Review

DOI: 10.1557/jmr.2020.32

This section of Journal of Materials Research is reserved for papers that are reviews of literature in a given area.
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Surface integrity aspects for NiTi shape memory alloys

during wire electric discharge machining: A review
Himanshu Bisaria1,a) Pragya Shandilya1
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, MNNIT Allahabad, Prayagraj 211004, India
a)
Address all correspondence to this author. e-mail: rme1509@mnnit.ac.in
Received: 1 October 2019; accepted: 15 January 2020

NiTi shape memory alloys (SMAs) are extensively used in various significant areas such as aerospace industries,
biomedical sector, automobile industries, and robotics field because of their inherent properties, namely, shape
memory effect and superelasticity. Nevertheless, the machining of these alloys is a problematic task by
conventional machining practices because of various difficulties such as strain hardening, tool failure, high
machining time, and poor surface quality. In recent years, researchers have explored various advanced/
unconventional machining processes to surmount these challenges and improve the performance characteristics
of NiTi SMAs. Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is an effective and reasonable alternative to machine
these hard-to-machine alloys among the other available advanced machining processes. A brief overview,
characteristics, applications, and conventional machining of NiTi SMAs have been incorporated in this study.
This review article provides substantial insight into the various aspects of surface integrity (SI) for NiTi SMAs
using WEDM. The current study highlights literature review on the research work accomplished so far in the
domain of SI aspects for NiTi-based SMAs, namely, surface characteristics, react layer, phase analysis, elemental
composition, micro-hardness, shape recovery ability, and residual stress in WEDM.

Introduction observed by Lin et al. [17]. Similar problems were faced by

Shape memory alloys (SMAs) can be categorized under the
class of a wide range of smart materials [1]. NiTi SMAs may be
defined as multifunctional materials [2] which have the talent
to memorize the predetermined shape under the use of heat
[3]. The exceptional properties of NiTi SMAs such as bio-
compatibility [4], high electrical resistivity [5], high corrosion
resistance [6], and fatigue resistance [7, 8, 9] make them
a suitable choice in the applications of aerospace [10], bio-
medical [11], and other important industries [12, 13, 14]. The
machining of these alloys is a vital criterion for their successful
Weinert and Petzoldt [18] during the conventional machining
of Ni50.3Ti49.7 and Ni50.9Ti49.1 SMAs. To find out the solution
of these difficulties, the researchers and scientist have suggested
advanced/unconventional machining processes (AMPs) for
example laser beam machining [19], jet machining processes
(JMPs), discharge machining (EDM/WEDM), and electro-
chemical machining (ECM) for efficient processing of NiTi
SMAs [20, 21]. Among advanced machining processes, the
WEDM process shows excellent capability for machining these
difficult to machine alloys with enhanced characteristics [22].
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applications [15]. Many researchers have attempted the con-
ventional machining (cutting, milling, turning, and drilling) of
NiTi SMAs. During the conventional cutting of Ni50.4Ti49.6
SMAs, many severe problems such as the high machining time,
high tool wear, and fatigue hardening were faced by Wu et al.
[16]. During cutting and drilling of Ti50Ni50 and Ti49Ni51
SMAs, high surface roughness, the formation of burrs, lower
dimensional accuracy, strain hardening, and the existence of
intermetallic compounds on the surface after WEDM were
The WEDM process is an adaptive approach for efficient
machining of hard and conductive alloys [23]. It is a thermo-
electric spark-based erosion approach in which the erosion of
material has been carried out by the number of distinct sparks
occurred between workpiece material and thin moving wire
electrode [24, 25]. The WEDM process can efficiently machine
any complicated two-dimensional or three-dimensional pro-
files on hard material which possess electrical conductivity
using a traveling wire electrode with high precision and

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accuracy irrespective of the strength and hardness of the
material [26]. The WEDM process is recognized for its high
surface finish [27], burr-free surfaces, high dimensional stabil-
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ity [28], and also no requirement of any post-finishing process
[29]. The WEDM process is a thermal energy–based process
[30], so major surface integrity (SI) aspects are affected because
the outer machining surface experienced high-temperature
gradient [31]. The domain of SI of NiTi SMAs during WEDM
is not only confined up to geometrical (topological) aspects of
the surface but also the entire changes on the outer machined
surface are studied [32]. In the WEDM process, the machined
surface altered, which may change the properties of NiTi SMAs
[33]. Surface alteration may consist of metallurgical changes
(surface morphology, phase analysis, and recrystallization),
mechanical changes (plastic deformation, hardness, and re-
sidual stresses), chemical changes (elemental composition,
formation of oxides and compounds, and chemical reactions),
and other changes [shape recovery ability (SRA)] [34]. For
effective WEDM of NiTi SMAs, the selection of appropriate
process parameters is vital so that the SI aspects of machined
surface are minimally affected [35].
The review work on the SI aspects for NiTi SMAs during
WEDM has been seldom reported. This review article high-
lights the advancement carried out in WEDM-induced SI in
NiTi-based SMAs. A brief introduction, characteristics,
manufacturing processes, classification, applications, and con-
ventional machining of NiTi SMAs have also been included in
this study. An effort has been made to review the research work
accomplished in the area of SI aspects, namely, surface
characteristics, elemental composition, recast layer (RL), phase
analysis, micro-hardness (MH), SRA, and residual stress for
NiTi SMAs during WEDM. In the last, the new challenges and
future scopes in WEDM of NiTi SMAs have been discussed.
Shape memory alloys
In 1932, SMA, also known as a smart alloy, was first discovered
by Arne Olander, but the term “shape memory” was first
coined by Vernon in 1941 for polymer dental material [36]. In
1963 at the US Naval Ordnance Laboratory, Dr. William
Buehler’s group recorded the presence of a unique phenome-
non of shape memory effect (SME) in a NiTi alloy and from
then onward, this alloy was named “NITINOL” [37]. NiTi
SMAs can be classified as a subgroup of an extensive set of
smart materials where the SRA is associated with the micro-
structural changes when exposed to external stimuli (non-
mechanical), for example, change in temperature or change in
the magnetic field [38, 39, 40]. Under specific conditions, SMAs
have the ability of absorption and dispersion of mechanical
energy during a reversible hysteretic transformation in shape
when exposed to cyclic mechanical load [41]. These exceptional
ª Materials Research Society 2020
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features of NiTi SMAs make them a suitable candidate for the
absorption of impact and vibration, actuation, and sensing
applications [42].
Figure 1(a) depicts the nickel–titanium alloy’s binary phase
diagram along with thermodynamically stable phases [21]. It
can be distinctly seen that the NiTi alloy was formed at the
central region of the phase diagram, i.e., near equiatomic
composition (Ni50Ti50) that restricted between TiNi3 and
Ti2Ni. Consequently, this region (near equi-atomic) is foremost
for investigating SME and superelastic properties [43]. NiTi
SMA exists in mainly two different phases viz. high-temperature
austenite phase and low-temperature martensite phase (twinned
martensite and detwinned martensite), whereas six possible
phase transformations can be occurred in NiTi SMAs [44]. In
NiTi SMAs, the crystal structure is transformed in response to
a variation in the external environmental factors (tempera-
ture, stress, and magnetic field) [45]. The austenite phase is
cooled to below martensitic transformation temperatures and
transforms into a martensite phase with lower crystallo-
graphic symmetry [46]. The electrical resistivity measure-
ments [47] and calorimetric measurements [48] are standard
techniques used for the analysis of phase transformation in
NiTi SMAs. The martensitic phase transformation in NiTi
SMA is linked to latent heat of absorption and release. The
latent heat and related transformation’s temperatures are
usually determined with the differential scanning calorimeter
(DSC) test [49]. Figure 1(b) represents the schematic repre-
sentation of the DSC curve for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA. From the
DSC curve, the temperatures related to martensitic phase
transformation viz. austenite phase start (As)/austenite phase
finish (Af) temperatures and martensite phase start (Ms)/
martensite phase finish (Mf) temperatures were determined.
In the DSC curve, peak temperatures for forward trans-
formation and reverse transformation are shown by M* and
A*, respectively [50]. The mechanical properties, physical
properties, and martensitic phase transformation temper-
atures for different NiTi based SMAs are shown in Table I.
It can be experienced that the composition of nickel and
titanium in NiTi SMAs has a key role in phase transforma-
tion, and the temperatures of phase transformation are very
sensitive to small alterations in the alloy composition. It was
notified that approximately a 1% change in the composition
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of either Ni or Ti in NiTi SMAs results in a 100 °C change in
austenite finish temperature [36]. The phenomena of SME
and superelasticity in NiTi SMAs are also connected with the
reversible solid-state, diffusionless thermoelastic phase trans-
formation. SME may be described as the capability of SMAs
to gain the preexisted shape on heating, whereas super-
elasticity/pseudoelasticity (SE) may be defined as strain re-
covery ability of SMAs (approximately 8%). Under isothermal
conditions, SE is related to large hysteresis of stress–strain
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Figure 1: (a) An equilibrium binary phase diagram for Ti–Ni system [Reprinted with permission from Ref. 21]. (b) DSC curve for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA [Reprinted with
permission from Ref. 50].

TABLE I: Properties of NiTi-based SMAs.

SMA Mf (°C) Ms (°C) As (°C) Af (°C) Hardness (HV) Elongation (%) Crystal structure

Ti50Ni50 [51] 0.46 23.17 43.64 79.23 207 25 B19ʹ martensite

Ti49.5Ni50.5 [36] 78 19 9 53 ... ... ...
Ti49Ni51 [36] 153 114 89 40 293.2 23 B2 austenite
Ni50.89Ti49.11 [50] 14.5 10.33 31.45 56.19 271 ... B2, B19ʹ, and Ni-rich phase
Ti50Ni40Cu10 [36] 21 41 53 67 199.7 27 B2, B19, and B19ʹ
Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr15 [37] M* (°C):176 A* (°C): 217 320 ... (Ti, Zr)2Ni and B19ʹ k-phase
Ti50Ni49.5Cr0.5 [51] 7.72 26.66 35.24 68.94 290 ... Ti2(Ni, Cr) and B2 R-phase

because of mechanical loading and unloading [38]. NiTi SMAs
are basically manufactured by two popular methods, namely,
powder metallurgy and casting, as shown in Fig. 2(a) [52].
Casting technique is most suitable for large-scale production of
NiTi SMAs in which first melting of Ni and Ti ingot take place
then hot working and finally machining is done [1]. Vacuum
induction melting process (VIMP) and vacuum arc melting
process (VAMP) are two casting methods commonly used by
many researchers for the manufacturing of NiTi SMAs. VIMP is
the most popular casting technique used for the manufacturing
of NiTi SMAs because it has the advantage of homogeneity of
elemental composition throughout the ingot. In this technique,
the melting of metals or alloys is performed in a vacuum or inert
atmosphere. VIMP is advantageous for metals that exhibit
a strong oxidation affinity. In VIMP, the metallic charge consists
of nickel pellets, and titanium rods stored in crucible of graphite
are melted by means of eddy current which is generated by
crucible is vanished, unlike VIMP. In this technique, either
a consumable or nonconsumable electrode is used despite being
in a crucible [62]. Recently, the advanced SMAs such as
(Ti50Ni40Cu10)93Nb7 [63], Ni49.8Ti45.2Nb5 [64], Ti50Ni50 xCux
[65], Fe–14Mn–6Si–9Cr–5Ni [66], Ni49.5 xTi50.5Ptx [67], Ti–
49Ni–10Hf–1Y [68], Ni58Mn25Ga16.9Gd0.1 [69], Ti–Nb–Zr & Ti–
Nb–Ta [70], Ti50Ni48Cu2 [71], Ti50Ni45Cu5 [72],
Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr7.5Hf7.5, and Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr15 [73] are successfully
manufactured by the VAM process. Powder metallurgy tech-
nique is useful for a small production of NiTi components,
mainly used in biomedical sectors for producing porous NiTi
components [74].
Not only metals but also different polymers, ceramics, and
other materials show the exceptional phenomena of SME and
superelasticity. Figure 2(b) depicts the broad classification of
metals which show the SME. Metals that exhibit SME can be
classified into three groups: SMAs, high-temperature SMAs
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electromagnetic induction. The homogeneity of the mixture of
the melt is maintained by electrodynamic force. The high-
temperature SMAs and magnetic SMAs such as Ni50.9Ti49.1
(at.%) [53], Ni49Ti36Hf15 [54], Ni45.3Ti29.7Hf20Cu5 [55], Ni–
48Ti–25Pd (at.%) [56], Ni52Ti47.7Re0.3 [57], Ni56Mn21Cu4Ga19
[58], Co49Ni21Ga30 [59], Ni50.3Ti29.7Hf20 [60], and Ni50Ti50 [61]
are successfully manufactured by VIMP by researchers. VAMP is
another casting technique used to manufacture the large size of
the ingot. In this process, the problem of contamination from the
(HTSMAs) [75], and magnetic SMAs (MSMAs) [76]. HTSMAs
may be defined as SMAs that have high transformation
temperatures (.100 °C) and have the capability of actuating
under high-temperature conditions [77]. The addition of
ternary elements (Pd, Pt, Hf, Au, and Zr) to NiTi results in
the formation of HTSMAs, for which the phase transformation
temperatures lie in 100–800 °C [78]. MSMAs, also known as
ferromagnetic SMAs (FSMAs) [79], have the capability to
actuate at high level of frequencies (i.e., up to 1 kHz) [80].

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Figure 2: (a) Manufacturing methods for NiTi SMAs. (b) Classification of materials exhibiting SME. (c) Applications of NiTi SMAs in various sectors.

SMAs can be also further categorized on the basis of the parent TABLE II: Properties of NiTi-based, Cu-based, and Fe-based SMAs.
(base) material, which includes NiTi-, Fe-, Cu-, Ag-, Au-, and NiTi-based SMAs Cu-based SMA Fe-based SMAs
Co-based SMAs. NiTi-, Fe-, and Cu-based SMAs are com- Property [81, 82] [83, 84] [85, 86]
monly used these days. Table II shows the properties of NiTi-, Specific heat (kJ/kg °C) 0.45–0.62 0.39–0.44 0.55
Cu-, and Fe-based SMAs. Thermal conductivity 8.6–18 30–120 8.5
Figure 2(c) illustrates the major applications of NiTi-based (20 °C) (W/mK)
Density (g/cm3) 6.4–6.5 7.1–8.0 7.2–7.5
SMAs in aerospace, biomedical field, robotics, and other Latent heat (kJ/kg) 19–32 ... ...
important industries [87]. The properties of NiTi-based SMAs Maximum recovery 500–900 400–700 400
stress (MPa)
such as outstanding MRI compatibility [88], high kink re-
Transformation 200 to 200 200 to 200 200 to 150
sistance [89], and corrosion resistance [90] make them a suit- temperature (ºC)
able candidate for biomedical uses, for example, atrial occlusion Poisson ratio ... 0.34 0.36
Elongation fracture (cold ... 8–15 16–30
and implantable devices, systems used in drug delivery [91], worked) (%)
and stent delivery [92], stents of self-expanding nature [93], Normal working stress 100–130 150–400 200–400
catheters [94], and thrombectomy devices [95]. NiTi SMAs are (MPa)
Young’s modulus (GPa) 28–83 65–75 140–200
also utilized in medical devices and equipment which are used (M and A)
in cardiology, orthopedics [96], neurology implants [97, 98],
and eyeglass frames [99]. SMAs can be utilized in civil
its effective utilization. The experimental work performed in
structures [100]. Owing to the unique features of SMAs like
the field of conventional machining of NiTi SMAs is summa-
SME and SE, the applications can be broadly seen in aerospace
rized in Table III. Wu et al. [16] investigated the machining
areas [101, 102]. The applications of NiTi-based SMAs can be
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characteristics of Ti49.6Ni-rest SMA during diamond blade

largely seen in micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS)
devices [103]. For the thermomechanical system, SMAs also
fulfill the purpose of both sensors and actuators [104].
Conventional machining OF NiTi SMAs
NiTi SMAs can also be machined by conventional/traditional
machining processes with some limitations. Many researchers
have attempted the conventional machining of NiTi SMAs for
cutting. The simultaneous strain hardening and fatigue hard-
ening attributed to the development of a hardening layer of
order 700 lm near the cutting edge which can reduce the
cutting efficiency. Surface morphology of machined surface
characterizes many pits and grooves, and the fragments of
workpiece material have also adhered to the tool. Similar
complications like deposition of a hardened layer on cutting
edge, strain hardening, cycle hardening, high tool wear, and

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TABLE III: Conventional machining of NiTi SMAs.

S. Response
No. Material Process Variable parameters parameters Key findings
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1. Ti49.6Ni50.40 Cutting by diamond Cutting speed Cutting time/unit dDuring cutting, the wide hardened layer ahead of cutting edge
[16] blade area was observed because of strain hardening
Cutting area Blade cutting dLonger cutting time and fragments of material adhere on cutting

energy blade
2. Ti50Ni50 Drilling and cutting Cutting load Cutting time dThe phenomenon of strain hardening, fatigue hardening, and high

Ti49Ni51 [17] strain hardening observed

Blade rotation speed dDue to high toughness, high viscosity, and superelasticity, the
Drilling force
Drilling time drilling force exceeds 5000 N
3. Ni50.3Ti49.7 Turing Cutting speed Cutting force dNiTi-based SMAs are difficult to machine. High tool wear is

obtained even at optimized parameters

Ni50.9Ti49.1 Drilling deep hole Flank wear dThe cutting speed and feed rate mainly affect the machinability of
Feed
[18] drilling Feed force SMAs
Tool wear
4. Ni49.9Ti50.1 Cutting at different Cutting speed dCryogenic cooling decreases the cutting force and notch wear at
Cutting force
[105] condition Cooling/preheated higher speed than machining under dry and preheated conditions
condition
Flank wear Very large flank wear as well as some degree of notching and
d

5. Ni50.8Ti49.2 Milling Cutting length microchipping of cutting edge of milling cutter were observed
[106] Rough/TC Surface roughness dTool life reduced during milling of nitinol as compared with
metals
6. Ni50.6Ti49.4 High speed micro- Cutting speed Cutting force dAt cutting speed (15 m/min), the cutting forces and burr size

[107] milling Burr width reduced

7. Ni50Ti50 Turning dThe combined effect of strain and fatigue hardening causes the
... ...
[108] Drilling severe hardening effect and declines the cutting speed
dIn the cryogenic machining process, the surface quality was

8. Ni49.9Ti50.1 Dry and cryogenic improved as compared with dry machining

... SI aspects
[109] machining dHigher dislocation density and residual stresses were identified on

machined surface in cryogenic machining

high cutting time were also challenged during conventional
machining of NiTi SMAs by Weinert and Petzoldt [18].
Kaynak et al. [105] described the complications in conventional
machining for NiTi SMAs which was a higher wear rate of
cutting tool, and reduction in cutting force. Kuppuswamy and
Yui [107] explained that high-speed micro-milling can be
utilized for increased tool life and reducing burr formation in
micro-milling of nitinol (NiTi) SMA. Kaynak et al. [109]
examined the SI characteristics of Ni49.9Ti50.1 SMA under the
dry and cryogenic condition and concluded that surface quality
of machined components has been improved under the
cryogenic condition as compared with the dry machining.
NiTi SMAs are exceedingly hard to machine, owing to its great
hardness, which needs high cutting force, resulting in a higher
tool wear rate [110]. Kirmacioglu et al. [111] explained that
machining of Ni-rich NiTiHf SMA required high cutting forces
as compared with NiTi SMA. For machining of Ni-rich NiTiHf
The similar difficulties encountered by many researchers
during conventional machining of NiTi SMAs were strain
hardening, tool failure, poor surface finish, and more machin-
ing time. To conquer the difficulties, the WEDM process is
a practicable solution for effective and cost-effective machining
of these difficult to machine materials.
WEDM OF NiTi SMAs
WEDM is a special variant of EDM, wherein a thin wire
electrode is continuous travel, and the material is removed
because of spark erosion [113]. The cutting wire is fed from
a reel through the workpiece [114]. Unlike the conventional
EDM, the high pulse frequency (1 MHz) and limited current (20
A) power supply are used in WEDM process [115]. Owing to its
unique features such as better surface finish and ability to cut
intricate profile at low residual stresses, the WEDM process is
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SMA, low cutting speed and smaller depth of cut were helpful.
So, to improve the machinability of NiTi-based SMAs,
researchers have explored various advanced machining pro-
cesses [112]. The WEDM process is the suitable advanced
machining process for effective and economic machining of
hard to cut material like NiTi SMAs with better SI.
It can be concluded from this section that NiTi-based
SMAs possess many unexceptional properties, but they also
offer various severe difficulties during conventional machining.
suitable for the machining of difficult to cut material like NiTi
SMAs [116]. For cutting a narrow channel in the workpiece,
a small diameter (0.33–0.1 mm) wire can be utilized as an
electrode, whereas in the case of micromachining, wire diameter
may be less than 0.020 mm in WEDM process [117]. During
cutting, the relative motion between wire and workpiece is
controlled by numerical control (NC). The small gap (0.025–
0.05 mm) between the cutting wire and workpiece is kept
constant by the computer-controlled positioning system [118].

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The performance of machined component, for example,
corrosion resistance, fatigue life, and creep, substantially
affected by altered SI in WEDM process [119]. In various
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applications of NiTi SMAs, the smoothest surface quality of the
machined component is extremely essential, especially where
the high fatigue life of machined components is required [120].
The WEDM process affects many SI aspects for the surface
generated after WEDM, which includes the mechanical aspects
(hardness and residual stresses) [121], metallurgical aspects
(microstructural changes, transformations of phases, and other
properties related to microstructure) [122], and topological
aspects (surface roughness and other topographical features of
machined surface) [123]. Sharma et al. [124] studied the direct
influence of discharge energy in WEDM on SI characteristics
viz. RL, roughness, and topography of the surface; microstruc-
tural and metallographic changes; and residual stresses for
Inconel-706 superalloy. Apart from the electrical parameter,
the effect of the nonelectrical parameter (material of the wire
electrode) was also studied. It was noticed that material
removal rate was improved by using Zn-coated cutting wire,
whereas the surface quality was improved by means of hard
brass cutting wire. The relatively low residual stresses were
observed on the machining surface by using hard brass cutting
wire and suitable for the machining of these types of super-
alloys. Zhang et al. [125] optimized the process parameters on
SI for tungsten tool YG15 in WEDM and observed that surface
roughness, white layer thickness (WLT), and surface crack
density (SCD) was considerably influenced by pulse duration
and current. However, the inconsequential effect of nonelec-
trical WEDM parameters (feed rate and water pressures) was
observed on SI for tungsten tool YG15. For studying the
performance of the WEDM process for NiTi SMAs, the
material removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness (SR) as
response parameters were considered by many researchers. Few
researchers have also considered the cutting rate (CR)/cutting
speed (CS) and three-dimensional surface roughness parame-
ters (Ra/Rz/Rq) for studying the performance of WEDM process
[126]. Majumder and Maity [127] optimized the WEDM
process parameters (dielectric pressure, wire feed, pulse dura-
tion, discharge current, and wire tension) for surface roughness
parameters (Ra/Rz/Rq) and MH of nitinol SMA. At the
optimized parameter setting, the examination of surface to-
pography disclosures the existence of the RL accompanied by
poke marks and micro-cracks on the machined surface.
During the investigation of SI aspects in WEDM process, it
was observed that the pulse parameters such as pulse on time/
pulse duration (TON), pulse off time/pause duration (TOFF),
peak current (IP), and spark gap voltage/servo voltage (SV)
predominantly influenced the SI because pulse parameters
directly related to discharge energy, which is accountable for
the amount of heat energy in the machining zone. Few
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researchers have also investigated the influence of nonelectrical
parameters such as wire speed (Ws), wire feed rate (WFR), wire
tension (Wt), servo feed (SF), flushing pressure (FP), and
electrode material, but it was concluded that the SI of machined
component was minimally affected by nonelectrical WEDM
parameters.
Surface integrity aspects
The machined part’s surface quality directly affects the
processing and end-use of the machined component. In
WEDM process, the surface of the materials is modified and
surface characteristics are altered. In SI aspects, the altered
characteristics of the surface which affect the properties of
workpiece material are measured [30]. SI may define as the
improved condition of the surface manufactured by any
machining process or other processes related to surface
generation [31]. SI includes not only the topological (geo-
metrical) characteristics of the machined surface but also the
metallurgical, physical, biological, mechanical, and chemical
aspects [34]. The objective of this review article is to explore
the influence of variable parameters on SI for NiTi-based
SMAs. SI aspects such as surface characteristics, RL, elemental
composition, phase analysis, MH, SRA, and residual stresses
have been considered in this study. The detailed SI aspects for
NiTi-based SMAs during WEDM are summarized in
Table IV, whereas Table V consists of SI aspects for NiTi-
based ternary (NiTi-X) SMAs.
In the WEDM process, surface characteristics of machined
surface divulge the existence of surface irregularities such as
carters, voids, micro-cracks, lumps, and resolidified material by
means of scanning electron microscope (SEM) at different
magnification. However, the three-dimensional surface topog-
raphy reveals the height of the protruding features and depth of
depression that existed on the machining surface in WEDM.
Furthermore, because of the quenching effect from the pres-
surized dielectric medium, the formation of the RL occurred,
which comprises the foreign atoms transferred from dielectric
fluid and cutting wire’s material to the machined surface
during WEDM. This layer is generated because of the resoli-
dification of the molten material, which has different properties
and characteristics from the base material. The aim of the study
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in many cases was to measure the RL thickness and its
elemental composition detection at different WEDM parame-
ters using cross-sectional SEM image and energy dispersive X-
ray spectroscopy (EDAX). Because of the highly reactive nature
of nickel and titanium elements, the various compounds and
oxides were also formed on the material’s surface after the
WEDM process. The oxide formation is mainly because of the
chemical reaction between the workpiece’s material and oxygen
(from the ionization of dielectric fluid). The oxide formations
cambridge.org/JMR 6
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TABLE IV: SI aspects for NiTi SMAs during WEDM.

EDS of
S. Input machined RLT
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No. Material SMA/wire parameter Surface characteristics (SEM) surface Phase analysis (XRD) (lm) MH (HV)

1. Nitinol-60 wire: ... ... Ni, Ti, Cu and CuZn, Ti2Ni, NiO, and Cu2O ... ...
brass [128] Zn
2. Ti50Ni50 wire: brass TON/TOFF/ 3D morphologies show peaks and valleys, Ni, Ti, Cu, C, Ni3ZnC, CuZn, NiZn, Cu2NiZn, CuTi, ... 1000–1100
[129] SV/FP/ globules of debris O, and Zn Ni3ZnC, Ni4Ti3, Cu2O, TiO2, and
WS TiNiO3
3. Ni50.8Ti49.2 wire: ... Micro-cracks, micro-voids Ni, Ti, Cu and ... 1–8 794
brass [130] Zn
4. Ni50.8Ti49.2 wire: ... ... Ni, Ti, Cu, Zn Nitinol, (Cu 1 Ni 1 Zn)-FCC Ti2O3 ... 7.39 GPa
brass [131] and O nano-
hardness
5. Ni40Ti60 wire: Zinc- TON/TOFF/ ... ... ... 10–15 ...
coated brass IP/SV
[132]
6. Ni55.95Ti44.05 wire: TON/TOFF/ Craters, micro-cracks, globules of debris, Ni, Ti, Cu, Zn, Cu5Zn8, Cu0.6Ni1.4Zn2, Cu4O3, TiO, 20.19 ...
brass [133] SV/WF/ resolidified molten material, voids, RL, C, and O Ti2O3, Ni4Ti3, and NiTi intermetallic –
WT and pockmarks 33.69
7. Ni50.89Ti49.11 wire: TON/TOFF/ Discharge craters, globules of debris Ni, Ti, Cu, Zn, Cu5Zn8, Ni4Ti3, Cu4O3, NiTi, TiO, Ti2O3, 20–35 650–700
brass [50] SV/WS/ (melting drops), micro-cracks, voids, and C, and O and NiCuO2
WT pockmarks

TABLE V: SI aspects for NiTi-X (Cu/Co/Zn/Cr) ternary SMAs during WEDM.

EDS of
S. Input machined RLT MH
No. Material SMA/wire parameter Surface characteristics (SEM) surface Phase analysis (XRD) (lm) (HV)

1. Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr15 TON Discharge craters and recast material Ti, Ni, Zr, Cu, Ni-rich phase, Cu2O, ZrO2, Cr2O3, TiO2, ... 875
Ti50Ni49.5Cr0.5 wire: and Zn TiNiO3, and brass (Cu–Zn) 807
brass [134]
2. Ti50Ni42.4Cu7.6 wire: TON/TOFF/IP Globules of debris, craters, pockmarks, ... ... ... ...
molybdenum and micro-cracks
[135]
3. Ti50Ni45Cu5 wire: TON/TOFF/IP/ Craters, pock marks, melted droplets, Ti, Ni, Cu, ... ... ...
molybdenum table feed resolicited layer, micro-cracks, blow and Mo
[136] rate holes, globules of debris, and feed
marks
4. Ti50Ni40Cu10
Melted drops, globules of debris, craters, Ti, Ni, Cu, C, CuZn, NiZn, TiO2, NiTiO3, NiCuO2, CuTi2, ... ...
Ti50Ni30Cu20 wire: TON/TOFF/SV/
micro-cracks, pockmarks, blow holes, and O, and Zn and Ti7O13
zinc-coated brass WS/SF
pits
[137]
5. Ti50Ni40Cu10
RL, micro voids, micro cracks, and Ti, Ni, Cu, C, Cu2NiZn, CuTi2, CuZn, Ti2Ni, NiCuO2, 8.3– 850–
Ti50Ni30Cu20 wire: TON/TOFF/SV
globules of debris O, and Zn Cu2O, TiO2, and NiTiO3 23.4 lm 900
brass [138]
6. Ti50Ni40Cu10 ... Cu2NiZn, CuTi2, CuZn, Ti2Ni, NiCuO2, ... ...
Craters, cracks, and a lump of recast
Ti50Ni30Cu20 wire: TON/TOFF/SV Cu2O, TiO2,NiTiO3, ZnCu, Cu2NiZn,
globules
brass [139] NiCuO2, and NiTiO3
7. Ti50Ni40Co10 wire: TON/TOFF/SV/ Melted drops, crater, cracks, and micro- ... B199, TiNiCo, TiNiO3, TiO2, NiO, and CuZn 3.5–45 442
brass [140] SF/WS globules
8. Ti50Ni49Co1 wire: TON/SV SCD of 0.235–0.410 (lm/lm2) ... TiNiCo, CuZn, NiO, TiNiO3, and TiO2 3.5–45 442
brass [141]
9. Ti50Ni45Co5 wire: TON/TOFF/SV Micro-globules, cracks, recast deposition; ... TiNiCo, TiO2, TiNiO3, and CuZn ... .320
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr

brass [142] melted drops, blow holes, and craters

are also the culprit for increasing the machining region’s
hardness as against the hardness of the bulk material. So, the
domain of the present work also includes the study on oxide
and the compound formation and their effect on hardness of
machined surface for different NiTi-based SMAs at different
WEDM parameters. During WEDM, the machining surface
has also suffered extremely high-temperature gradient; as
a result, the residual stresses were also developed. The analysis
of residual stresses during WEDM has also been included in
this review article. After the WEDM process, the SRA of NiTi-
based SMAs has also affected, so the effect of WEDM process
on SRA of these alloy has also been studied in the present work.

ª Materials Research Society 2020 cambridge.org/JMR 7


Surface characteristics
In the WEDM process, the removal of material occurs by the
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controlled recurring sparks generated between traveling wire
and workpiece [114]. The mechanism of material erosion is
local melting or vaporization of workpiece material by the
thermal energy generated because of electric sparks [117].
Because of the high-temperature gradient generated in the
discharge channel, the machined surface after the WEDM
process has an extremely complex structure and different
properties (mechanical, metallurgical, and chemical) as com-
pared with the properties of workpiece material [34]. The
structure and properties of the machined surface after the
WEDM process predominantly depend on the intensity and
energy of spark in each cycle, which can be handled by the
selection of appropriate WEDM parameters. Not only the
parameters of the WEDM process but also the properties of
dielectric, wire electrode material and other machining con-
ditions contribute to the formation of properties of the
machined surface.
Generally, the quality of the machined surface generated
after the WEDM process is described by the surface character-
istics which comprise surface microstructure (surface morphol-
ogy), phase transformations, RL, and heat-affected zone
(HAZ). Figure 3(A) displays the microstructural analysis using
SEM for Ni-rich (Ni55.95Ti-rest) SMA in WEDM at the
magnification of (i) 1000 and (ii) 3000, respectively. The
machined surface consists of many irregularities such as recast
material, micro-cracks, globules of debris, craters, micro-voids,
and pockmarks, which can be distinctly seen during surface
morphological analysis [133]. In the WEDM process, the
successive electrical sparks led to a transfer of intense heat
into the machined surface that lead to the generation of craters
[30]. During pulse off time, some of the molten material was
wiped out by the deionized water. However, the melted
material remains resolidified on the machining surface to form
lumps of debris. Pockmarks are also generated because of
entrap gases escaping from the redeposited material [31]. The
high-temperature gradient faced by the outer machined surface
results in the existence of thermal and tensile stresses; conse-
quently, the micro-cracks were also developed on the machined
component [34]. Soni et al. [141] concentrated on the SCD
during WEDM of Ti50Ni49Co1 SMA at the high and low values
of CS and SR. SCD was higher at a high value of SR and CS
because of quick heating and cooling of the machined surface.
At the low value of SR, the SCD value lies in the range of
0.235–0.410 lm/lm2. SCD was found to be lower at lower
surface roughness and cutting speed because of a lower pulse
on time (TON). But, Sharma et al. [124] observed different
findings for the Ni-based superalloy (Inconel 706) in WEDM.
The surface of the alloy after WEDM was free from micro-
ª Materials Research Society 2020
Review
cracks. The high toughness of Inconel 706 is mainly ascribed to
this. Similar findings were reported by Bisaria and Shandilya
[29] during WEDM of another Ni-based superalloy (Nimonic
C-263). There was no survival of micro-cracks on the surface of
the alloy after WEDM. Figures 3(B)(i) and (ii) depicts WEDM-
induced surface morphology at a lower and higher level of
sparks’ energy, respectively. The absence of micro-cracks can
be clearly seen in the SEM micrograph. Bisaria and Shandilya
[50] suggested that the surface characteristics for NiTi-based
SMA also depend on WEDM parameters similar to machining
characteristics.
Figures 3(C)(a) and (b) depicts the surface morphology and
three-dimensional surface topography in WEDM for
Ni50.89Ti-rest (at.%) SMA at a higher and lower level of spark
on time (SON), respectively. The machined surface contains
many discharge craters, melting drops, micro-cracks, voids,
and pockmarks. In the WEDM process, the surface morphol-
ogy of the machining surface was strongly influenced by the
sparks’ intensity and level of discharge energy. At a higher level
of discharge energy, deeper and bigger size craters were formed.
The size of craters can be quantified by using 3D surface
topography. Similar surface morphology was detected by
Narendranath et al. [135] for Ti50Ni42.4Cu7.6 SMA in the
WEDM process. The surface morphology shows micro-cracks,
pockmarks, globules of debris, and craters while examined
through SEM. At lower peak current, the sizes of these
irregularities are smaller as compared to higher peak current.
This is because the quantity of heat energy conducted to the
workpiece’s material is decreased at lower peak current.
Manjaiah et al. [136] also studied the influence of peak current
on surface characteristics of TiNiCu SMA in WEDM and
explained that at a higher value of peak current, more surface
defects like micro-cracks, blowholes, and the redeposition of
molten material occurred. Also, at a high peak current, a high-
density crack was also noticed on the surface of SMA after
WEDM because of the high intensity of the sparks at high peak
current which generates more micro-cracks. Owing to the
increase in the thermal stresses, the micro-cracks also spreads
into the machined surface layer.
Recast layer and elemental composition
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr
After the WEDM process, the subsurface generated contains
chemically and metallurgical affected zones. In the WEDM
process, the machining zone comprises mainly three different
types of layers, namely, RL, HAZ, and converted layer. The
outermost layer having the recast structure is called a RL or
white layer (white appearance under a microscope) [140].
Beneath the RL lies HAZ where heat is not enough to cause
melting or recast the layer but ample to encourage microstruc-
tural transformation. Beneath the HAZ lies the converted layer.
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j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr

Figure 3: (A) Surface morphology (SEM) of machined surface at higher pulse on time (TON-125 ls) for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA in WEDM [Reprinted with permission from
Ref. 133]. (B) Surface morphology of machined surface of nimonic C-263 superalloy at (i) lower spark energy (6.72 mJ) and (ii) higher spark energy (13.44 mJ)
[Reprinted with permission from Ref. 29]. (C) SEM micrographs and 3D surface topography for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM: (a) higher spark on time (125 ls) and
(b) lower spark on time (105 ls) [Reprinted with permission from Ref. 50].

ª Materials Research Society 2020 cambridge.org/JMR 9


RL formed on the surface after WEDM is hard and brittle in
nature, with hardness greater than 65 HRC [142]. RL may be
defined as a thin layer of transformed phases formed on the
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outer surface after WEDM whose thickness could be influenced
by discharge energy [50]. In the WEDM process, owing to the
rapid quenching effect from the pressurized dielectric fluid,
a thin RL is formed near the outer machining zone through the
resolidification of the melted material, which causes the
compound transformation of phases and various microstruc-
tures compared with the bulk material [34]. Besides the
metallurgical changes, the chemical changes on the WEDMed
surface are also noticed, owing to the chemical reaction among
the workpiece, wire electrode, and dielectric at the elevated
temperature. The chemical composition of the surface after
WEDM has also been altered, owing to foreign atoms’ transfer
from cutting wire and dielectric fluid to WEDMed surface
[130]. Because the machining occurred at extremely elevated
temperature, the residual material from the dielectric fluid as
well as wire electrode diffused into the machining surface
which led to alter the composition of WEDMed surface [133].
Shandilya et al. [143] studied the RL and elemental
composition for Ni50.89Ti-rest (at.%) SMA in WEDM.
Figure 4(a) illustrates the RL thickness and elemental compo-
sition for SMA at a high and low value of TON, respectively. It
can be clearly concluded that a thick RL (thickness 33.69 lm)
with a higher percentage of foreign element atomic content
(FEAC-41.05%) was formed at higher TON as compared with
a lower TON. This is because of an increase in spark’s energy at
higher TON; as a result, the heat conduction into the workpiece
also increased which results in more melting of the workpiece.
Thus, the volume of the molten material which resolidified on
the machining surface after WEDM also increased, which led
to the formation of the RL of considerable thickness with
higher FEAC. At higher discharge energy, the material transfer
rate also increased. Lui et al. [130] attempted the different
mode of cutting [trim cut (TC)/main cut (MC)] for the
improvement of surface quality of Nitinol SE508 SMA in
WEDM. Because of the low discharge energy in TC, the
nonuniform thickness, porous, and discontinuous white layer
(2–8 lm) formed in the MC mode was considerably reduced in
the successive TC mode. The high intensity of discharge energy
causes high thermal damage and thus the formation of higher
WLT. It was summarized that the WLT decisively depends on
the discharge energy. Elemental composition for the surface
after WEDM reveals the existence of copper and zinc elements
transferred from the cutting wire to the SMA’s surface. Cu
content in the MC mode was also decreased in the successive
TCs because lower value of discharge energy in TC results in
less decomposition and erosion of the wire’s material. Liu et al.
[131] examined the mechanical properties, microstructures,
and crystallinity of the white layer (WL) noticed on Ni50.8Ti49.2
ª Materials Research Society 2020
Review
SMA’s surface after WEDM. A crystalline white layer instead of
amorphous nature was formed during WEDM of Ni50.8Ti49.2
SMA, which consists of Cu and Zn besides Ni and Ti. White
layer mainly contains two different portions having different
chemical and microstructural properties. (Cu 1 Ni 1 Zn)-FCC
phase was presented in the upper part of WL, whereas austenite
and Ti2O3 phases existed in the lower part of WL. Figure 4(b)
depicts the EDS results of bright and dark phases that existed
on WL. The dark phases consist almost Ti2O3 and contain
a small quantity of Ni, Cu, and Zn, whereas the bright phases
consist of the small amount of Ti and O, and mainly contain
Cu, Ni, and Zn.
The elemental composition analysis of WL using EDAX
showing the presence of carbon (71.55%) and oxygen (28.45%)
atoms besides the base material (Ni and Ti) indicates that both
oxidization and carbonization of machined surface happened
simultaneously [129]. Hsieh et al. [134] explained the inverses
effect of pulse duration on RL thickness for Ti–Ni–Zr/Cr
ternary SMA in WEDM. The longer TON causes an increase
in discharge energy, which led to making the dielectric fluid
have adequate impact force to efficiently wipe out the deposited
particles and molten materials on WEDMed surface, and hence
thin RL was formed on the SMA’s surface. Singh and Misra
[119] observed that for combustor material (Nimonic C-263)
in the WEDM process, the RL thickness (RLT) showed an
increasing trend with a discharge energy/spark. A RL of order
7–27 lm was formed, which can be reduced by 22 lm
approximately after postprocessing. Newton et al. [123] con-
ducted WEDM of Inconel 718 and summarized that average
RLT increased with spark energy, pulse duration, and discharge
current. RL of order 5–9 lm consisting of in-plane tensile
residual stresses was formed.
Phase analysis
During the WEDM process of NiTi SMAs, the formation of
various compounds and oxides of nickel and titanium occurred
on WEDMed surface because of a chemical reaction between
the elements of base materials and foreign atoms. Soni et al.
[140] described the formation of many compounds and oxides
during WEDM of Ti50Ni40Co10 SMA. WEDMed surface
consists of various compounds such as TiNiCo, TiNiO3,
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr
TiO2, NiO, and CuZn. The formation of these compounds is
primarily owing to the highly reactive nature of nickel and
titanium with distilled water (dielectric fluid), whereas zinc and
copper compounds were formed by reason of deposition of the
material of cutting the wire to a workpiece’s surface. Similar
outcomes were noticed by Manjaiah et al. [139] in the WEDM
process of Ti50Ni40Cu10 and Ti50Ni30Cu20 SMAs. The new
phases and oxides, namely, NiCuO2, CuTi2, ZnCu, NiTiO3,
Ti2Ni, and Cu2NiZn were identified in X-ray diffraction (XRD)
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j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr

Figure 4: (a) RL thickness and elemental composition for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM: (i) higher pulse on time (1.35 ls) and (ii) lower pulse on time (0.35 ls)
[Reprinted with permission from Ref. 143]. (b) EDS results for bright and dark phases presented in the white layer [Reprinted with permission from Ref. 131].

graph. Hsieh et al. [134] explained the XRD graph for The existence of Ni-rich peaks in the XRD plot was attributable
Ti50Ni49.5Cr0.5 and Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr15 SMA in WEDM. The to the diffusion Ni atoms’ residual into the NiTi matrix. Soni
machined surface contains the many compounds, namely, et al. [141] identified the following compounds: TiNiCo, NiO,
TiO2, TiNiO3, Cr2O3, Cu2O, ZrO2, CuZn, and Ni-rich phase. CuZn, TiNiO3, and TiO2 on the machined surface of

ª Materials Research Society 2020 cambridge.org/JMR 11

 Review

Ti50Ni49Co1 SMA during WEDM. Similar peaks were also SMA after WEDM at lower SV, lower SOFF, and higher SON,
identified by Soni et al. [142] during WEDM of Ti50Ni45Co5 respectively. It was detected that besides the austenite phase
SMA. Figures 5(a)–5(c) show XRD graph for Ni50.89Ti49.11 (NiTi), the following compounds Cu0.6Ni1.4Zn2, Cu5Zn8,
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Ni4Ti3, Ti2O3, Cu4O3, and TiO were also presented on the

Figure 5: XRD plot for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA in WEDM process. (a) spark gap
voltage (35 V), (b) spark off time (52 ls), and (c) spark on time (125 ls)
[Reprinted with permission from Ref. 50].
surface after WEDM. The reason for the formation of com-
pounds of zinc and copper was diffusion of cutting wire
elements (brass wire) to the machined surface [50]. Bisaria
and Shandilya [145] described the formation of several com-
pounds and compounds of Ni and Ti such as TiO, Ti2O3,
Ni4Ti3, NiTiO3, NiTi, CuZn, Cu2NiZn, and NiZn on the
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA’s surface after WEDM. “X’PERT” High
Score Plus software can be effectively utilized to identify peaks
formed in XRD plot. The details of phases and compounds
identified in XRD peak investigation for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA’s
surface after WEDM are given in Table VI.
Lotfineyestanak and Daneshmand [128] explained the
formation of various phases on the nitinol-60 SMA in WEDM.
Besides the NiTi (nitinol) phase, the other phases, namely, metal
oxides (NiO and Cu2O), CuZn, and intermetal compound-Ti2Ni
were also identified in the XRD pattern of nitinol-60. The
formation of these phases and compounds on the WEDMed
surface affects the mechanical and physical properties of the
surface as compared with bulk material properties. Manjaiah
et al. [129] attempted the WEDM of Ni50Ti50 SMA and
explained that during the pulse on time period, high discharge
energy enhances heat conduction and also nonuniform heating
and cooling by the long pulse off duration, leading to higher

TABLE VI: Details of compounds identified in XRD analysis for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA during WEDM [133, 145].

Lattice parameters
Identified
Ref. code compound Crystal structure a/b/c (Å) a/b/c (°) Space group Calculated density (g/cm3)

98-009- Nitinol (NiTi) Cubic a 5 b 5 c 5 2.998 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 Pm

3m 6.57
0783
98-012- Ni4Ti3 Hexagonal a 5 b 5 11.1776, c 5 5.0582 a 5 b 5 90, c 5 120 R
3 6.89
2611
98-005- TiO Monoclinic a 5 9.34, b 5 4.142, c 5 5.855 a 5 90, b 5 107.53, c 5 90 C12/m1 4.91
5003
98-000- Ti2O3 Hexagonal a 5 b 5 5.158, c 5 13.611 a 5 b 5 90, c 5 120 R
3C 4.57
0774
98-009- Cu2NiZn Cubic a 5 b 5 c 5 3.639 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 Fm
3m 8.66
9253
98-007- CuZn Cubic a 5 b 5 c 5 2.950 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 Pm
3m 8.34
2839
98-005- TiO2 Hexagonal a 5 b 5 5.291, c 5 6.133 a 5 b 5 90, c 5 120 P3121 2.68
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr

5003
98-003- NiTiO3 Hexagonal a 5 b 5 5.05, c 5 13.86 a 5 b 5 90, c 5 120 R
3 5.03
3679
98-009- NiZn Cubic a 5 b 5 c 5 2.914 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 I
43m 8.02
0821
98-000- Cu5Zn8 Cubic a 5 b 5 c 5 8.878 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 I
43m 7.98
1121
98-004- Cu4O3 Tetragonal a 5 b 5 5.837, c 5 9.932 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 I41/amd 5.93
6051
98-008- Cuo.6Ni1.4Zn2 Tetragonal a 5 b 5 3.8360, c 5 3.3450 a 5 b 5 c 5 90 P4/mmm 8.47
7512

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surface oxidation. This oxidation of WEDMed surface led to an
increase in surface hardness. Liu et al. [131] discussed the XRD
pattern of Ni50.8Ti49.2 SMA in WEDM and show besides
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austenite peaks (nitinol), Ti2O3 and (Cu 1 Ni 1 Zn)-FCC
peaks were also observed on WEDMed surface. A slight shifting
of austenite peak specifies the occurrence of residual stress on
SMA’s surface at MC mode. Similar consequences were also
confirmed by Sharma et al. [124] for WEDM of Inconel 760.
MH analysis
In the WEDM process, the removal of material takes place at
extremely high temperatures (;10,000 °C), which also affects
the hardness near the machined surface. WEDMed surface
composed of RL, HAZ, and converted layer [141]. The value of
hardness for a different layer within the machined surface is
not the same because of different phase structures and
metallurgical properties. Generally, MH in the RL and HAZ
are changed, whereas in the converted layer, MH remains
unaltered [142]. Primarily quenching effect and oxide forma-
tion are two probable phenomena for improvement in MH
near the machined surface. In the WEDM process, the outer
machined surface experienced heating effect because of thermal
impact (machining at extremely high temperature) and sud-
denly cooling effect by the pressurized dielectric fluid during
pause duration (pulse off time) which leads to quenching effect.
Because of this quenching effect experienced by the outer
machined surface, the hardness for the outer machining region
has been increased as against the hardness of bulk material.
Owing to the existence of transient thermal stresses in the RL
and HAZ, the hardening effect was observed in this region
only. Another reason for the hardening effect in the machined
surface might be oxide formation. In WEDM, some foreign
atoms were also detected on WEDMed surface because of the
chemical reactions between the cutting wire and the workpiece’s
material at elevated temperature. The transfer of material and
simultaneous quenching effect causes the formation of various
carbides, oxides, compounds, and over-tempered martensite. So,
this oxide formation also contributes to the surface hardening
effect [138].
Bisaria and Shandilya [50] studied the MH profile for
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM. Figure 6(a) shows the variation
in MH for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA with depth from the outermost
machining surface after WEDM. In the RL region (up to 35 lm),
the MH was increased by approximately 58%, whereas in the
region of HAZ (40–90 lm), the hardness was found to increase to
31% approximately as against the bulk hardness of SMA. The MH
of the converted layer was found to be approximately the same as
bulk material’s hardness. Similar findings were observed by Soni
et al. [140] for Ti50Ni40Co10 ternary SMA after WEDM. In the RL
region (3.5–45 lm), average MH reached 442 HV because of the
ª Materials Research Society 2020
Review
formation of many oxides such as NiTiO3, TiO2, and NiO on the
WEDMed surface. In HAZ, MH was noticed at 375 HV because of
phase transformation in the Ti50Ni40Co10 SMA. Beneath the HAZ
converted layer exhibits MH at 343 HV, which almost remains
unchanged as compared with the hardness of bulk material. Hsieh
et al. [134] indicated that hardness for the outer machining surface
was reached to 875 HV and 807 HV for Ti35.3Ni49.5Zr15 (bulk
hardness-320 HV) and Ti50Ni49.5Cr0.5 (bulk hardness-290 HV)
ternary SMA, respectively, during WEDM. This increment in
surface hardness maybe because of the formation and deposition
of oxides of particles from the wire electrode to the RL. Liu et al.
[130] exposed the MH profile for the WEDMed surface of
Ni50.80Ti49.20 SMA. Figure 6(b) displays the MH profile for the
subsurface of Ni50.80Ti49.20 SMA at indentation load 10 g. The
average MH for the outer machined surface was considerably
increased by 50% from the MC to the first TC (TC1), and then
slightly increased in the successive TC (TC2, TC3, and TC4). MH
in HAZ was lower at each mode in comparison to the hardness of
the bulk material. This is due to the fact that the softening effect in
HAZ occurred because of thermal degradation, causing a reduction
in MH. Lin et al. [144] described that MH in the vicinity of the
machined surface can reach 550 HV for Fe-based SMAs (Fe–
30Mn–6Si and Fe–30Mn–6Si–5Cr) due to the formation of
various compounds such as Cu0.83Si0.17 (Fe and Cr) solid solutions
and ή-(Cu, Si), and in the RL. Liu et al. [131] reported that during
WEDM of Ni50.80Ti49.20 SMA, the average nano-hardness for the
white layer was reached to 7.93 GPa in comparison to the nano-
hardness of base material 5.29 GPa at MC mode. This hardening
effect was owing to Ti2O3 oxide formation in the RL. The
formation of small dark and bright precipitates in upper, as well
as lower portions of the RL due to rapid quenching, may also
ascribe for this hardening effect. But, Sharma et al. [120] noticed
the different findings in WEDM of Inconel 706 superalloy. It was
noticed that MH of WDMed surface was decreased up to a certain
depth. This is because of very low carbon content in Inconel 706
which results in the softness of the machined surface after
quenching effect by pressurized dielectric fluid in pulse off time.
Shape recovery ability
SME bending test is generally utilized for measuring the SRA of
NiTi SMAs. Figure 7(a) illustrates the schematic diagram for
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr
SME bending test [146]. In the bending test setup, the surface
bending strain (es) and the SRA (RSME) are shown in terms of
specimen geometry. Hsieh et al. [134] conducted SME bending
test for measuring the SRA for Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr15 and
Ti50Ni49.5Cr0.5 SMAs in WEDM. For SME bending test, the
thickness of the specimen was 0.6 mm, which was much larger
than RL thickness (,60 mm). Figure 7(b) depicts the variation
of shape recovery (%) against bending strain for different NiTi-
X (Cr/Zr) ternary SMAs near the machined surface. These
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Figure 6: (a) Variation of surface MH for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at higher spark on time (125 ls) [Reprinted with permission from Ref. 50]. (b) MH profile in the
WEDMed subsurface for Ni50.80Ti49.20 SMA [Reprinted with permission from Ref. 130].
ternary SMAs show exactly perfect shape recovery at normal
bending strains (3% and 5%); however, a slight degradation in
SRA was observed at higher bending strains 8% than that of as-
annealed NiTi-X (Cr/Zr) ternary SMAs. Similar remarks were
reported by Lin et al. [144] during WEDM of Fe-based SMAs.
SME bending test was performed on the sample having
a thickness of 1.0 mm, which was more than the RL thickness
(,50 lm). These WEDMed Fe-based SMAs still display a good
SRA at normal bending strain of 2%, but a slight reduction in
SRA at higher bending strain of 4% was recorded as compared
with as-annealed specimens. The conclusion from the results of
SME bending test can be made that the RL formation near the
outer machining surface in the WEDM process has the
detectable effect on SRA of these SMAs at normal bending
strains. SRA was slightly abridged at higher bending strains
because RL (made of different composition) not exhibits any
SME and the inhibited effect of the RL on WEDMed surface
also weakens the SRA of SMAs. Consequently, in thin plate
applications, RL formed on the WEDMed surface of SMAs
ª Materials Research Society 2020
Review
should be eliminated either mechanically or electrochemically
before the SME treatment to enhance their SRA properties.
Residual stresses
Residual stresses (RS) may be defined as effective static tri-axial
stresses (in the equilibrium state) without the action of external
force and/or moments. The prime cause for the occurrence of
residual stress is the plastic deformation of either macroscopic area
of the component or microscopic area of multiphase material by
external and internal forces [31]. These forces are basically due to
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr
thermal loading, phase transformation (diffusion) [34]. After
machining, residual stress (tensile or compressive) existed on the
machined surface of the component. As WEDM is a thermal
process, the residual stresses generated on the WEDMed surface
mainly occurred because of plastic deformation, metallurgical
transformation (machining zone), and nonhomogeneous heat
flow. The compressive nature of residual stress is mainly ascribed
to the plastic deformation, whereas thermal loading is responsible
for the generation of tensile residual stresses. Soni et al. [142]
cambridge.org/JMR 14

examined the generation of residual stresses on the WEDMed
surface of Ti50Ni45Co5 SMA. After the WEDM process, compres-
sive residual stress ( 265.9 MPa) was observed on the WEDMed
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surface of the SMA. Higher MH and sample thickness (plastic
deformation) validate the existence of compressive residual stress.
The minimum tensile stress presented in thin RL was equilibrated
Figure 7: Shape recovery ability (a) SME bending test [Reprinted with
permission from Ref. 146]. (b) NiTi-X (Cr/Zr) ternary SMAs before and after
WEDM.
Figure 8: Variation of surface residual stress with (a) pulse on time and (b) SV for Ti50Ni40Cu10 SMA in WEDM [Reprinted with permission from Ref. 147].
ª Materials Research Society 2020
Review
by the rest of the material. Manjaiah and Laubscher [147]
investigated the generation of residual stresses on the WEDMed
surface of Ti50Ni40Cu10 SMA after WEDM. Figures 8(a) and 8(b)
illustrate the variation of surface residual stress with a pulse on
time and SV, respectively. From Fig. 8(a), it can be concluded that
TON has an obvious effect on the surface residual stress. The
residual stress of compressive nature existed on the WEDMed
surface up to TON-116 ls. After a further rise in pulse on time up
to 128 ls, the nature of residual stress was changed to tensile. The
existence of tensile stress on the outer WEDMed surface maybe
because of the higher discharge energy at higher TON. The high
value of discharge energy enhances heat conduction into the
machining zone, and the sudden quenching effect experienced by
the machining zone in pause time also results in higher tensile
residual stress. These tensile stresses generated on the machined
surface have a detrimental effect on fatigue properties and SRA of
SMA. The effect of SV on surface residual stress is depicted in
Fig. 8(b). At a lower SV, high tensile stress was noticed. The reason
for this is quite similar, as SV decreases react layer thickness and
discharge energy increases.
In the WEDM process, SI for NiTi-based SMAs is mainly
influenced by IP, TOFF, and TON. The other parameters such as
SV, WS, and wire material are not indicating an exact pattern on
SI. So, more experimental examinations are required in a different
range of these parameters to predict the clear effect. In the above
discussion, the effect of a single parameter on SI was studied by
the researchers, but the interaction effect of parameters has not
been studied in a comprehensive way. So, a comprehensive
scientific approach–based study is required for SI of NiTi-based
SMAs with all possible WEDM process parameters.
Summary
The review work presented here is an overview of WEDM-
induced SI for NiTi-based SMAs and future research
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr
cambridge.org/JMR 15
 Review

TABLE VII: Summary of research work on WEDM of NiTi-based SMAs.

Surface integrity aspects

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Surface Elemental Phase

Machining characteristics composition analysis RLT MH RS
Author Material (SMA) Input parameter characteristics (SEM) (EDS) (XRD) (lm) (HV) (MPa) SRA

Lotfineyestanak Nitinol-60 ... ... ✕ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕

and
Daneshman
[128]
Manjaiah et al. Ti50Ni50 TON/TOFF/SV/WS/FP MRR/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✕
[129]
Liu et al. [130] Ni50.8Ti49.2 ... SR ✓ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕
Liu et al. [131] Ni50.8Ti49.2 ... ... ✕ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✕
Sharma et al. [132] Ni40Ti60 TON/TOFF/IP/SV CR/SR/dimensional shift ✕ ✕ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕
Bisaria and Ni55.95Ti44.05 TON/TOFF/SV/WF/WT CR/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕
Shandilya [133]
Bisaria and Ni50.89Ti49.11 SON/SOFF/SV/WS/WT Cutting efficiency/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕
Shandilya [50]
Majumder, and Nitinol TON/TOFF/IP/WS/WT/FP SR (Ra/Rq/Rz) ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✕
Maity [127]
Shandilya et al. Ni50.89Ti49.11 TON/TOFF/SV/WF/WT ... ✕ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕
[143]
Wang et al. [149] TiNi-01 TON/TOFF/IP/open voltage MRR/SR ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
Abidi et al. [14] Ni55.8Ti44.2 Capacitance/discharge Tool wear rate/MRR/ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
voltage/electrode overcut/taper angle/
material circularity
Majumder, and NiTi TON/IP/WT/WS/FP SR ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
Maity [15]
Bisaria and Ni50.89Ti49.11 Discharge energy MRR crater depth ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
Shandilya [145] density/spark
frequency/WS/Wt/SV
Bisaria and Ni50.89Ti49.11 SON/SOFF/SV/WS/WT Corner accuracy ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
Shandilya [148]
Takalea and Ti49.4Ni50.6 TON/TOFF/SV/WS/WT MRR/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕
chougule [150]
Magabe et al. Ni55.8Ti TON/TOFF/SV/WS MRR/SR ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
[151]
Lin et al. [144] Fe–30Mn–6Si ... ... ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✓
Fe–30Mn–
6Si–5Cr
Ti35.5Ni49.5Zr15
Hsieh et al. [134] Pulse duration Max. feeding rate/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✓
Ti50Ni49.5Cr0.5
Narendranath Ti50Ni42.4Cu7.6 TON/TOFF/IP MRR/SR ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
et al. [135]
Manjaiah et al. Ti50Ni45Cu5 TON/TOFF/IP/table feed MRR/SR ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
[136] rate
Manjaiah et al. Ti50Ni40Cu10
TON/TOFF/SV/WS/SF MRR/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
[137] Ti50Ni30Cu20
Manjaiah et al. Ti50Ni40Cu10
TON/TOFF/SV MRR/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕
[138] Ti50Ni30Cu20
Manjaiah et al. Ti50Ni40Cu10
TON/TOFF/SV MRR/SR ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✕ ✕ ✕
[139] Ti50Ni30Cu20
Soni et al. [140] Ti50Ni40Co10 TON/TOFF/SV/SF/WS MRR/SR ✓ ✕ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕
Manjaiah and Ti50Ni40Cu10 TON/TOFF/SV ... ✕ ✕ ✕ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✕
Laubscher [147]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✕
j Journal of Materials Research j www.mrs.org/jmr

Soni et al. [141] Ti50Ni49Co1 TON/SV CS/SR

Soni et al. [142] Ti50Ni45Co5 TON/TOFF/SV MRR/SR ✓ ✓ ✓ ✕ ✓ ✓ ✕

directions. The SI aspects such as surface characteristics, react
layer, elemental composition, phase analysis, MH, SRA, and
residual stresses for NiTi SMAs during the WEDM process
have been discussed in this study. The research works on
WEDM of NiTi-based SMAs are summarized in Table VII.
Nowadays, NiTi-based SMAs are most widely used in many
important industrial sectors ranging from aerospace to bio-
medical. Nonetheless, these alloys are faced with many diffi-
culties during conventional machining. For the fruitful
machining of these alloys, WEDM technique can be exploited.
However, the SI for the machined component is affected in
WEDM, but it can be abridged by the proper selection of

ª Materials Research Society 2020 cambridge.org/JMR 16


WEDM parameters. SI aspects for NiTi-based SMAs in WEDM
were mainly influenced by electrical parameter, namely, TON,
IP, TOFF, and SV; however, the effect of nonelectrical param-
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eters was trifling. The selection of WEDM process parameters
which results in low discharge energy can effectively machine
these alloys with minimum SI alteration. This review article has
highlighted substantial contributions of the researchers on the
SI of NiTi SMAs in WEDM. The research gap identified in this
study may be utilized by researchers for carrying out research
in the domain of WEDM of NiTi-based SMAs.
Future scope
Many researchers have studied SI aspects of equi-atomic or
near equiatomic NiTi SMAs; however, very few researchers
have attempted the WEDM of HTSMAs and MSMAs. The
domain of most of the experimental works discussed in this
study was confined up to the parametric study of SI at the
lower and upper levels of influencing WEDM process param-
eter. However, very few researchers have considered the
interaction effect (multiparameter at a time) of WEDM
parameters for the SI of NiTi-based SMAs. Furthermore,
researchers have also not considered many essential WEDM
parameters, namely, discharge energy, spark frequency, and
wire material. Therefore, it is essential to unveil the effect of all
the possible WEDM process parameters on the SI for NiTi-
based SMAs. The optimization of process parameters for SI is
another unrevealed research area for NiTi-based SMAs in
WEDM. The literature review in this area divulges that most
of the research works have concentrated only on parametric
study; however, very few researchers have considered SI aspects
as the response parameter for optimization. So, the research in
the area of optimization of SI aspects requires extra consider-
ation. This work highlights the SI of NiTi SMAs during
WEDM, but other advanced machining process can be also
explored.
Most of the researchers have accomplished the qualitative
analysis of surface characteristics. Very few researchers have
performed quantitative analysis of the surface characteristics in
terms of SCD and crater size. The study on crater size requires
serious attention. In most of the cases, the goal of the study is
to quantitatively analyze the RL (thickness and elemental
composition); however, crystallography of the RL has not been
attempted by many researchers. The study on the HAZ is rarely
reported in the literature, so research work is also required in
this field. The study on residual stress and SRA for NiTi-based
SMAs after WEDM is very limited, so it can be another area of
future research. The influence of WEDM parameters on SE is
rarely considered by researchers. Therefore, the study on SE for
NiTi SMAs after the WEDM process is another foremost area
of research.
ª Materials Research Society 2020
Review
The sustainable machining of NiTi SMAs is not only the
need for the present but also the demand of the future. The
study on sustainable machining of NiTi SMAs in WEDM is
seldom reported in the literature. So, there is a great scope of
sustainability in the machining of NiTi SMAs by the WEDM
process for the betterment of society and the environment.
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cambridge.org/JMR 22
Original Article

Proc IMechE Part C:

J Mechanical Engineering Science
The machining characteristics and 2019, Vol. 233(3) 1068–1078
! IMechE 2018

surface integrity of Ni-rich NiTi shape Article reuse guidelines:

sagepub.com/journals-permissions

memory alloy using wire electric DOI: 10.1177/0954406218763447

journals.sagepub.com/home/pic

discharge machining

Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya

Abstract
Owing to the increasing demand for Ni-rich shape memory alloys in various sectors such as biomedical, aerospace, and
robotics, the efficient machining of shape memory alloys is vital for their productive exploitation. The aim of this
experimental investigation is to explore the influence of wire electric discharge machining process parameters such
as spark gap voltage, wire tension, spark off time, wire speed, and spark on time, on the cutting efficiency and surface
roughness of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA using one factor at a time approach. The results reveal that cutting efficiency and surface
roughness are strongly influenced by spark off time, spark on time, and spark gap voltage, whereas wire speed and wire
tension have the inconsequential effect. The presence of many microcracks, craters, voids, bulges of debris, and the re-
solidified layer of molten material on the machined surface have been detected in scanning electron micrographs. The
results of phase analysis using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction divulge the migration of foreign
elements from the brass wire and dielectric to the machined surface. Due to the formation of recast layer and various
oxides, the hardening effect near the machined surface was also observed. The hardness near the machined surface has
been increased several times in comparison to bulk hardness.

Keywords
Shape memory alloy, wire electric discharge machining, cutting efficiency, recast layer thickness, microhardness, X-ray
diffraction

Date received: 29 November 2017; accepted: 5 February 2018

Introduction
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) have been experiencing
substantial development over the past few decades,
motivated by a series of their unique properties such
as shape memory effect (SME), superelasticity/pseu-
doelasticity (SE), high corrosion resistant, high wear
resistant, and high specific strength.1–5 Ni-rich SMAs
are being widely used in various areas, namely
robotics, biomedical, aerospace, and other important
industries due to their outstanding properties.6–9
Nevertheless, conventional machining of SMAs is
extremely difficult, which creates low surface quality,
high machining time, and high dimensional deviation.
Therefore, to overcome these defects, the advanced
machining process such as electrochemical machining,
laser machining, water jet machining, electric dis-
charge machining, and wire electric discharge machin-
ing (WEDM) process can be utilized for efficient and
economic machining of SMAs.3 However, every
advanced machining process has its own limitations.
WEDM process has high suitability for machining
hard and conductive alloys with intricate two-dimen-
sional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) profiles.10–12
WEDM is a noncontact type, spark erosion based
machining process in which the material is eroded
by series of recurring sparks between the workpiece
and traveling wire.13,14 WEDM process has the cap-
ability of producing a complex geometry in any con-
ductive materials irrespective of their strength and
hardness.15,16
The properties of SMAs namely superelasticity,
awful strain hardening, presence of intermetallic
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Corresponding author:
Himanshu Bisaria, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal
Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Allahabad 211004,
Uttar Pradesh, India.
Email: rme1509@mnnit.ac.in
Bisaria and Shandilya
compounds, and cyclic hardening are mainly ascribed
to the difficulties in conventional machining of
SMAs.17–19 Weinert et al.,20 Guo et al.,21 and Lin
et al.22 were faced similar severe problems such as
tool wear, hardening of machined surface, burr for-
mation, high cutting time, and low surface finish in
conventional machining of SMAs. Manjaiah et al.23
investigated the machinability of equiatomic
(Ni50Ti50) SMA in WEDM and concluded that to
optimize material removal rate (MRR) and surface
roughness (SR), pulse duration was the most signifi-
cant factor followed by flushing pressure and pulse off
time. Manjaiah et al.24 described the machining char-
acteristics and surface morphology of Ti50Ni45Cu5
SMA in the WEDM process. It was found that
MRR and SR increase with the increase in peak cur-
rent, pulse on time, and table feed. The machined sur-
face was characterized for many craters, microcracks,
voids, and recast material. Liu et al.25 conducted
WEDM on Ni50.8Ti49.2 SMA to evaluate the surface
integrity from main cut mode to finish trim cut mode.
A thick white layer with microcracks at main cut
mode and a thin white layer without defects at trim
cut mode were observed. Hsieh et al.26 explored the
machining characteristics of Ti–Ni–Zr/Cr ternary
SMAs in WEDM. It was noticed that maximum
wire feed rate without breakage increased with the
increase in pulse duration. It was also noticed that
due to deposition of the foreign elements from the
consumed brass wire in recast layer, the properties
near the outer machined surface changed like micro-
hardness and shape recovery ability. Liu et al.27 stu-
died crystallography, composition, and properties of a
recast layer formed on Ni50.8Ti49.2 SMA surface in
WEDM process. A porous and nonuniform bi-
layered structure white layer or recast layer was
observed on the machined surface. The nano-hardness
of recast layer was found to be much higher than that
of bulk material due to oxide hardening. Soni et al.28
performed WEDM of Ti50Ni40Co10 SMA and
observed that pulse off time, pulse on time, and
servo voltage are the most influencing factors on the
MRR and SR. It was also found that a thin recast
layer was formed for high servo voltage and low pulse
on time.
From the detailed literature survey, it was con-
cluded that the most of past research work mainly
concentrated on machining characteristics of NiTi
SMA but study on machining characteristics and sur-
face integrity for Ni-rich NiTi SMA in WEDM has
been rarely reported. The aim of the present work is
to explore the machinability of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA in
WEDM. The effect of five input parameters, i.e.,
spark gap voltage (SV), wire tension (WT), spark off
time (SOFF), wire speed (WS), and spark on time
(SON) on cutting efficiency (CE) and surface rough-
ness (SR) were studied. The morphology, elemental
composition, phase analysis, and microhardness of
the surface after WEDM using scanning electron
1069
microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy
(EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Vickers micro-
hardness tester respectively have been discussed in
this study.
Materials and methodology
Material
Ni50.89Ti49.11 (at.%) SMA in square plate form with
the dimensions of 165 mm  165 mm  6 mm and a
density of 6.7 g/cm3 was considered as a workpiece
for this study. The elemental composition of
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA using EDS analysis is shown in
Figure 1. The XRD pattern of as-received SMA
(before machining) is shown in Figure 2. As SMAs
existed in two phases such as austenite and martensite,
austenite (B2) phase with a strong appearance, mar-
tensite phase, and Ni-rich phase can be distinctly seen
in the XRD peak of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA. The martens-
itic phase transformation temperatures Ni50.89Ti49.11
SMA are detected by differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) test. The DSC curve of Ni50.89Ti49.11 in both
forward and reverse transformations respectively is
shown in Figure 3.29 The phase transformation tem-
peratures were measured by drawing a tangent to the
start and end regions of the transformation peak (exo-
thermic peak in cooling and endothermic peak in
heating) and the baseline of the cooling and heating
curves. M* and A* are a DSC peak temperature of
forward and reverse transformation respectively.
Experimental details
DSC (Perkin-Elmer) test was performed as per stand-
ard ASTM F2005.29 The controlled heating/cooling
rate of 10  C/min was used during experimentation.
The weight of specimens was 30 mg and nitrogen gas
with the flow rate of 30 mL/min was used. The speci-
mens were machined using four-axis CNC WEDM
(Electronica Ultracut, 843) in the dimension of
10 mm  10 mm  6 mm. WEDM parameters such as
SV, WT, SOFF, WS, and SON were considered as vari-
able parameters during experimentation. The fixed
machining parameters and the variable parameters
considered in this investigation are given in Table 1.
The cutting time for calculating cutting speed was
recorded using the stopwatch. The CE was calculated
by using equation (1)
 
CE ¼ Vs  t mm2 =min ð1Þ
where Vs is the cutting speed (mm/min), and t is the
height of the sample (mm).
The root mean square roughness (Rq) was con-
sidered as response parameters in spite of average sur-
face roughness (Ra) because of high accurateness of
Rq describing the surface roughness. Rq is a 3D sur-
face parameter that characterizes the roughness of the
1070 Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 233(3)

Figure 1. Elemental composition of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA using EDS.

surface. Rq was measured by Bruker Contour GTK

optical profiler. Rq was measured at three different
locations in the same transverse direction by consider-
ing 240  180 mm2 area. The average of three values
has opted as response parameters (Rq) for study. The
X-ray analysis of machined surface was conducted at
room temperature by Pan Analytical X’PERT using
Cu-Ka radiation. The 2 (5–100 ) scanning rate was
2 /min. The morphology of machined surface has
been studied by JEOL JSM-6010LA SEM equipped
with EDS ability. The recast layer thickness (RLT)
was measured using ImageJ software. The RLT was
calculated by using the area and length of a recast
layer measured by ImageJ software. The RLT was
measured using equation (2)29

Figure 2. XRD peaks of as-received Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA. ARL

RLT ¼ ð2Þ
LRL

where ARL is the area of a recast layer (mm2) and

LRL is the length of a recast layer (mm) calculated
by ImageJ software. The XRD peak analysis of
machined surface was identified by using the
X’PERT High Score Plus software.
The microhardness of machined surface was mea-
sured with pyramidal diamond indenter at 250 mN
load and 15 s dwell time by using CSM microhardness
tester. The microhardness was calculated by the
expression given in equation (3)28

2Psin 136
2
Hv ¼ ð3Þ
d2
Figure 3. DSC analysis of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA.
Bisaria and Shandilya 1071

Table 1. Variable and fixed parameters in WEDM for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA.

