Writing Chapter 3 – Methodology for

Qualitative Research
In Chapter 3 of your Thesis, you discuss details about the methodology you
employed in collecting data for your study. Here we will focus on how to
write Chapter 3 for a Qualitative piece of research. Some components
will be similar to the methodology chapter for Quantitative research while
there are components that are different. The aim of
the  ‘Methodology’ chapter is to tell the reader how you collected the data
to answer the research questions in Chapter 1 – Introduction.
You will describe the  methods and procedures (or techniques) used in the
your study in sufficient detail that will enable future researchers to replicate
or adapt your methodology in their respective studies. You should write the
methodology chapter like a ‘recipe’ which can be followed closely by
individuals who read what you have written.
In short, Chapter 1 describes why the research question is being asked
and Chapter 3 describes how the research question is answered. Note that
there are several ways of writing Chapter 3 and the following is a
suggestion on the sub-sections to include. Here, Chapter 3 for qualitative
research has been divided into EIGHT sub-sections. Please check with the
requirements specified by your respective institution. 

3.1 INTRODUCTION / PREAMBLE

The ‘Preamble’ sub-section would normally consist of TWO parts. In the

first part, you restate the ‘problem statement’, the ‘purpose of the study’ the
‘research questions’ (unless your study is based on the grounded theory
method) and the theoretical framework. Again you may ask, why should I
keep on ‘retelling’ about the purpose, problem statement, research
questions and theoretical framework of the study!  You would assume that
the reader should know what the study is all about. You should keep in
mind that when your thesis is later kept in the university library or in an
online database, researchers interested in your study may ‘jump’ straight to
Chapter 3 to find out how you went about collecting data for your study.
Hence, it would be appreciated by future readers if you told them briefly the
problem statement, purpose, research questions and the underlying theory
of your study so that they understand this chapter.
In the second part of the ‘Preamble’, you tell the reader the sub-sections in
Chapter 3 and how you will address each sub-section. Think of this part as
the ‘warm up’ for the full discussion of your data collection strategy. Note
that the information regarding methodology should be comprehensive and
detailed enough to permit replication of the study by other researchers.
Sample #1 of the ‘Introduction or Preamble Write-Up

“The study examined decision-making styles and its effects on

employee performance in the workplace. Previous studies have
demonstrated that leaders may make decisions that are not popular
with employees .The main objective of this study was to assess the
impact of performance-related pay on motivation of employees. Pay
increases or the lack of for employees can have an effect on
employee’s and the productivity of their work. If the employee feels
they are not compensated for their work, they may tend to decrease in
being productive in their work …………………… . Specifically the study
sought to answer how might leaders’s decision-making styles effect
employee performance and how leader’s decision-making styles are
informed by emotions or feelings……………  This chapter is divided into
several section addressing the choice of research design, selection of
informants, data collection procedures, pilot-testing, instrumentation
and data analysis”.
Sample #2 of the ‘Introduction or Preamble Write-Up

“This Chapter presents the description of the research process. It

provides  information concerning the method that was used in
undertaking this research as  well as a justification for the use of this
method. The Chapter also describes the  various stages of the
research, which includes the selection of participants, the
data  collection process and the process of data analysis. The Chapter
also discusses the
role of the researcher in qualitative research in relation to reflexivity.
The Chapter  ends with a  discussion of validity and reliability in
qualitative research and discusses  the way in which these two
requirements were met in the current study”.
 3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN or METHODS

Generally, ‘methods’ used in qualitative research are more flexible

compared to the ‘designs’ or ‘methods’ used in quantitative research. Some
argue that in qualitative research, the ‘Research Design’ sub-section is not
essential. However, having this sub-section enables you to tell the
reader from the on-set whether your study used an ethnographic, case
study, phenomenological, narrative analysis, historical inquiry, grounded
theory or the generic qualitative method that does not subscribe to any
specific qualitative philosophy.
 You should state the rationale for your choice of the research
design or method and its appropriateness. For example, why did you
choose the case study method or the grounded theory method or the
narrative inquiry method.
 Show how the method you had chosen helped accomplish the
goals of the study.  Focus only on what you employed and implemented
in your study. 
 Discuss in detail the steps you took when using a particular design.
For example, if you study used the ethnographic design or method, write as
though it were like an ‘operators’s manual’ that you might share with others
so they can be assured that someone can replicated your design.
 Description of your research design needs to have enough detail to
eliminate assumptions of the need to ask questions by someone who
want to adopt or adapt your research design. “It is a balancing act between
too much information and not enough information”.  Cite from textbooks
and articles on qualitative methods by the greats such as Guba, Lincoln,
Creswell, Merriam, Patton, Charmaz and others. However, do not take
chunks from these authors but focus on what you need in telling readers
about the particular design or method you used or had adapted
accordingly.
 Readers are interested in knowing HOW YOU USED the
ethnographic method or the case study method or the phenomenology
method in YOUR STUDY and not a generic description of the ethnographic
or case study or narrative inquiry or phenomenology method.
Sample of the Research Design Write-Up

“The case study method was used in this study because it is well-suited
in answering the research questions appropriately and adequately. The
 strength of the case study method is because it allows for the
examination of the phenomenon in depth using various kinds of
evidence obtained from interviews with those involved, direct
observation of events and analysis of documents and artifacts (Yin,
2003).   Also, the case study was used because the focus of the study
is more to describe and explain rather than prediction, and the
variable variable studied is note easily unidentifiable or embedded in
the phenomenon to be extracted for study (Merriam, 1988). In
addition, the case study allows for empirical inquiry of phenomenon
within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin, 2003)……………
3.3 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Irrespective of which qualitative research design you adopted for your

study, the three most common data collection techniques are the:
1. INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE [or Focus Groups]
2. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE &
3. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE
You may have used one or more of these data collection techniques in your
study. Do not tell what is an  interview, or observation or document analysis
technique but rather tell how you used these techniques in your study.
 Discuss where the Interview with your subjects or informants took
place.
 How did you arrange the setting to ensure the level of quiet, intimacy
and privacy.
Sample of Data Collection Techniques Write-Up

“On-site interviews and observations was the main data collection

techniques for the study……..Secondary data sources included
documents provided by participants that pertain to the
study……..Interviews were conducted based on questions listed in
Interview Guide (see Appendix C). However, participants were allowed
the freedom to talk about their experiences in a way in which they
were comfortable……………
 3.4 INSTRUMENTATION

 If you used INTERVIEW as a data collection, you will invariably have

used an Interview Schedule or Guide
 Tell the reader if your interview schedule was semi-
structured or unstructured
 Discuss the types of questions included in the interview schedule or
guide
 Provide examples of the questions you asked your informants
3.5 INFORMANTS

In this sub-section, you give details about how you got your subjects or
informants for your study. The issue of sampling can be quite confusing in
qualitative research. Students often ask “how many subjects or informants”
do I need for my study. Can I base my PhD on information obtained from
ONE informant? Oftentimes, it is a difficult question to answer. Students
should avoid applying the sampling principles of quantitative research. The
key consideration in sampling in qualitative research is “saturation” and
not representativeness and the size of the sample is not statistically
determined (Neuman, 2003).
 HOW DID YOU CHOOSE THE INFORMANTS?
o Tell the reader how you chose the informants for your study
– Usually, ‘purposive sampling’ is used because the informants are
available, convenient and most importantly represent characteristics you
want to study (Silverman, 2000). 
o Outline the procedures you adopted for selecting the
sample of 10 Managers including justification for the sampling
method or sampling procedure; i.e. why did you choose the particular
sampling method.
 WHO ARE THEY? – Provide as much information as possible about
the characteristics of your informants.
 WHY YOU CHOSE THEM? – This is based on your judgement – the
informants will be able to provide you with information needed to answer
the research questions; also you can argue that the informants are most
characteristic, representative or possess attributes typical of the population.
 HOW MANY? – For example, you chose 10 Managers – why 10 and
not 15? – You can argue that the sample of 10 Managers is adequate
enough to provide a manageable volume of data that is able to answer the
research questions.
 SETTING – Discuss where you conducted the study – was it in an
office, school canteen, discussion room? – explain how you got around the
‘gatekeepers”?
 
Sample of the Informants Write-Up

In this study purposive sampling was adopted which is “a method of

sampling where the researcher deliberately chooses who to include in
the study based on their ability to provide necessary data” (Parahoo,
1997, p. 232). The rationale for choosing this approach was that the
researcher was seeking knowledge about the nurses’ opinion of pain in
patients who suffer from dementia, which the participants would
provide by virtue of their experience.  The researcher worked in
conjunction with the Head of Department, in choosing participants,
based on their level of experience in caring for patients that suffer
from dementia as well as their qualifications. There were 12 potential
participants, of whom seven participated in the study. Some of the
nurses were not available as they were off duty, off sick, on holiday,
while others did not want to participate in the study……………………..In-
person interviews were conducted and recorded in a quiet, neutral
location where the participants were not in danger and there was no
intimidation or coercion……
3.6 PILOT-TEST

Some experts suggest that pilot-tests are not important for qualitative
research while others suggest it would be useful for novice researchers to do
pilot-test. For example, if you are using interviews for the first time, it
would advisable for you to conduct interview as a pre-exercise to get used to
the type of data collection. The pilot test will assist the researcher in
determining if there are flaws, limitations, or other weaknesses within the
interview design and enable the researcher to make necessary revisions
prior to the implementation of the study. However, the informants or
participants involved in the pilot-test should similar to the informants
involved in the final study. It has also been suggested that the pilot test can
the researcher with the refinement of research questions. 
Sample of the Pilot-Test Write-Up

A pilot-study was conducted with 3 senior managers and were

interviewed at their workplace. The interview was audio-recorded to
ensure correct use of the device. During the exercise, attention was
given to body language and non-verbal responses and the manner of
asking questions. As the researcher was the main data collection
instrument, the pilot-study provided an insight into phenomenon
studied, increased experience in interviewing as well as enhanced
interpersonal skills. Also errors in interviewing skills were rectified
and not repeated in the main study.   
 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS

Data analysis in qualitative research is subject to wide variation and this

makes it important that you tell in great detail how YOU ANALYSED the
data YOU collected.
You should include the following in this sub-section:
 Explain how you analysed the data collection. It has been suggested
to think of it as “How to” guide that others would follow your data
analysis and coding method.
 Give a step by step narrative description how you conducted the
entire analysis of your data.
 You might start by making a bulleted list in another document, and
then narrate that list here in this section
 It is important for your reader to know what you did with the
collected data and that it fits well with your research philosophy, research
design and research questions.
 There should be enough detail to reduce the likelihood of a reader
making assumptions and forcing him or her to ask questions seeking
clarification which may cast doubts on the findings.
 However you need to balance between too much details and  not
enough information. Too much details may also put off the reader from
reading this sub-section.
3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

 Letters of permission to conduct the study.

 Letters of invitation to participate with attached consent forms.
 Show compliance with protection of human subjects (as required
by your respective institution)
 A paragraph must be inserted that states the study is deemed to be
one of minimal risk to participants and that the probability and magnitude
of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research will not be greater than
any ordinarily encountered in daily life, or during the performance of routine
physical or psychological examinations or tests. 
 Care should be taken to ensure that the participants fully
understood the nature of the study and the fact that participation
is voluntary.  
 A statement should be made that confidentiality of recovered data
will be maintained at all times, and identification of participants will not be
available during or after the study. For example, all data collected was
anonymised by replacing the participants’ names with ascending code
numbers (P116 – P119) in the order of the initial interviews
 Participants should be informed that they could withdraw from the
study at any time without questions being asked. 
3.9 RESEARCHER POSITIONALITY

Throughout the research process, you have interacted with your informants
or participants or subjects and there is always the likelihood that you may
impact the methodology or findings of the study. Especially in qualitative
research, it is difficult for you to distant yourself from the subjects you
interact with. Hence, it is necessary that you state your ‘position’ which is
described as ‘reflexivity’. “Reflexivity involves a self-scrutiny on the part of
the researcher; a self-conscious awareness of the relationship between the
researcher and an ‘other’ (Bourke, 2014, p.2). In short, it is a process of
continuous self-analysis in which you reflect more deeply on the
experiences you encountered when doing the research. 
For example, if you study involves issues of race, ethnicity or religion, you
would be concerned how your race, ethnicity or religion being different from
your subjects influence interactions with them. The nature of qualitative
research puts you in the position of having to be close with your subjects
and it is reasonable to expect your beliefs, political stance, gender,
socioeconomic status, educational background and so forth to influence the
research process. It is critical that you be mindful of your own biases
when you interview or observe your subjects. 
Under the section ‘Researcher’s Positionality’, you state:
 your interest in the phenomenon you have investigated
 your background and experiences in conducting the study
 your role in data collection and analysis
 significant effects you may have had on the data at any stage of the
process

 
Sample of the Researcher Positionality Write-Up

“The researcher is a  married, young, independent and professional

working in a technology company. She is a  co-contributor to the
running of the household and assists in  maintaining the life style in her
marriage. She is religious and holds strongly to her cultural roots but
believes that women should be treated equal to men. The
researcher  acknowledges that she could identify with the participants
she made sure that she  did not impose her values or opinions on the
participants during the interviews. The researcher is able to put aside
her own understanding of the subject of investigation and open her
mind to understand and listen to what is told to her by the
participants”.
 Writing Chapter 4 – Analysis & Results
for Qualitative Research
In reporting qualitative data in Chapter 4, you discuss the themes or categories that emerged from
the word, phrases and sentences you collected from interviews, observations or document analysis.
Chapter 4 for Qualitative Research carries different titles such as ‘Analysis of Data’, ‘Results of
Study’, ‘Analysis and Results‘ and so forth. The key words are ‘analysis’ and ‘results’ which implies
that you have ‘analysed’ the raw data and presenting the ‘results’ or what you discovered in this
Chapter. The following are some possible ‘mess ups’ which is not an exaggeration and does
happen:
 You have spent so much time collecting and analysing data but do a poor job of
reporting the results. You may under-report despite having collected large amounts of
data. Do not sell yourself short!
 Alternatively, after collecting all the data, your presentation of the results lack
organisation and clarity. Your reader struggles trying to figure out what the heck you have
written in this Chapter.
 You may have done a good job writing Chapter 1, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 with such
clarity and make a mess of Chapter 4. Gee, what a waste! 
It has been suggested that Chapter 4 should ‘stand alone’ meaning that you could ask a friend to
read it and she would what you discovered in you study without have to read Chapters 1 to 3. How
about that! Can you do that? To be able to ‘stand alone’, Chapter 4 should be aligned to the
purpose of the study, the research questions, why the study was important, how it connects
to the underlying theories, literature review and reflective of the conceptual framework.
Chapter 4 is the culmination of your study and represents you best thinking and how you answered
the research question you had posed.
Chapter 4 Qualitative Research is less structured compared to Chapter 4 Quantitative Research. In
contrast. There is no one style for reporting the findings for Qualitative Research and you may
choose from an assortment of styles to tell your ‘story’ in an organised and interesting manner.
According to Wolcott (1990), “writing well is neither a luxury nor an option …..it is absolutely
essential” (p.13) for qualitative research. Qualitative research generates rich information and
deciding where to focus is very challenging. This is what Ronald Chenail had to say:
“I believe that the data, which have been painfully collected, should “be the star” in the
relationship. By this I mean, the main focus in qualitative research is the data itself, in all its
richness, breadth, and depth. When all is said and done, the “quality” in a qualitative
research project is based upon how well you have done at collecting quality data. So, it only
seems natural that when it comes time to present “the fruits of your labor,” you should make
every effort to feature the data in your presentations”  (Presenting Qualitative Data. The
Qualitative Report, 2(3). Dec. 1995).

