a thesis statement, the causes of the French Revolution, and so on. Jennifer, from the scenario
above, might have been more successful with her studying—and felt better about it—if she had focused on the
important historical developments (the “big ideas”) discussed in class, as opposed to trying to memorize a long
list of dates and facts.
•Take cues from your instructor: Pay attention to what your instructor writes on the board or includes in study
guides and handouts. Although these may be short—perhaps just a list of words and phrases—they are likely
core concepts that you’ll want to focus on. Also, instructors tend to refer to important concepts repeatedly during
class, and they may even tell you what’s important to know before an exam or other assessment.
•Look for key terms: Textbooks will often put key terms in bold or italics. These terms and their definitions are
usually important and can help you remember larger concepts.
•Use summaries: Textbooks often have summaries or study guides at the end of each chapter. These summaries
are a good way to check in and see whether you grasp the main elements of the reading (each chapter of this text,
for example, ends with a set of “key takeaways” that reiterate the most important concepts). If no summary is
available, try to write your own—you’ll learn much more by writing about what you read than by reading alone.
Transferring Information to Long-Term Memory
In the previous discussion of how memory works, the importance of making intentional efforts to transfer
information from short-term to long-term memory was noted. Below are some strategies to facilitate this
process:
•Start reviewing new material immediately: Remember that people typically forget a significant amount
of new information within 24 hours of learning it. As a student, you can benefit from starting to study new
material right away. If you’re introduced to new concepts in class, for example, don’t wait a few days, or
until the test is coming up, to start reviewing your notes and doing the related reading assignment. The
sooner the better! Studying notes and writing questions or comments about what you learned right after
class can help keep new information fresh in your mind.
•Study frequently for shorter periods of time: Once information becomes a part of long-term memory,
you’re more likely to remember it. If you want to improve the odds of recalling course material by the
time of an exam or a in future class, try reviewing it a little bit every day. Building up your knowledge and
recall this way can also help you avoid needing to “cram” and feeling overwhelmed by everything you
may have forgotten.
 Strengthening Your Memory
Rehearsal
One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered. This strategy is linked
to studying material frequently for shorter periods of time. You may not remember when or how you learned
skills like riding a bike or tying your shoes. Mastery came with practice, and at some point the skills became
second nature. Academic learning is no different: if you spend enough time with important course concepts and
practice them often, you will know them in the same way you know how to ride a bike, almost without thinking
about them. For example, think about how you learned your multiplication tables. You may recall that 6 x 6 =
36, 6 x 7 = 42, and 6 x 8 = 48. Memorizing these facts is rehearsal.
Incorporate visuals
Visual aids like note cards, concept maps, and highlighted text are ways of making information stand out.
Because they are shorter and more concise, they have the advantage of making the information to be
memorized seem more manageable.
Create mnemonics
Memory devices known as mnemonics can help you retain information while only needing to remember a
unique phrase or letter pattern that stands out. Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us organize
information for encoding
Chunking
Another strategy is chunking, where you organize information into manageable bits or chunks. Chunking is
useful when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers. Instead of trying to remember
5205550467, you remember the number as 520-555-0467. 
Connect new information to old information
Take stock of what you already know—information that’s already stored in long-term memory—and use
it as a foundation for learning newer information. It’s easier to remember new information if you can
connect it to old information or to a familiar frame of reference.
For example, if you are taking a sociology class and are learning about different types of social groups,
you may be able to think of examples from your own experience that relate to the different types.
Get quality sleep
Although some people require more or less sleep than the recommended amount, most people should aim
for six–eight hours every night. School puts a lot of demands on the brain, and, like tired muscles after a
long workout, your brain needs to rest after being exercised and taking in all sorts of new information
during the day. Plus, while you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the brain organizes
and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory