PHYSICS IGCSE

GRAND SUMMARY

Constructed By: Mr. Doni

The only way to get a good exam’s

score is studying properly ^_^

Reference: Duncan & Kennett.2009.

IGCSE Physics (2nd Edition). London:
Hodder Education.
CONTENTS

Light & Sight .............................

For all my beloved IGCSE 10
Waves & Sound ...........................
students.
Matter & Measurements .................

Forces & Resources ......................

Motion & Energy ......................... -good luck in the final exam-

Heat & Energy ...........................
^_^
Electricity ................................

Electromagnetic Effects ................

Electroms & Atoms ......................

LIGHT AND SIGHT
*Types of shadows:umbra and penumbra

*Pinhole camera:

*Law of reflection:

When the pinhole is bigger, the image will be brighter but

less focus (blurred).
1. Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection (i = r)

*Speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s.

2. Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the where is this ray side of the object. of the object.
same plane. located?
*one of the reflection’s appication is periscope.

*minimun height of a mirror so a person can see his entire

body is the half of the person’s height.

*diffuse reflection: When the surface is not smooth, the *properties of image in every plane mirror:
reflections seem scattered, but actually the law of reflection  Same distance from the mirror as the object.
still applies.  Same size as the object
 Virtual
 Upright
 Laterally inverted

*position of object and image in a plane mirror:

*differene between real and virtual rays:

Indicator Real Ray Virtual Ray
Is it actual ray? Yes No. It’s obtained
from extension ray
Can it be captured Yes No
by screen?
In terms of lens, At the different At the same side
 air
glass

*cause of refraction:
Refraction occurs when light suffers change of speed, which
*real and apparent depth
happens when it enters another medium with different
Refraction causes apparent depth to be shorter than the real
density.
depth in water.

*rules of refraction:
 In less dense medium, the ray is further from normal.
 In denser medium, the ray is closer to normal.
Refraction also causes pencil to seem bent in a water
 Angles of incidence & refraction is measured from the
normal, not from the surface/boundary.
*refractive index formulas:  When the angle of incidence is smaller than critical
angle, some rays are refracted and some rays are
reflected.
OR  When the angle of incidence is bigger than critical
angle, there is no more refraction, only reflection.
n = refractive index (no unit)
c = speed of light in vacuum or in air
v = speed of light in a medium
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction

*dispersion is a separation of multichromatic ray into several

monochromatic rays through refraction process. It happens
because different frequency of ray suffers different angle
of refraction. The bigger the frequency, the closer to normal
it is refracted.Monochromatic ray is a ray which has only one
frequency.

*total internal reflection is a reflection which happens in a

denser medium than outside’s medium, and it obeys the law of
angles i=r. It can heppen if the incidence angle is bigger than
*total internal reflection critical angle.
 Because of total internal reflection, a
prism can reflect rays, as long as
incidence angle is bigger than critical
angle.

*three special raysto draw the image of converging lens:

*total internal reflection is the basic of light pipe’s uses,
such as endoscope and optical fibres.

*parts of lens diagram *three natures/characteristics of an image:

 Is it same size, magnified, or diminished?
 Is it upright or upside down?
 Is it real or virtual?

*magnifying glass
 *types of wave

Based on the need of medium:

1. Mechanical wave (It needs medium. Ex: sound wave,
water wave)
2. Electromagnetic wave (It does not need medium. Ex:
light wave, radiowave)

Magnifying glass works only when the object is placed Based on the directions of wave and vibration:
between lens and focal point. The natures of the image are: 1. Transverse wave (directions of wave and vibration are
magnified, upright, and virtual. perpendicular one another. Ex: light wave, water wave)
2. Longitudinal wave (directions of wave and vibration are
parallel one another. Ex: sound wave, spring wave)
*nature of image based on object’s position from
converging lens
The nature of image
Position of
Virtual or Upright or
object Size
Real Upside-down
Beyond 2F Smaller Real Upside-down
Exactly on 2F The same Real Upside-down
Between 2F
Bigger Real Upside-down
and F
Exactly on F No image is formed
Between F
Bigger Virtual Upright
and lens

WAVES & SOUND

*Amplitude & Wavelength *frequency of wave

number of wave
frequency=
timetaken

Unit of frequency = hertz (Hz)

Unit of time taken = second (s)

*implication of amplitude and frequency

For sound waves:
 Amplitude is connected to the loudness.
 Frequency is connected to the pitch.
For light waves:
In transverse wave:
 Amplitude is connected to the brightness.
 Wavelength is the length from crest to crest, or from
 Frequency is connected to the colour.
trough to trough. Wave length is the length of 1 wave.
 Amplitude is the length from crest (or trough) to
equilibrium line.
*Wave equation
v=× f

v = speed of wave (m/s)

 = wavelength (m)
f = frequency (Hz)

*variations of wave equation:

In longitudinal wave:
 Wavelength is the length from a centre of compression
to the next center of compression.
 Amplitude is the density of the compression layers.
 For water waves, the one that always constant is
thefrequency.
 For electromagnetic waves in a medium, the one that
always constant is the speed.
*wavefront and ray of water waves *refraction of water wave

*reflection of water wave

Refraction is the change of wave’s direction due to the
change of wave’s speed. It happens when water waves enter
regions with different depth.

Water’s wave In deeper region In shallower

property region
Frequency Constant Constant
Speed Faster Slower
Wavelength Longer Shorter

Refraction only happens when the wave makes an angle to the

boundary. When it is perpendicular, refraction does not
happen (the wave will just go straight).
It happens when water waves strike a hard surface. Similar
with reflection of light, it obeys the law of angles i=r.
*diffraction of water wave *uses of electromagnetic wave’s spectrums

Spectrum Examples of Uses

Radio wave Transmit signal of radio & TV
Microwave Transmit signal of cell phones via satellite
and for microwave oven
Infra-red Transmit signal of TV & AC remote control,
and also for radar detetion
Visible light To see
Ultra-violet To sterilizeand make fluorescent paints
X-ray To take photograph of bones
Gamma ray To sterilize surgial instrument and killing
cancer cells

Infra-red is related to heat. Every object that transmit heat

also transmit infra-red.
Diffraction is the curving of wavefront when the wave enters
a gap. From the diagram above, notice that the curves are
*visible light’s spectrum (mejikuhibiniu or ROYGBIV)
different between narrow gap and wide gap.Remember, the
wavelength is always constantin diffractions.
Red
Orange
*electromagnetic wave’s spectrum
Frequency Yellow Wavelength
increases Green increases
Radio wave
Blue
Microwave
Indigo
Frequency Infra-red Wavelength
Violet
increases Visible light increases
Ultra-violet
*monocromatic light is a light which has only one wavelength
X-ray
or only one frequency. While the opposite, polichromatic
Gamma ray
light, is a light which is a mixture of more than one
wavelngths or more than one frequencies.
They all travel at the speed of light.
 MATTER & MEASUREMENTS
*echo of sound is caused by reflection.

*quantity and unit

Quantity is something that can be measured. Ex: voltage,
resistance, mass, force, speed, length, and time.
Every quantity has its own unit.

*some sub-multiplies:
Mikro () = 1/1,000,000
Mili (m) = 1/1,000
Kilo (k) = 1,000
Mega (M) = 1,000,000

When echo takes place,here is the appropriate formula: *significant figures

 For the result of calculation, Cambridge usually
2d requires for 3 significant figures.
v=
t
 For angle measurement by protractor, Cambridge
usually requires for 2 significant figures.
v = speed of sound (m/s)
d = distance between sound source and reflection surface (m)
*describing measurement
t = time taken (s)
When Cambridge asks about description of measurement,
sucs as measurement of pendulum’s period and paper
*speed of sound is affected by medium’s density and
thickness, do not forget to always:
temperature.
 State the checking of the zero position of the
 When the medium is denser, sound is faster.
measurement tool.
 When the medium is hotter, sound is faster.
 Describe the measurement procedure step by step.
 Describe about the repetition of measurement to get
*limits of audibility
the average value for better accuracy.
Human can only hear sound with the frequency from 2 Hz to
20,000 Hz.
*vernier calliper & micrometer
See the details n your textbook page 48-49.
*density is a quantity ofmass per volume.
Density is unique for each maerial.
m
ρ=
V
 = density (kg/m3 or g/cm3)
m = mass (kg or g)
V = volume (m3 or cm3)

*measuring volume of irregular shape object

That is by using measuring cylinder and water.

*weight is a kind of force.

w=m × g
w = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration = 10 m/s 2.

*mass is always constant whatever the condition of the

environment, but weight depends on the gravity. Weight is a
force, but weight is not a force.
*Hooke’s Law When the limit of proportion is exceeded, the extention of
the spring is more then when the limit is not exceeded.

*graph of Hooke’s Law

This law states that the extention of a spring is proportional

to the stretching force acting on it. If we double the
stretching force, then the extention will be doubled.

When Hooke’s Law is applicable, the formula of the spring is:

F = k.x
F = stretching force (N)
x = extention of the spring (m or cm) When the graph line is straight (the gradient is constant),
k = force constant of the spring (N/m or N/cm) Hooke’s Law is still obeyed. When the elastic limit is reached,
the graph line start to bend upwards (the gradient is no
But when we apply to much streching force, at a certain point longer constant).
the spring will be broken and will not be proportional anymore
(will not obey Hooke’s Law). This point is called limit of
proportion (or elastic limit).
FORCES & RESOURCES *center of mass of a body is a point where the weight of the
body acts.
*Moment of forceis a measure of the turning effect of a
force, *plumb line is a thread with a load at its end.
The other name for moment of force is torque. Plumb line is used to determine the center of mass of a
regular shapped object.
*formula of moment of force:

Moment of force = Force x Distance between

the force and the
pivot

Moment of force has two possibilities of direction: clockwise

and anti-clockwise.

Pivot is also called fulcrum.

*conditions for equilibrium

1. There is no resultant force
2. There is no resultant moment of force

*Levers
The center of mass is the point where all the line intersect.
*resultant force
If the forces are parallel each other, the resultant force is
then easily found by adding or substracting.
If the forces are not parallel each other, the resultant force
is found by parallelogram method.
In parallelogram method, the value of resultant force is
obtained by measuring its length. When the angle between
the two original forces is perpendicular (90o), the value of
the resultant force can be obtained by using phytagoras
formula.
*vectors and scalars
Vector is a quantity which has both size and direction.
Ex: velocity, acceleration, force, and weight.
Scalar is a quantity which has only size. Ex: speed, mass,
length, frequency.
*forms of energy
1. Chemical energy. Ex: energy in food, battery, fuel.
2. Potential energy. This type can be:
 Gravitational potential energy (g.p.e.) energy due
to height.
 Strain energy (elastic potential energy). Ex: energy
when a spring is pressed, or when a bow is pulled.
3. Kinetic energy  due to object’s movement.
4. Electrical energy due to electron’s movement.
5. Heat energy also called thermal or internal energy.
6. Other forms such as light, sound, nuclear energy.
*formula of gravitational potential energy (g.p.e)
g.p.e. = m g h
m = mass (kg)
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
h = height (m)
*formula of kinetic energy (k.e.)
k.e. = ½ m v2
m = mass (kg)
v = speed (m/s)
*formula of work *renewable energy is energy which is supplied continously
(cannot be exhausted). Ex: wind, tidal, hydroelectric,
W = F x d
geothermal, solar, biomass.
W = work (J)
Do not say that renewable energy is the energy that can be
F = force (N)
renewed or can be made.
d = distance (m)

*some power stations involve boiling water to produce

*work is equal to energy, because the energy is transfered
electricity. Ex: power stations that use fossil fuel,
to do the work.
geothermal, nuclear power.

*formula of power
E W *some other power stations do notinvolve boiling water to
P= = produce electricity. Ex: power stations that use wind, tidal,
t t
P = power (W or J/s) htdroelectric, solar energy.
E = energy (J)
W = work (J) *formula of pressure
t = time taken (s) F
p=
A
p = pressure (Pa)
*Energy is conserved, meaning energy cannot be created or
F = force (N)
destroyed. Energy can only be changed from a type to
A = area (m2)
another.

*in liquid, the pressure is not affected by the area (A), so

the formula of pressure becomes:
*efficiency of energy transfer
p= ρ g h
useful energy transfered
efficiency = ×100 %
total energy supplied
 = density of the liquid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration = 10 m/s 2
h = height or depth (m)
*non-renewable energy is energy which is once used up, it
cannot be replaced. Ex: fossil fuel, nuclear power.

*hydraulic machines
 The principle of U-tube manometer is:two horizontal
points in the liquid have the same pressure. So:

Pressure in point 3 = pressure in point 2

Pressure of gas in bulb = pressure of liquid as high as h +
atmospheric pressure

When a liquid is trapped inside a closed container, applied

*mercury barometer
that the pressure of the liquid is the same at any point.

p1 = p2
F1 = F2
A1 A2
F1 = A1
F2 A2

From the equation above, it is shown that in hydraulic

machines, the ratio offorce is proportional to the ratio of
area. Meaning, if we use bigger area, we will get bigger force
It is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. Based on the
since the pressure is constant.
principle of pressure equality, so the atmospheric pressure
can be expressed as the height of mercury in the tube.
*U-tube manometer
MOTION & ENERGY
*interpreting the ticker tape

*speed, velocity, and acceleration formulas

distance moved
average speed =
timetaken

displacement
velocity=
timetaken

change of velocity
acceleration=
time taken for change

*tickertape timer

*velocity-time graph

*the area under velocity-time graph represents thedistance

travelled by the moving object.

*the slope or gradient of velocity-time graph represents the

acceleration of the moving body.
*distance-time graph
*the slope or gradient of distance-time graph represents
the speed of the moving body.
*falling bodies
In vacuum, all objects (whatever the masses are) fall with the
same rate. In air, they do not, because lighter objects suffer
bigger air resistance.
*all bodies falling freely under the force of gravity get a
uniform acceleration which is g = 10 ms2.
*Newton’s Laws
Newton first law: a body always stays at rest, or always
moves at constant velocity, unless an external force makes it
behave differently.
Newton second law: if a body gets external force, it will
have acceleration which satisfies the following equation:
F = m x a
F = resultant (total) force (N)
m = mass of the body (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
*the direction of the acceleration is always the same with
the direction of the force.
*since acceleration is a vector, so if a body suffers an
acceleration, it could be two possibilities:
1. The speed of the body keeps on changing
2. The speed of the body is constant, but the direction
keeps on changing.
*conservation of energy
When a body in a high position falls, the gravitational
potential energy (g.p.e.)is converted into kinetic energy (k.e.).
But in reality, not all the g.p.e. is converted to k.e. since it
some energies lost as heat and sound due to the air
resistance.

*energy conservation in swinging pendulum
*driving and car safety
When a car suffers an accident, the air bag gradually absorbs
the kinetic energy of the driver (the time of contact
becomes longer) so he/she will not be injured.
*centripetal force
Centripetal force is a force needed to make an object move in
a circular path. So, the centripetal force changes the
direction of the object’s motion continously.
The direction of centripetal force is always towards the
center of the circular path.
When the centripetal force is suddenly eliminated, the
object starts moving in a straight line.
Source of centripetal force can be many types of force, Ex:
1. In the picture above, the centripetal force comes from
the strain force of the man’s arms.
2. When a car moves on a road in a circular path, the
centripetal force comes from the friction force
between the tyres and the road.
3. When a roller coaster is rotating the loop, the
centripetal force comes from the normal force
between the roller coaster’s wheels and the railway.
4. When a satellite orbits the earth, the centripetal
force comes from the gravitational force.

*air resistance: terminal velocity
When an object falls in air:
1. Its weight force causes it to accelerate, so the speed
increases continously.
2. As its speed increases, air resistance also
increasesin opposite direction of the object’s motion.
3. So the resultant (net) force decreases continously
until the air resistance force equals the weight force.
4. When those two forces are already equal, there is no
net force anymore acting on the object.
5. The object then starts to fall in constant speed (no
more accelerated)
6. This final constant speed is called terminal velocity.
flashback: acceleration only happens if there is net force.
HEAT & ENERGY
*every atom/molecule/particle is in continous
motion/vibration. The speed of this motion/vibration depends
on its temperature.
*Brownian motion
The motion of particle is at random
direction. This random motion is called
Brownian motion.
If we observe smoke particles under a
microscope, we see that the bright/dark
specs move randomly. It happens due to
the smoke particles are being hit by the fast-moving air
molecules.
The particles of smoke or air are very small so we cannot see
it directly. Their movement is represented by the movement
of dark/bright specs, which due to the microscope’slighting.
*difference among solids, liquids, and gases molecules.
 Solid’s molecules are close together and vibrates about a
fixed position. It is due to big intermolecular force that
holds the molecules together.
 Liquid’s molecules are slightly farther apart than solid’s
and slipping past each other in all directions. The
intermocular force is then slightly weaker than solids.
 Gases molecules are much further apart than solid’s and
liquid’s. They move in a very high speed in all space
available.The intermocular force is then almost zero.
*liquid-in-glass thermometer *clinical thermometer

This type of thermometer works based on a principle that the

liquid in the bulb expands up a capillary tube when the bulb is
heated.

*Conditions for liquid-in-glass thermometer:

1. The liquid must be easily seen (not transparent). If the
liquid is naturally transparent, then must be coloured.
2. The liquid must expand (or contract) rapidly and by
large amount over wide range of temperature.
3. The liquid must expand proportionally due to
temperature change.
4. The liquid must not stick to the tube.
1. The scale is only ranged from about 35 - 42 oC.
2. It is very sensitive since it has very narrow caplillary
tube.
3. It has a constriction in its capillary tube to prevent
the liquid directly goes back to bulb, so the doctor
gets enough time to make the reading accurately.

*mercury and alcohol *the meaning of sesitivity

 Mercury freezes at -39 oC and boild at 357 oC. When we say a measurement tool is sensitive, it does not
 Alcohol freezes at -115 oC and boils at 78 oC. mean that the tool can react quickly. Sensitive means that a
So mercury is suitable for high temperature reading while small change of the measured object causes big change of
alcohol is suitable for the low one. the tool’s reading scale. Ex: the narrower the capillary tube
of a thermomeer, the more sensitive it is.
*scale of temperature
Celcius scale:
lower fixed point (0 oC) = melting temperature of pure
water’s ice
upper fixed point (100 oC) = pure water’s steam
temperature above boiling water.
 one expands is not the molecules, but the object.The
*thermocouple molecules only vibrate faster.
*when you explain about the use of expansion to release an
object that stuck from another object, please always refer
to the expansion of both of them.i.e., the object can be
released because the expansion of the objects happen at
different rate.

*bimetallic strip

 The wire must be from different materials.

 There must be two junction, i.e. hot and cold (sensing &
reference)
 The meter must be mili-ammeter or mili-voltmeter or
digital multimeter, since the reading is very small.

The strip can be bent because the metals have different rate
*advantage of using thermocouple:
of expansion.
1. Can measure wide range temperature
2. Rapid reaction
*linear expansivity
3. Can be operated from far place.
Expansion is affected by 3 factors:
1. Initial length of the object
*expansion
2. Temperature rise
3. Linear expansivity (depends on the material of the
object)
All of thosethree are directly proportional to the expansion.

*pressure of gas
Expansion happens due to increase of temperature. When the
Gas can cause pressure inside a container because:
temperature increase, the molecules gain more energy so
 Molecules of gas are freely moving (high kinetic energy)
they vibrate faster and need more space. Notice that the
 The molecules collide with the container’s inner wall.
 The collision creates force to the wall.
 The pressure is the total force divided by wall’s area. *when a substance is experiencing a changing temperature,
*When the volume of the container is decreasing (getting the following equation is obeyed:
smaller), the pressure increases because the collision
happens more oftenso moreforce is exerted. Please notice
Q = m c ∆
that in this case, the speed of the molecules’ movementstays
the same. The speed will be incresing only if the temperature
Q = heat received or given out (J)
becomes higher.
m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (J/(kg oC))
*absolute zero temperature
∆ = change of temperature (oC)
Temperature exist because molecules do vibration. The
faster the vibration, the higher the temperature. If the
*the gas laws
molecules are not vibrating at all, then the temperature is
the lowest ever.. It happens at -273 oC or 0 K. V
=constant
T
So the conversion of the temperature’s scale is:
pV
kelvin = celcius + 273 p
=constant T
=constant
T
*specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat
needed to change 1 oC temperature of 1 kg mass. p V =constant

*if a substance has a high specific heat capacity, meaning the V = volume (m3 or cm3)
substance needs longer time to be hot, but once it gets hot, T = temperature (oC)
it also needs longer time to be cold again. P = pressure (Pa)

*the substance which has the highest specific heat capacity The meaning of constant: the value in a condition always the
in the universe is WATER. same with the other condition. Example, pV = constant, so
value of pV in condition 1 is the same with in condition 2. In
terms of equation we get:

p1V1 = p2V2

When two substances with different temperature are mixed,
they share heat energy until they reach the same final
temperature. In this case, the heat given by the hotter
substance will be the heat received by the colder substance,
so the equation is:
Qgiven = Qreceived
m1 c1 ∆1 = m2 c2 ∆2
1 = code for the hotter substance
2 = code for the colder substance
*thermal capacityis the amount of heat needed to change 1
o
C temperature of the whole body.
C = m c
C = heat capacity (J/oC)
m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity (J/(kg oC))
Notice that thermal capacity is similar to specific heat
capacity. The only difference is, specific heat capacity
considers the mass, but in thermal capacity, it is about whole
body.
So specific heat capacity deals with substance, while heat
capacity deals with body (object as a whole).
*if a body has a high heat capacity, meaning the body needs
longer time to be hot, but once it gets hot, it also needs
longer time to be cold again.
*specific latent heatis the amount of heat needed to change
the state of 1 kg substance without temperature change.
Since there are two important states’ changing, i.e. melting
and boiling, so there are 2 types of specific latent heat:
1. specific latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat
needed to change 1 kg solid into liquid without
temperature change.
2. specific latent heat of vaporization is the amount of
heat needed to change 1 kg liquid into gas without
temperature change.
*when a substance is experiencing a state changing without
temperature change, the following formulas are obeyed.
Q = m lf
Q = m lv
Q = heat (J)
m = mass (kg)
lf = specific latent heat of fusion (J/kg)
lv =specific latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)
*when a substance experiences a changing state (melting or
boiling), there is no temperature change eventhough heat is
continously supplied to it. This is because the heat energy is
not used to make the molecules vibate faster, but to break
the intermolecular forcethat holds the molecules.
*the greater the temperature difference, the greater the *when evaporation takes place, the average temperature of
rate of heat trasfer. the liquid drops (decreases), because the most energetic
molecules have escaped to the air.
*boiling is different with evaporation *Heat can be transfered by 3 processes: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Category Boiling Evaporation
Where does it In the whole Only on the surface of Conduction Convection Radiation
occur? liquid the liquid The matter as a The matter as a It is a wave
At what whole doesn’t move whole moves ofelectromagnetic
temperature does 100 oC Any temperature Happens in liquid Happens in all
Happens in solid
it occur? and gas matters.
Is it affected by Yes. The wider the area, Cannot occur in Cannot occur in
No. Occur in vacuum
surface area? the faster it occurs. vacuum vacuum
Yes. The harder wind Heat flowing does
Is it affected by
No. blows, the faster it Heat flows from Heat flows from not affected by
wind?
occurs. hot to cool place hot to cool place temperature
difference

*some facts about conduction, convection, and radiation

Every boiling process contains evaporation, but not every
evaporation process contains boiling.
1. Conduction occurs because atoms move faster when they
receive energy. they then hit the neighbour atoms.
2. Convection occurs because liquid/gas expand when they
become hotter. Their density than decreases, so they
move up.
3. Radiation is reflected by bright-shiny surface and
absorbed/emitted by black-dull surface.
4. Metals are better conductor of heat than non-metals,
because metals have free electrons which bump the atoms.
5. Because of air convection, wind blows from sea to land at
day and blows from land to sea at night. It happens since
 land has a smaller specific heat capacity than sea water so Electrostatic induction happens because the charges are
land is easy to be hot and easy also to be cool. separated, but the object is still neutral as a whole.

Please notice that in electrostatic induction, the one that

actually moves is electron, NOT the charge.

ELECTRICITY
*because of electrostatic induction, a charge object can
attract neutral objects.

*When an atom has more electrons than it should have, the

atom will be negatvely charged.

*When an atom has less electrons than it should have, the

atom will be poisitively charged

*like charges repel, while unlike charge attract.

*force between electric charge decreases as their

separation increases.
*Electric field is a region where an electric charge
experiences a force.
*testing a charge can only be done with a repulsion, NOT
attraction.
*how to draw an electric fields
*electrostatic induction
Electric fields always go out from positive charge and go in
to negative charge.
When it is about charged plates, the field lines are parallel
each other.
 Since current is the flowing of charges within a certain time,
so:
Q = I x t
Q = charge (C)
I = current (A)
t = time (s)

*series and parallel circuit

Difference Series circuit Parallel circuit
How is current The current is the The current is
in it? same in all points. shared to all
branches. The
branch which has
smaller resistance
gets bigger
current.
How is voltage The voltage from The voltage across
in it? the cell is shared the ends of each
to all components. branch is all the
Component with same.
*electric current is a flowing of electrons (or a flowing of
smaller resistance
electric charges).
gets smaller
voltage.
*the direction of current
If a component All the other All the other
 In an electrical circuit, current flows from positive to
in it brakes, components will be components still
negative poles of the power supply.
what happen to off. work (on).
 In an electrical circuit, electrons flow from negative
the others?
to positive poles of the power supply.
Can a fuse Yes. No.
works in it?
*formula of current and charges
*current will go through a wire which has no resistance if
there is such a wire in a parallel circuit.
*direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.)
In d.c., current flows in one direction only.
In a.c., current flows to and fro at a certain frequency.
Ideally, cell’s voltage is equal to its e.m.f. but since every cell
has resistance inside it, so the actual voltage is always
smaller than the e.m.f. It is due to the lost of some energies
that are consumed by the cell’s resistance.
e.m.f. = lost cell’s voltage + actual voltage

*ammeter and voltmeter

*voltage between two points is the energy needed to make1C Current is measured by a device called ammeter, while voltage
chargegoes across those points. is measured by a device called voltmeter.

E
V=
Q

V = voltage or potential difference (V)

E = energy (J)
Q = charge (C)

Don’t be confuse: voltage is also called potential difference

(p.d.)
 Ammeter is always set inseries with the resistance whose
the current is going to be measured.
*electromotive force (e.m.f.)of a cellis the energy needed
 Voltmeter is always set in parallel with the resistance
to make 1 C charge goes around the circuit and come back
whose the voltage is going to be measured.
again to the cell.

*arrangement of cells
Like voltage, e.m.f. has a unit of volt (V) as well. Notice that
 If identical cells are all arranged in series, the total
voltage is similar to e.m.f. The difference is, voltage refers
voltage is the sum of all the cells.
generally for all points, while e.m.f. only refers to points
 If identical cells are all arranged in parallel, the total
across a cell or battery. So, every e.m.f. is also a voltage,
voltage is the same as only one cell, but the power lasts
but not every voltage is an e.m.f.
longer.

*why is cell’s voltage always smaller than its e.m.f.?

* Ohm’s Lawformula *calculating effective (total) resistance in SERIES

V = I x R R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

V = voltage (V) R = effective (total) resistance ()

I = current (A) R1, R2, R3 = individual resistance ()
R = resistance ()
*in fixed resistor (often called resistor only), the resistance *calculating effective (total) resistance in PARALLEL
valueis always constant, so the I-V graph will be seen as:
1 1 1 1
= + + +.. .
R R1 R1 R3

R = effective (total) resistance ()

R1, R2, R3 = individual resistance ()

If there are only 2 resistors in the parallel cirrcuit, we can

Fixed resistor is made from metallic conductor.
In non-fixed resistor, like alamp’s filament, the resistance
increases as the filament gets hotter, so the current
decreases. So the I-V graph will be seen as:
use faster formula to calculate the effective resistance:
R1 × R2
R=
R 1+ R 2
If the two resistors are identical, so the effective
resistance is the half of a single resistance. Ex: there are
two identical resistors with 5  resistance each. So the
effective resistance is 2.5 .

*resistivity
Resistance of a wire depends on 3 factors, which can be
stated mathematically as:
Since the gradient is not constant, meaning the resistance is
not constant as well. ρl
R=
A
 >>The plates’ area is wider
R = resistance of a wire () >>The plates are closer
 = resistivity, which depends on the material (m)
l = length of the wire (m)
A = cross sectional area of the wire (m2)

*potential divider *capacitor stores energy, or

we can also says it stores
charge.

Capacitor is usually used in a

time-delay circuit.

Potential divider is actually an application of voltage concept *charging and discharging a capacitor
in series arrangement. The concept says that in series, the
voltage is shared (the greater the resistanc, the greater the
voltage shared). So, the ratio of resistances is proportional
to the ratio of voltages:

V A RA
=
V B RB

*construction of a
To charge a capacitor  connect it to cell.
capacitor
To dis-charge a capacitor  connect the plates with wire
Capacitance is the
without any connection to cell.
measurement of how
much a capacitor can
store charges. The
capacitance is bigger
when:
 to connect the live wire back to power plant station.Due to
safety, some cables also contain ground wire to throw leaking
current to the ground.

*effect of capacitors in d.c. and a.c. circuit
 since capacitor’s plates are separated by dielectric
(insulator), so capacitor blocks d.c.
 since the current flows to and fro in a.c., so capacitor
passes a.c.
*power in elecric circuit
P = I V
*electrocution
Electric shock happens when we touch live wire and our body
is connected to earth. The current then flows though our
body to the earth.
*paying for electricity
Our electricity paying is based on the amount of electrical
energy that we consumed. Notice that the energy is
measured in kWh (kilo-watt hour), not in joule.
E = P x t
E = electrical energy we used (kWh)
P = power of the appliances (kW)
t = time of consumption (hour)

Since V = I R, so the formula can also be stated as:

*relay
P = I2 R use it in terms of energy loss due to heat
P = V2/R use it in terms of voltage drop due to
energy loss
P = power (W)
I = current (A)
V = voltage (V)
R = Resistance ()

*a.c. cable system

a.c. cable system consist mainly 2 wires, i.e. live wire and
neutral wire. Live wire contains current, while neutral wire is
 >> when thermistor or LDR are placed below the transistor,
the circuit is to give warning for low temperature or low light
intensity. (just like the diagram above).

A relay contains electromagnet which generates magnetic

>> when thermistor or LDR are placed above the transistor,
field to pull a switch when the current in it increases. Relay is
the circuit is to give warning for high temperature or high
useful to let a small current circuit to control another big
light intensity.
current circuit.
*transistor

Transistor works based on principle that the current from

collector (C) can pass to emitter (E) only when there is
current passes from base (B).