Introduction
1. Briefly re-state the problem statement, the purpose of the study and research questions
2. Tell the reader on the purpose of Chapter 4 and how you organised the ‘story’.
3. Briefly describe the research design – whether you used ethnographic method, case study
method and so forth
4. Briefly tell about the sample you studied and data collection techniques – whether you used
observations, interviews and so forth
5. Brief explanation of how data were processed and coded, as well as how data exemplars
were chosen for presentation. 
6. Explain how you established trustworthiness of data collected
Someone may ask why is there need to ‘repeat’ the above as it has been explained in detail in the
earlier chapters. You are not repeating but rather you are ‘re-stating’ the key ideas (provided an
executive summary) on what you had written earlier . But WHY? The reasons is twofold: First is to
provide a context that will lead the reader towards the findings reported in Chapter 4. Second is the
fact that not all people who read you final thesis will begin with Chapter 1. Rather they may ‘skip’ to
Chapter 4 to read about the findings of the study. Hence, the brief summary on the purpose,
research questions, sampling, research design and data collection techniques provides a
background for the reader to better understand and appreciate the findings reported in the ‘body’ of
Chapter 4.
BODY
Note that ‘body’ is not a sub-heading but rather it is main part of Chapter 4. It is
suggested that you begin with the demographics of your subjects, informants or
participants explaining the age, gender or relevant information about the sample. You
could also present it in the form of tables. 
Then you begin telling about your findings which you can organise according to the research
questions or you may approach the chapter according to the significance of
the themes or categories that emerged from analysis of the data. There is no single way to present
the findings because it depend on your research design.
Verbatim quotes are used to support your arguments. Verbatim quotations (spoken word) or
extracts  are often used interchangeably and are passages taken from interviews (one-to-one) or
focus group.  
Quotes are generally short while extracts are longer passages.
 Quotes demonstrate how the findings of your interpretations have arisen from the data.
 Quotes and extracts are used to support your interpretations and explanations – as a
general rule of thumb, try to use at least two different quotations from two different people to support
each argument.
 No set rules on how long quotes or extracts should, nor how many quotes you should use.
 Should quotes and extracts be ‘cleaned’? Some researchers would argue that every
hesitation, every ‘um’ and ‘er’ of a respondent should be reported, since it has meaning. Others
argue that breaks in the text may make it difficult for the reader to follow the flow of the conversation.
As a general rule quotations and extracts should be presented in a manner that reflects as
accurately as possible the conversation that occurred, whilst omitting unnecessary breaks and
pauses in the conversation.
 Is it acceptable to shorten extracts (longer passages of text)? It is generally acceptable
to shorten passages of text as long as you make it clear what you have done. For example text
followed by a number of dots (………………) generally denotes where text has been removed or left
out.
 Identifiers are included in (brackets) at the end of a quote or extract. You may give details
without revealing the identity of the participant. For “I do not like football because ……………..”(Male
aged 43). Gender and age is identified because your study intends to compare gender and age
preferences for football. Details about the identifier depends on the purpose of the research. 
[source: The Council’s Corporate Research and Consultation Team (CRAC). Analysing and
reporting qualitative data. United Kingdom]
 Anne Croden and Roy Sainsbury (2006) in study involving several qualitative researchers identified
the following reasons for using verbatim quotations in reporting qualitative data:
 just like statistical data, verbatim quotations provide evidence for interpretation made by
the researcher – i.e. shows how the findings emerged from the data which is an ‘audit trail’ that
strengthens credibility (one of the components of trustworthiness). Qualitative researchers have to
work hard at justifying their findings so that is does not appear to be unscientific or subjective.
 verbatim quotations are used to explain how something happened  – understand why
people had particular views or perspectives; behaved in a certain way, how they constructed
something.
 verbatim quotations to illustrate a particular theme
 verbatim quotations used to deepen understanding, i.e. the strength of their views or depth
of feelings; or their passivity and lack of engagement
 verbatim quotations used to provide a voice for informants; i.e. empower people to give
their own views or express their feelings or beliefs
 verbatim quotations to enhance readability; i.e. to provide colour, vividness and even
humour to keep the reader focused.
Ronald Chenail (1995) has an interesting way of describing how to write-up qualitative data. He
suggests maintaining a ‘rhythm’ when talking about your data. By rhythm, he means creating a
template for ‘re-presenting’ your data so that there is a recognisable pattern throughout Chapter 4
which is identified by the reader.  The following is a common way in which your findings can be
displayed:
Category / Theme
             Financial Reasons for Working Abroad
Display the First Data Exemplar (quote from the transcript) as follows:
“I ended up leaving my own home, country, my family and working far away from loved ones to
make ends meet” [40 year old single mother with two dependents]
Comment Further on the First Data Exemplar (verbatim quote) as follows:
Massive unemployment and low wages in the home country has led participants to find new jobs.
Make Transition to Second Data Exemplar (verbatim quote) as follows:
“…..there was no future for my children and jobs overseas paid better” [a carpenter with three
children]
Comment Further on the Second Data Exemplar as follows:
Highly attractive packages offered in other countries was a core reason given by skilled people
leaving their home country. Awareness of the disparity in salaries has hastened emigration of
workers.
Make Transition to the Next Data Exemplar Until the Closing of this Section
Presentation of Data
EXAMPLE # 1: Children’s Ability to Discriminate Among Food Types
The Verbatim Quotation:
‘My mother says drink juice because it’s healthy and she says if you don’t drink it you won’t get
healthy and you won’t have any sweets and you’ll end up having to go to hospital if you don’t eat
anything like vegetables because you’ll get weak’. (Girl, age 11 years).
Explanation by the Researcher:
The interviews demonstrated that children are able to differentiate and discriminate between
different types of food effortlessly. Also their ability to discriminate types of food and drinks was both
sophisticated and complex, incorporating positive and negative notions relating to food and its health
and social consequences.
EXAMPLE # 2: Adults Learners Opinions on Doing a Bachelors Degree
The Verbatim Quotation:
I feel better and more confident among my colleagues who are degree holders (Robbie, age 32)
My self-esteem got better . I am now able to talk with all kinds of people more bravely. (Zalina, age
40 years).
I am proud of myself that I can do this and has given me courage to talk with others in my office
(Swee Leong age 32′)
Explanation by the Researcher:
Various statements by informants highlight the significance of self-confidence when interacting with
people attributed to pursuing a degree. Self-confidence is interpreted as being able to do new things
or doing things better than before. Self-confidence is mostly exemplified by the ability to
communicate.