Name: Niranjan Mukherjee

Roll: M1CNE20018
1. Ultrasonic Test of Steel
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques
based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material
tested. In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-
waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and
occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted into materials to detect
internal flaws or to characterize materials. A common example
is ultrasonic thickness measurement, which tests the thickness of the
test object, for example, to monitor pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and
alloys, though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites,
albeit with less resolution. It is used in many industries including steel
and aluminium construction, metallurgy,
manufacturing, aerospace, automotive and other transportation sectors.
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic
machine is passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is
typically separated from the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by
water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is
conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the
use of couplant is not required.
There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection
and attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer
performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the
"sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes
from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an
imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays these
results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the
intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival
time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a
transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate
receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after
traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the
space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound
transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases
the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic
wave energy due to separation between the surfaces.
2. Dye Penetration Test of Steel:
Dye penetrant inspection (DP), also called liquid penetrate
inspection (LPI) or penetrant testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-
cost inspection method used to check surface-breaking defects in
all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant
may be applied to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials,
although for ferrous components magnetic-particle inspection is often used
 instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to detect
casting, forging and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks,
surface porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service
components.
3. MIG and TIG welding

TIG—i.e., tungsten inert gas—welding is highly versatile, enabling

industry professionals to join a wide range of small and thin materials. It
uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to heat the metal and can
be used with or without a filler.

Compared to MIG welding, it is much slower, often resulting in longer

lead times and greater production costs. Additionally, welders require
highly specialized training to ensure they achieve proper precision and
accuracy. However, it also offers greater control during the welding
operation and produces strong, precise, and aesthetically pleasing
welds.

MIG—i.e., metal inert gas—welding is generally used for large and thick
materials. It employs a consumable wire that acts as both the electrode
and the filler material.

Compared to TIG welding, it is much faster, resulting in shorter lead

times and lower production costs. Additionally, it is easier to learn and
produces welds that require little to no cleaning and finishing. However,
its welds are not as precise, strong, or clean as those formed by TIG
welding operations.

4. Radiography test on steel

In Radiography Testing the test-part is placed between the radiation

source and film (or detector). The material density and thickness
differences of the test-part will attenuate (i.e. reduce) the penetrating
radiation through interaction processes involving scattering and/or
absorption. The differences in absorption are then recorded on film(s) or
through an electronic means. In industrial radiography there are several
imaging methods available, techniques to display the final image, i.e.
Film Radiography, Real Time Radiography (RTR), Computed
 Tomography (CT), Digital Radiography (DR), and Computed
Radiography (CR).

There are two different radioactive sources available for industrial use; 
X-ray and Gamma-ray. These radiation sources use higher energy
level, i.e. shorter wavelength, versions of the electromagnetic waves.
Because of the radioactivity involved in radiography testing, it is
of paramount importance to ensure that the Local Rules is strictly
adhered during operation.

Computed Tomography (CT) is one of the lab based advanced NDT

methods that TWI offers to industry. CT is a radiographic
based technique that provides both cross-sectional and 3D volume
images of the object under inspection. These images allow the internal
structure of the test object to be inspected without the inherent
superimposition associated with 2D radiography. This feature allows
detailed analysis of the internal structure of a wide range of
components. 

5. Arc Welding :
Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by
using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted
metals when cool result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding
that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between a
metal stick ("electrode") and the base material to melt the metals at the
point of contact. Arc welders can use either direct (DC)
or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes.
The welding area is usually protected by some type of shielding gas,
vapour, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic,
or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century,
arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the
Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the
fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.
In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by
cyclic loading that results in progressive and localized structural
damage and the growth of cracks. Once a fatigue crack has initiated, it
will grow a small amount with each loading cycle, typically
producing striations on some parts of the fracture surface. The crack will
continue to grow until it reaches a critical size, which occurs when
the stress intensity factor of the crack exceeds the fracture toughness of
the material, producing rapid propagation and typically complete
fracture of the structure.
6. Fatigue and Fracture of Steel
 Fatigue: Fatigue has traditionally been associated with the failure of
metal components which led to the term metal fatigue. In the nineteenth
century, the sudden failing of metal railway axles was thought to be
caused by the metal crystallising because of the brittle appearance of
the fracture surface, but this has since been disproved. Most materials
seem to experience some sort of fatigue-related failure such as
composites, plastics and ceramics.
To aid in predicting the fatigue life of a component, fatigue tests are
carried out using coupons to measure the rate of crack growth by
applying constant amplitude cyclic loading and averaging the measured
growth of a crack over thousands of cycles. However, there are also a
number of special cases that need to be considered where the rate of
crack growth obtained from these tests needs adjustment. Such as: the
reduced rate of growth that occurs for small loads near the threshold or
after the application of an overload; and the increased rate of crack
growth associated with short cracks or after the application of
an underload.
If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin
to initiate at stress concentrations such as holes, persistent slip
bands (PSBs), composite interfaces or grain boundaries in metals. The
nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much
less than the strength of the material, typically quoted as the ultimate
tensile strength, or the yield strength.