The circuit of transistor often contains thermistor and LDR

as the input sensor.
 Thermistor changes its resistance due to temperature.
Its resistance increases when temperature decreases
 LDR changes its resistance due to light intensity. Its
resistance increases when light intensity decreases.
 *difference between analogue and digital electronics
in analogue circuits, voltage or current can have any value
within a certain range, Ex: variable resistor (rheostat.While
in digital circuits, voltage or current have only 2 possible
values, i.e. high/on/1 or low/off/0, Ex: switch.

*logic gate is a digital gate which gives a certain output

(either 1 or 0) based on the inputs.

*truth table is a table of a logic gate which shows all possible

output values based on the input values.

*types of logic gate, its symbol, and its truth table

*other electrical components’functions

Name Function
Variabel Resistor To change resistance or to change
(Rheostat) current of the circuit.
Fuse To break the circuit when the
current exceeds the maximum.
Diode To let current flows in one direction
only (converts a.c. to d.c.) *digital system also sometimes use thermistor and LDR as
LED (light It is a diode but can emit light. the sensors. The input value depends on the conditions:
emitting diode)  For LDRbright = 1 ; dark = 0.
 For thermistorhot = 1 ; cold = 0.
ELECTROMAGNET EFFECTS

*ferromagnetic materials (magnetic materials) are

thosewhich can be attracted to a magnet. Ex: iron, steel,
nickel, cobalt.

*Iron is a soft magnetic material, meaning it can be easily

magnetized but also be easily demagnetized. Magnets made
from iron are temporary.
Steel is a hard magnetic material, meaning it can hardly be
magnetized but also hardly be demagnetized. Magnets made
from steel are permanent.

*law of magnetic poles

Like poles repel, while unlike poles attract.

*the only way to test a type of pole is to perform repel force,

since attract force could be two posibilities: it’s unlike pole or
neutral ferromagnetic.

*two ways to demonstrate magnetic fields pattern:

1. Using compass plotting
2. Using iron fillings
*facts about magnetic fields *to determine the direction of magnetic fields around a
wire, use your “OK” right hand as shown below. Your thumb
indicates the direction of current, while your four fingers
indicate the direction of magnetic field circle diretion.

 Magnetic field is an area surrounding a magnet where

it produces magnetic force.
 The further from the magnet, the weaker the
magnetic force. When a compass is place around that wire, the needle will
 The further from the magnet, the looser the magnetic just follow the direction of the field lines.
field lines.
 Magnetic field lines always go out from North pole and This “OK” right hand rule also can be used to determine the
go in to South pole. direction of magnetic fields around a circular wire.
 Magnet’s poles are the region where the magnetic
force is the greatest.

*When a compass is placed around a wire containing current,

the compass needle will rotate. It shows that current
produces magnetic field.
*to determine direction of magnetic fieldsaround a *an electromagnet is made of:
solenoid, we still use “OK” right hand rule, but it is reversed. 1. Soft iron core
This time, the four fingers indicates the direction of the 2. Coil which winding the iron core
current, while the thumb indicates the direction of the North 3. Current flows in the coil
pole of the solenoid (since the solenoid behaves like a magnet
when it contains current).

*an electromagnet has to be quickly magnetized and easily

demagnetized, so iron is used as the core instead of steel
since iron is soft while steel is hard magnetic materials.

*an electromagnet can be stronger if:

1. The current in the coil increases
2. The number of turns on the coil increases
*solenoid can be used to magnetize and demagnetize. 3. The poles of the magnet are closer together (only for
 To magnetize a ferromagnetic material, place it inside the an electromagnet which uses horseshoe magnet).
solenoid and gradually (slowly) increase the d.c.currect.
 To demagnetize a magnet, place it inside the solenoid and *electric motor effect
turn on the a.c. current and reduce it gradually. When there are
magnetic fields around
a wire containing
current, there will be a
force that push the
wire to a certain
direction.
*how to determine directions in electric motor effect?
Use your “SLAP” right hand as shown in the picture below.
This “SLAP” right hand rule sometimes subtituted by
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule:
These two hand rules are the same. Just memorize the 3
indications in this Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. But in application,
I recommend to use the “SLAP” one because it is easier.
*simple d.c. electric motor
d.c. electric motor contains: magnet,
coil, brushes (fixed), and commutator
(rotates with coil). The function the
commutator is to reverse the
direction of current which flows in
the coil.
d.c. electric motor also uses “SLAP” right hand rule to
determine whether the coil moves clockwise or anti-clockwise
to make the d.c. motor rotates faster, we can use stronger
battery (increase the current), use stronger magnet, add
turns to the coil, or put the magnet’s poles closer together.

*galvanometer
Galvanometer is an electric motor that is used to detects
small currents or small voltages.

A galvanometer can be set as anammeterif it is arranged in

*multimeter is a device which is be able to measure voltage,
parallel with shunt. If it is arranged in series with
current, and resistance.
multiplier, it becomes voltmeter.

*electromagnetic induction isthe way to get voltage/current

The sensitivity of a galvanometer is increased by having:
by making a conductor (wire)cutsmagnetic fields.

 More turns on the coil

 A stronger magnet
 Weaker hair spring
 Use beam of light as a pointer

*shunts and multiplier

Shunt is a resistor which has a known lowresistance.
Multiplier is a resistor which has a known highresistance.
The induced voltage/current can be increased by:
1. Moving the wire/magnetfaster.
2. Using stronger magnet.
3. Adding turns on the coil *kudekati Jeni
When a magnet and a solenoid are moving relatively each
In summary, we say that: other, we can determine the pole of the solenoid by using
The size of induced voltage/current is directly “kudekati Jeni”:
proportional to the rate at which the conductor (wire)
cuts magnetic field linesthis is called Faraday’s Law. KUtub yang menDEKATI adalah seJENIs,

Notice that the magnetic fields and the wire must cut each andthe opposite applies:
other (be perpendicular) to result an induced
voltage/current. If they are parallel each other, there will be Kutub yang menjauhi adalah tak sejenis
no induced voltage/current.
When we already know the poles of the solenoid, we can
also:
1. Draw the magnetic field lines of the soilenoid (go out
from N and go in to S).
2. Determine the direction of the current in the solenoid
(by using “OK” right hand rule).