Fracture: Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or

more pieces under the action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually
occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity
surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to
the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply
a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of
displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.
Brittle fractures occur with no apparent deformation before
fracture; ductile fractures occur when visible deformation does occur
before separation. Fracture strength or breaking strength is the stress
when a specimen fails or fractures. A detailed understanding of how
fracture occurs in materials may be assisted by the study of fracture
mechanics.
7. Laminations of steel
Laminations are an imperfection in a steel or alloy, resulting from
blisters, seams, foreign material, and/or scratches on an ingot or billet
that are not repaired during the rolling process.
Laminations can be:
 A rolled in lap on the surface of the metal, invisible when the product
ships, but which opens up upon further work machining or rolling
 An imperfection that opens up during bending

8. Riveted welded and bolted connections:

Riveted connection The riveted connections are nowadays obsolete.
The understanding of this type of connections for the strength
evaluation and rehabilitation for an older structure is essential. While
the connection procedure for riveted connections is same as that of the
bolted connections.

Rivet:

A rivet is made up of round ductile steel bar which is called as ‘shank’

and with a head at the one end. It is made up of mild steel or high
tensile steel.

Riveting:

Riveting is the particular method of connecting together pieces of

metal. This process is conducted by inserting the ductile metal pins
called as rivet into the holes of pieces to be joined and formed a head
at the end of the rivet to prevent each metal piece from coming out.

The shank of the rivet is made up of the length to the extent through
the different parts which is to be connected and with sufficient extra
length for a second head to be made at the other end.

The rivets are generally classified as follows:

 Hot driven rivets: The rivets which are driven in the hot conditions
 Shop rivets: The rivets which are placed in workshop
 Field rivets: The rivets which are placed in the site/field.
 Cold driven rivets: Since high pressure is required to form the head at
room temperature this type of rivet is limited.

Bolted Connection:
Most commonly used connections include the bolted connections.  This
connection has the advantage of flexibility in assembling parts of the
structure as well as dissembling it and which is necessary if there is
inspection or some routine maintenance. This type of connections is
applicable for members subjected to tension or shear or both tension
and shear.

A bolt is a metal pin with a head formed at one end and the shank
threaded at the other end so that nut can be received. Generally, the
 bolts are used to connect the pieces of metals by inserting them through
the holes in the metals; at the threaded end, nuts should be tightened.

The advantages of bolted connections are as follows:

 The process of erection of structure can be made faster.

 Skilled labors are not necessary.
 Connections do not involve the noise.
 Requirement of labors is less.
 Immediate use of structure is possible in case of bolted connection.
 The alternative arrangement of structural members is possible if
required.
 Lesser working area is required.

The disadvantages of bolted connections are as follows:

 The material cost is very high.

 Due to the area reduction at the root of the thread and due to
concentration of stress, the tensile strength of this type of connection is
reduced.
 Bolts get loose if it is subjected to vibrations or shocks.

Welded Connection:

ADVANTAGES OF WELDED CONNECTIONS

 The gross sectional area of the welded members is effective since the
welding process does not involve drilling holes.
 Welded structures are comparatively lighter than corresponding riveted
structures.
 A welded joint has a greater strength sometimes equal to the strength of
the parent metal itself.
 Repairs and further new connections can be done more easily than in
riveting.
 Welded joints provide rigidity leads to smaller bending moments than
corresponding riveted members.
 Welded joints are economical to riveted joints due to low maintenance
cost.
 Members of such shapes that afford difficulty for riveting can be more
easily welded.
 A welded structure has a better finish and appearance than the
corresponding riveted structure.
 Connecting angles, gusset plates, splicing plates can be minimized.
 Steel bars in reinforced concrete structure may be welded easily so that
lapping of bars may be avoided.
 It is possible to weld at any point at any part of a structure, but riveting
will always require enough clearance.
 The process of welding does not involve great noise compared to the
noise produced in the riveting process.

DISADVANTAGES OF WELDED CONNECTIONS

 Welding requires skilled labor and supervision.

 Testing a welded joint is difficult. An X-ray examination alone can
enable us to study the quality of the connection.
 Due to uneven heating and cooling, the welded members are likely to
get warped at the welded surface.
 Internal stresses in the welded zones are likely to be set up.

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

 Welds may be classified into two main types namely butt-weld and fillet-
weld.

Butt weld

 This type of weld is used when the members are in same plane. Butt
weld is also termed as groove weld. The butt weld is used to join
structural members carrying direct compression or tension. It is used to
make tee-joint and butt-joint. The following types of butt welds are in
practice. These are named depending upon shape of the grove made
for welding.
 i. Square butt weld.
 A square butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the fusion faces
lie approximately at right angles to the surfaces of the components to be
joined and are substantially parallel to one another (Fig. 7.2 a & b).
  

 ii.Single V-butt weld

 A single V-butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges of
both components are prepared so that in the cross-section, the fusion
faces form a V as shown in Fig. 7.3.


 iii.Double V-butt weld
 A double V-butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges of
both components are double beveled so that in cross-section, the fusion
faces form two opposing V’s as shown in Fig. 7.4.