*simple a.c. generator (alternator)

Following diagrams show a simple a.c. generator and its output

*simple d.c. generator (dynamo)

Following diagrams show a simple d.c. generator and its output
 Generator>> converts movement into electricity

*work of transformer

process description:
1. There is current in the primary coil.
2. This current generates magnetic fields around the
primary coil.
3. This magnetic fields are trapped inside the iron core
and cut the secondary coil.
4. This cutting process generates current in secondary
coil.
5. Since it is a.c. in theprimary coil , so the direction of
magnetic fields keep on changing, creating continous
a.c. current in the secondary coil.

Note: When there is current, there must be also voltage

which causes the current.

*the difference between electric motor and generator: *transformer only works in a.c. because the secondary coil
Electric motor >> converts electricity into movement needs to be cut continously. If using d.c., the cutting process
only happens once (cannot be continously) since d.c. only has Ip Vs
=
one direction so the magnetic fields has one direction as well. Is V p

*primary coil is not always located on the transformer’s And

left side. Primary coil is the coil where input voltage/current
is given. I p Ns
=
Is N p
*transformer equation
Ip = primary current (A)
Is = secondary current (A)

*types of transformer
1. Step-up transformer >> to increase voltage (by having
more turns in secondary than in primary).
2. Step-down transformer >> to decrease voltage (by
having less turns in secondary than in primary).

Notice that transformer can only change voltage or current.

It cannot change the power of the input:
Ratio of voltage is directly proportional to the ratio of turns:

V p Np Power in primary coil = Power in secondary coil

=
V s Ns
Since P = I x V, so when transformer increases the voltage,
its current is decreased. When transformer decreases the
Vp = primary voltage (V)
voltage, its current is increased.
Vs = secondary voltage (V)
Np = number of primary turns
Ns = number secondary turns

Ratio of current is inversly proportional to the ratio of turns

or to the ratio of voltage:
in a long transmission process from power station to
consumers as shown above, when the current is higher, the
transmission wire becomes hotter so lots of energy lost as
heat. To prevent energy loss, we usestep-uptransformer to
increase voltage (so current is decreased) then the wire
becomes quite cool.When it comes to consumer, we use step-
down transformer to decrease the voltage again (so current
is increased again).
ELECTRONS
*thermionic emission

*deflection of electron beam in MAGNETIC field

By using “SLAP” right hand rule, we can determine this kind
of deflection, but the direction of the thumb must be
reversed (since the direction of electron’s flow is opposite
Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from a
from the direction of current).
very hot metal surface. When the metal is not hot enough,
the electrons do not have sufficient energy to escape/jump.

*cathode rays are beams of electrons moving at high speed

in straight lines.

*iffluorescent screen (made of phosphor) is hit by electrons,

the spot that is being hit will emit visible light.

*deflection of electron beam in ELECTRIC field

Since electrons are negatively charged, so they are deflected
towards positive plate in a curve path.

Notice that when the electron is already beyond the plates,

it moves in a straight line again (no more bent)
*cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) *Every external input to the CRO must be connected to the
Y-plates (Y-amp gain), not to the X-plates (time base).

*screen’s appearance based on Y-Plate’s deflection

CRO component’s function:

Heater : to heat the cathode.
Cathode : to emit electrons (thermionic emission).
Anode : to accelerate electrons so they can travel in a
straight line towards the screen.
Y-Plates : to deflect electrons vertically.
*screen’s appearance of the figure above (Fig 47.7) when
Y-Plates : to deflect electrons horizontally.
the time base (X-plates) is on.
Screen : to emit visible light when electrons hit it.

The grid controls the brightness by controlling the number of

electrons. The more electrons pass, the brighter the
appearance on the screen.

Y-Plates indicate the voltage (amplitude) of the input signal.

X-Plates indicate the time (period) of the input signal.

Y-Plate control is often called Y-amp gain.

X-Plate control is often called time base.
*using CRO to measure voltage and frequency

Voltage of the input is indicated by the amplitude of the

screen’s wave.(Ex: Y-amp gain control is at 2 V/div, so every
vertival box indicates 2 V, and the voltage of the above
diagram is 3 V).

Frequency of the input is indicated by the number of screen’s

wave per time. (Ex: time base control is at 1 s/div, so every
horizontal box indicates 1 seconds, and the frequency of the
above diagram is 0.2 Hz).

*What is radioactivity actually?

In this universe, there are so many atoms. Some of these
atoms are not stable, meaning they tend to change to another
type of atom. For example, an unstable Argon atom changes
to Potassium atom. In this process of changing, the atom
emits radiation. That’s why the topic called radioactivity,
meaning the activity of radiation.
 Can it be Yes. By right Yes. By right No.
*What are the types of radiation? deflected by hand rule, the hand rule, the
magnetic field? direction of opposite
There are 3 main types of radiation that the unstable atom thumb is the direction of
emits: alpha ray, beta ray, and gamma ray. Each ray has their direction of thumb is the
alpha ray (since direction of
own characteristic. Table below shows the comparison among
it is positively alpha ray (since
these 3 radiations. charged). it is negatively
charged).
Can it be Yes. It is bent to Yes. It is bent No.
deflected by negative plate to positive
Difference Type of Radiation electric field? (since it is plate (since it
Category Alpha ray Beta ray Gamma ray positively is negatively
Symbol    charged). charged).
What is it A beam of alpha A beam of beta A beam of
actually? ray actually ray actually gamma ray
*In a magnetic field, beta ray is bent more than alpha ray,
consists of 2 consists of a actually is an
protons and 2 single electron. electromagnetic because beta ray is lighter than alpha ray. But in an electric
neutrons. wave. field, beta ray is bent less than alpha ray, because beta ray
Is it a Yes, because Yes, because No, because
has less charge than alpha ray.
particle? proton and electron is a electromagnetic
neutron are particle. wave is not a
particles. particle.
What charge it ++ (double - (negativ Neutral
has? positive) e) *Can radiation cause ionization?
Ionization Very high Medium Very low The radiation contains energy, so it ionizes molecules in which
effect
it passes. When the molecules are ionized by the radiation,
Penetrating Very weak Medium Very strong
effect the electron jumps out rom the molecules’ atom, as shown in
Range in air Very short, Medium Very long , the following diagram.
because it is because it is
very ionizing very weak in
ionization
What is the Sheet of paper Few milimeter Many centimeter
minimum of alumunium of lead
material to
stop it?
*How to detect or measure radiation?
The tool used for detecting radiation is called Geiger-Muller
(GM) tube. The ionizing effect is used to detect radiation.
Here is the work principle of GM tube.
*What is meant by half-life?
Half-life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for the
sample to decay into the half of it. It can be in terms of
composition percentage or count rate. Here is the example of
atom A that decays into atom B:

1. If a sample of 100% atom A needs 5 hours to become

50%, so meaning its half-life is 5 hours.
2. If a sample of atom A initially has an activity of 20
counts/min, and 5 hours later the activity becomes 10
counts/min, so meaning its half-life is 5 hours.

Radioactivity happens randomly in each time. So when we

measure it by GM tube, the rate is not constant, but slightly
different time after time.

Here is the graph of decay process:

When GM tube is placed near a radiation source, the argon

gas is being ionized (the electron jumps out from the argon’s
atom). this electron then attracted to the anode and flows to
the circuit, so there is current in the circuit. The current
powers the scaler to produce “click” sound. The more
powerful the radiation source is, the more click sound it
produces since more electrons jump out. The rate of click
sound is usually called count rate, with the unit of count per
minute. This unit then is used for expressing radiation
strength.
*How to use half-life for calculation?

*What is the use of radioactivity?

1. To measure the thickness of something.
2. To trace something.
3. To give radiotherapy (using gamma ray)
4. To sterilize (using gamma ray)
5. To estimate the age of archeological object (using
half-life)

*What is meant by background radiation?

Radiation actually does not come only from radioactive
sample. Everytime and everywhere we are exposed to
radiation. This type of radiation is called background
radiation. It comes naturally from decaying atoms in air, food,
medicine, nuclear reactor, and cosmic rays. That’s why even
when there is no radioactive sample nearby, GM tube still
shows a reading, which is the reading of background
radiation.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

*How is the structure of an atom’s nucleus?

To answer this question, Rutherford conducted his famous
experiment in Manchaster University with gold foil and alpha
particle as shown below.

He shot alpha particles to a very thin gold foil and detected

the deflection of the alpha particles. Here is the result of
the experiment:
 Most of the alpha particles were undeflected
 Some of the alpha particles were scattered
 A few of the alpha particles were reflected back

Based on these observation, in 1911 Rutherford concluded the

structure of the atom as follows:
 Most volume of an atom is empty space
 All the positive charge of an atom are located in the
nucleus
 The size of nucleus is very small compared to the
whole atom
*What particles form an atom? *What is meant by isotopes?
An atom consists of three particles: proton, neutron, and All atoms consist of proton, electron, and neutron. To
electron. Here is their characteristics. distinguish between one atom and another atom, the number
Particle Relative mass Charge Location of proton is used. A certain atom has a certain number of
Proton 1836 Positive (+) In nucleus proton. For example, Helium has 2 protons. So every atom
Neutron 1839 Neutral In nucleus that has 2 protons must be a Helium atom.
Electron 1 Negative (-) Outside nucleus

Sometimes, an atom has different number of neutron. These

In a neutral atom, the proton number always equals the
atoms are then called isotopes.
electron number, while neutron number has its own way.

Isotopes are atoms with the same type (has the same proton
*How to express the number of atom’s particles?
number), but has different neutron number. So, to identify
To express the particles’ number an atom, we use this way:
isotopes, see which one has the same proton number but

A
different nucleon number. For example, from amongst these
X
Z
atoms,
X = atom
A = number of neutron + proton (mass number) 8
2 A 52B 83C 54 D
Z = number of proton (atomic number)

A and B are isotopes.

The combination of proton and neutron is called nucleon.

*Is there any relation between radioactive decay and

Since in neutral atom the number of electron equals the
atomic structure?
number of proton, Z also can be used to know the number of
Yes, there is. When an unstable atom decays, its particles
electron.
composition (proton, neutron, & electron) change. So,
radioactive decay leads a change to the atomic structure.
Example, if an atom C is expressed as C , so it has 60
100
60
Let’s take a look for each type of decay:
protons, 60 electrons, and 40 neutrons.
1. ALPHA ray is actually a mixture of 2 protons and 2
Another atom 7 E has 7 protons, 7 electrons, and 3 neutrons.
10
neutrons, thus the symbol is 2α . So, when an atom suffers
4
 an alpha decay, it gives out 2 protons and 2 neutrons. As a
result, the mass number of the atom is reduced by 4 and
its atomic number is reduced by 2. For example, radium
atoms suffer alpha decay and change into rodon atoms.
Here is the reaction equation.
226 222 4
88 Ra → 86 Rn + α
2
Remember, since it is an equation, so the total mass
number in the right side must equal to the left one. So
does the atomic number. In your textbook, the  is
expressed as He, which is the same meaning since Helium
has similar composition as alpha ray, except alpha ray has
not electrons.
2. BETA ray is actually an electron. So, when an atom
suffers a beta decay, it gives out 1 electron. For example,
carbon-14 suffer alpha decay and change into nitrogen
atom. Here is the reaction equation.
14
C → 147N + −10 β
6
In your textbook, the  is expressed as e, which is the
same meaning since e stands for electron. As you can see
above, the atomic number of the atom is increased by 1 (6
becomes 7). It is because in beta decay, a single neutron is
changing into a single proton and a single electron. The
proton stays in the nucleus (that’s why the proton number
in the reaction is increased by 1), while the electron
escapes outside the atom.
Actually there are two types of beta ray, one consists
electron as explained above, and the other one consists
positron. Positron is actually identical with electron, but
the charge of positron is positive (+), so the symbol is β.
0
+1
In this type of decay, a proton is changed into a neutron
and a positron. Here is the example of the reaction
equation.
64
Cu → 64 0
29 28 ¿ + +1 β
3. GAMMA ray is not a particle, it is an electromagnetic
wave, so it has no reaction equation like alpha and beta
ray. Gamma ray is a collateral product of alpha or beta
decay. When atoms suffer an alpha or beta decay, they
sometimes release gamma ray.
*fission and fusion reaction
Fission reaction is a reaction where a heavy atom brakes into
several smaller atoms.
Fusion reaction is a reaction where several small atoms mix
together and form a heavier atom.