 iv. Single U-butt weld
 A single U-butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges of
both components are prepared so that in the cross section, the fusion
faces form a U as shown in Fig. 7.5.

 v. Double U-butt weld
 A double U-butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges of
both components are prepared so that in the cross section, the fusion
faces form two opposing U’s as shown in Fig. 7.6.


 vi.Single J-butt weld
 A single J-butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges of
one component are prepared so that in the cross section, the fusion
faces is in the form a J and the fusion face of the other component is at
right angles to the surface of the first component as shown in Fig. 7.7.


 vii.Double J-butt weld
 A double J-butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges of
one component are prepared so that in the cross section, the fusion
faces is in the form of two opposing J’s and the fusion face of the other
component is at right angles to the surface of the first component as
shown in Fig. 7.8.

 viii.Single bevel butt weld
 A single bevel butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edge
of one component is beveled and the fusion face of the other
component is at right angles to the surface of the first component as
shown in Fig. 7.9.


 ix.Double bevel butt weld
 A double bevel butt weld is a weld in the preparation of which the edges
of one component are double beveled and the fusion face of the other
component is at right angles to the surface of the first component as
shown in Fig. 7.10.

9. Fire Damage assessment of steel structure

Assessment of steel damage is one of the key methods in retrofitting
and reconstruction of the steel structures after fire. The traditional
assessment method is to cut the samples from the steel members and
check the levels of damage. This method will damage the structural
members and the process is time consuming. A quick, simple and
efficient nondestructive detection method to measure the strength of
steel after fire is developed using so called Leeb hardness method by
means of establishment the relationship between the residual strength
of steel members after fire and the Leeb hardness, the post-fire steel
strength can be fast determined without damage to the structural
members. Total 120 Chinese H-shaped steel sections were selected for
testing the Leeb hardness after fire. The influence of the parameters
such as the duration of the fire exposure, cooling mode, steel grade,
stress state and location of the Leeb hardness test on the test results
was investigated. The relationship between the steel Leeb hardness
and the parameters were developed. In addition, regression functions
between the residual strength of steel members after fire and the Leeb
hardness was established based on these test results which can
accurate predict the residual strength of the steel members after fire,
providing the engineers a new fast assessment method for the residual
strength of the steel after fire.

Some steel structures can be repaired and reconstructed after the fire
has been extinguished. Post-fire assessment facilitates the decision
making on the possibility of further operation of the facility after fire
accident. In order to determine the residual capacity of structural steel
members, it is necessary to test and assess the structural steel
members before repairing . As part of this process, the strength of the
steel is an important parameter. Being able to know the residual
strength of the steel, it can accurately determine the retrofitting methods
for the whole structure which plays a significance role for the restoration
of the designed bearing capacity and the serviceability of the steel
structure after the fire disaster.

The method for testing the residual strength of steel after fire includes
on-site coupon tensile testing, chemical composition analysis method
and surface hardness method (including Brinell hardness method,
Rockwell hardness method, Victoria hardness method, Leeb hardness
method), etc. The most accurate one is on-site coupon tensile testing.
This method is to cut the coupon from the structural members of the
building and perform tensile testing. However, this method causes
different degrees of damage to the structure, which are not suitable to
post-fire restoration work. The chemical composition analysis method
also needs on-site sampling and the process is tedious.
 At present, there is little research on the non-destructive method for
testing of steel strength after the fire. Some work of provide non-
destructive method for testing the concrete strength after fire. Little work
has been done for steel members.

Leeb Hardness testing is a non-destructive method for testing the

strength of the steel members. This method is easy, flexible and can be
tested directly on the structural members without cutting the coupons. It
is invented by Dietamar Leeb in 1975. The drop hammer is small and it
is easy to maneuver, especially in narrow place where access may
become a problem. The whole test process is fast. The disadvantage of
this method is that the surface needs to be processed first.

10. Quality control aspect of Welded joints

The following are typical requirements for the quality of weld products.

 The product is finished accurately in accordance with the design

dimensions.
 The product offers the required functionality and strength (or safety).
 The appearance of the weld satisfies the required level.
The basic conditions of welding quality to achieve products of such
high quality includes the following:

 No cracks or holes found in the bead.

 The bead has uniform waves, width and height.
 The finished product satisfies the design dimensions and has almost no
distortion.
 The welding meets the required strength.
 Full penetration welds that fuse and join the entire interface between
the base materials or a weld joints including partial penetration welds
should be used appropriately to ensure the necessary rigidity.
 In order to prevent welding defects and improve quality, it is important to
select materials and processes suitable for the application in the
welding design phase. Even if the design is appropriate, however,
defects produced during welding will have a major influence on quality.
For example, defects in a bead greatly affect not only appearance but
also strength. This means that appearance defects such
as pits, undercut, overlap, insufficient reinforcement, surface
cracking, bead meandering, remaining groove and arc strike directly
represent defects in welding quality.
 The following pages describe examples of welding defects that greatly
affect quality, inspection methods indispensable for maintaining
quality, and the latest inspection examples that achieved streamlining
through active adoption of technologies.