Variable parameters Symbol Levels Responses

Spark gap voltage (V) SV 35 45 55 65 75 CE

Wire speed (m/min) WS 4 6 8 10 12 SR
Wire tension (g) WT 450 500 600 700 1000
Spark on time (ms) SON 105 110 115 120 125
Spark off time (ms) SOFF 52 55 57 60 63
Fixed parameters Value
Conductivity of dielectric (ms/m)  20–24
Servo feed (machine unit) 2060
Pulse peak voltage (V) 12
Pressure of DI water (kg/cm2) 9
Wire (material and diameter) Brass (Ø 0.25 mm)
Working temperature ( C) 25
SV: spark gap voltage; SOFF: spark off time; SON: spark on time; WS: wire speed; WT: wire tension; DI: deionized.

where Hv is the Vicker hardness, P is the applied load,

and d is the mean of two diagonals of square pyramid
diamond indenter having an angle of 136 .
Results and discussion
Machining characteristics
The effect of individual variable parameters of
WEDM on CE and SR can be seen in Figures 4(a)-
(e). Figure 4(a) depicts the variation of CE and SR
against spark on time. It can be seen in Figure 4(a)
that, at the fixed value of other variable parameters,
CE and SR increase in proportion with the increase in
SON. In the WEDM process, the thermal energy
required for material removal is obtained from the
conversion of discharge energy. So, the thermal
energy depends on the level of discharge energy per
pulse. The discharge energy can be calculated by
expression given in equation (4)30,31
Discharge Energy ðEd Þ
Z te
ð4Þ
¼ Ve ðtÞ  ie ðtÞ  dt ffi Ve Ie te
0 as discharge energy at higher SOFF is reduced, result-
where ie(t) and Ve(t) are discharge current and dis-
charge voltage, respectively and te is the discharge
time. Since the discharge voltage is nearly constant,
discharge current and discharge time are the main
factors, which affect the heating capability of each
spark. For WEDM, the value of discharge voltage
varies from 15 V to 30 V.31 For this study, the dis-
charge voltage was 28 V during the experimentation,
whereas the discharge current was 12 A. For zero igni-
tion delay time (td ¼ 0), the duration of discharge (te)
is equal to spark on time (i.e. te ¼ SON).
Ed / SON ð6Þ
CE at higher SON (125 ms) is 1.13, 1.45, 2.33, and
4.83 times more than those of CE at 120, 115, 110, and
105 ms spark on time, respectively. This is due to the
fact that at higher SON, the discharge energy (equation
(6)) and spark’s intensity enhanced resulting in the
high removal of material, thus CE increased.24,32 SR
at higher SON (125 ms) is 1.14, 1.41, 1.67, and1.68 times
more than those of SR at 120, 115, 110, and 105 ms,
respectively. The higher electro-discharge energy is
also responsible for the formation of deeper craters
on the machined surface in WEDM, which led to
high surface roughness.33
Figure 4(b) shows the effect of spark off time on
CE and SR. The increase in CE and SR with the
decrease in spark off time is shown in Figure 4(b).
CE at lower spark off time (52 ms) was improved by
approximately 1.05, 1.14, 1.26, and 1.42 times com-
pared to CE at 55, 57, 60, and 63 ms SOFF, respectively.
SR at lower SOFF is also enhanced by 1.12, 1.26, 1.29,
and 1.37 times compared to SR at 55, 57, 60, and
63 ms SOFF respectively. The spark’s intensity as well
ing in less material removal leading to lower CE.
Similarly, SR at higher SOFF is also decreased, due
to the increase in flushing time, i.e. time to wipe out
the molten droplets from machined surface.34,36 In
WEDM, the sparking frequency (sparks per second)
increases with the decrease in spark off time at con-
stant spark on time. The sparking frequency in elec-
trical discharge machining is given by the following
expression:30
106
F¼ ð7Þ
SON þ SOFF

where F is the sparking frequency, SON is the spark on

Ed ¼ 28  12 SON ð5Þ time (ms), and SOFF the spark off time (ms).
1072
Figure 4. The variation of CE and surface roughness of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA with: (a) spark on time; (b) spark off time; (c) spark gap
voltage; (d) wire speed; (e) wire tension.
As the sparking frequency increases, sparking-
ampere output decreases. So, low sparking
frequency was preferred for rough cutting, whereas
high sparking frequency was used for the finishing
operation.
The variation of CE and SR with spark gap voltage
is illustrated in Figure 4(c). Like SOFF, the increase in
the spark gap voltage has inverse effect on CE and
Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 233(3)
SR. The CE at lower spark gap voltage (35 V)
improves by 1.26, 1.34, 1.51, and 2.03 times compared
to CE at 45, 55, 65, and 75 V, respectively. SR at
lower SV (35 V) is enhanced by 1.08, 1.1, 1.28 and
1.32 times compared to SR at 45, 55, 65 and 75 V
respectively. Because at higher spark gap voltage,
the spark gap is increased leading to decrease in the
number of sparks per unit time.28,34
Bisaria and Shandilya
Figure 4(d) and (e) represents the effect of wire
speed and wire tension on CE and SR, respectively.
The wire speed and wire tension have trivial effect on
CE and SR. The CE and SR slightly varied from
24.10 to 25.80 mm2/min and from 2.30 to 2.41 mm
respectively with wire speed. The CE and SR slightly
increase with the increase in wire speed; however, wire
tension has negligible effect on CE and SR.28 Since at
higher WS, discharge energy is high, more molten
material splashed around the surface by dielectric
pressure and hence higher CE.28 At higher WS,
uneven craters are formed due to uneven spark on
the workpiece’s surface leads to higher SR.
However, after a certain value of WS, CE and SR
show the reverse trend.33 The substantial amount of
machining cost in WEDM is associated with the cost
of wire used in machining,37 so for economic machin-
ing lower speed is preferred. The dimensional devi-
ation (the difference in dimension of desired and
actual) gradually increases with wire tension.38,39
For high dimensional accuracy, sufficient wire tension
is required during machining, whereas higher wire
tension may cause frequent wire breakage. A sufficient
wire tension is required for accurate machining of
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA in the WEDM process.
Figure 5. SEM micrograph and 3D profile of machined surface of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM: (a) higher SON (125 ms); (b) lower
SON (105 ms).
1073
Surface morphology
From the results, it is concluded that SON, SOFF, and
SV are the most influencing variable parameters for
response parameters. Thus, the influence of these vari-
able parameters on the surface characteristics of
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM has been studied.
Figure 5(a) and (b) shows the SEM micrographs and
3D surface topography of the machined surface of
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at higher and lower SON, respect-
ively. The machined surface is characterized by a melt-
ing zone, which is the result of the summation of single
spark. Similar to machining characteristics, the surface
morphology of machined surface depends on the
machining parameters of WEDM. Many discharge
craters, globules of debris (melting drops), micro-
cracks, voids, and pockmarks are observed on the
machined surface, which can be seen distinctly in the
SEM micrographs. Surface morphology is strongly
influenced by discharge energy and also the intensity
of sparks. Due to higher discharge energy, material
removal rate and the formation of deeper and bigger
size crater are increased.38 At higher discharge energy
(i.e. higher SON or lower SOFF and SV), more micro-
cracks, more debris, and large size craters (in 3D top-
ography) is observed in the SEM micrographs as
1074
compared to lower discharge energy (i.e. lower SON or
higher SOFF and SV).
Recast layer thickness analysis
The cross-sectional SEM micrograph illustrates the
layer of re-solidified molten material during spark
erosion on the machined surface, known as a recast
layer or white layer. The recast layer formed on the
machined surface at different parameters is shown in
Figure 6. The percentage atomic deposition (PAD) of
foreign elements on recast layer has been evaluated
using EDS analysis by taking three different points
on a recast layer (shown by ‘X’) and the average elem-
ental composition is shown in the Figure 6. The EDS
analysis of a recast layer reveals that recast layer com-
prises the atoms of C, Cu, Zn, and O elements other
than base elements (Ni and Ti). Besides Ni and Ti, the
presence of the foreign element (C, O, Cu, and Zn) in
recast layer is due to the chemical reaction at higher
temperature and the elements from brass wire (Cu and
Zn) and dielectric may also diffuse on the surface
during WEDM. Figure 6(a) and (b) show the thick-
ness and PAD of a recast layer formed on the surface
of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM at higher and
lower spark on time, respectively. It is observed that
the RLT and PAD of foreign elements at higher SON
Figure 6. EDS analysis of RLT formed on surface of Ni50.89Ti49.11SMA after WEDM: (a) SON – 105 ms; (b) SON – 125 ms (SOFF – 54 ms,
SV – 50 V, WS – 8 m/min, WT – 600 g).
RLT: recast layer thickness.
Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 233(3)
are enhanced in comparison to lower SON. The
increase in SON may enhance discharge energy as
well as the intensity of the spark, which in turn eradi-
cates more material from workpiece and wire thus
causing a thick white layer with high PAD of foreign
elements.29 EDS mapping of the machined surface is
shown in Figure 7, where the deposition of foreign
elements (Cu, Zn, C, and O) over the machined sur-
face can be distinctively seen. Unlike SON, the RLT
and PAD of foreign elements at higher SOFF are
decreased in comparison to lower SOFF. The effect
of SOFF can be explained in the similar fashion as
SON; at higher SOFF, the discharge energy as well as
spark intensity decreases. At higher SOFF, the dur-
ation between successive pulses is also increased,
which causes low material removal.23 It was also
observed that at the lower spark gap voltage, a
thick recast layer with the high PAD of foreign elem-
ents formed in comparison to higher spark gap volt-
age. The effect of spark gap voltage can be explained
in a similar manner as that of spark off time. Due to
higher spark gap voltage, the spark gap widened caus-
ing low spark’s intensity and low discharge energy per
unit time.33 Further, XRD peak analysis of machined
surface endorses the EDS results. The value of RLT
and PAD of foreign elements at different levels of
SON, SOFF, and SV is given in Table 2.
Bisaria and Shandilya 1075

Figure 7. (a) Recast layer formed on machined surface at SON – 10 ms, SOFF – 54 ms, SV – 50 V, WS – 8 m/min and WT – 600 g;
(b) EDS of recast layer; (c)–(h) EDS mapping for recast layer.

Table 2. Surface characteristics of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at different levels of variable parameters in WEDM.

Surface characteristics

PAD
RLT (CuþZnþOþC) Microhardness
Fixed parameters Variable parameters Levels (mm) (wt%) (Hv)

SOFF – 54 ms Spark on time 105 28.43 20.85 327

SV – 50 V (ms) 110 29.97 33.48 416
WS – 8 m/min 115 30.42 37.35 503
WT – 600 g
120 32.87 40.24 594
125 33.07 40.67 659
SON – 114 ms, Spark off time 52 26.98 41.35 611
SV – 50 V, (ms) 55 24.14 39.89 587
WS – 8 m/min, 57 23.65 36.70 484
WT – 600 g
60 21.23 29.07 415
63 20.46 18.19 362
SON – 114 ms, Spark gap voltage (V) 35 29.55 40.83 630
SOFF – 54 ms, 45 25.69 38.26 563
WS – 8 m/min, 55 24.81 34.63 479
WT – 600 g
65 23.46 28.97 409
75 21.24 22.78 346
RLT: recast layer thickness; PAD: percentage atomic deposition; SV: spark gap voltage; SOFF: spark off time; SON: spark on time; WS: wire speed; WT:
wire tension.
1076
XRD phase analysis
Figure 8(a)-(c) displays the XRD pattern of the
machined surface for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at spark
gap voltage (35 V), spark off time (52 ls), and spark
on time (125 ls), respectively. The machined surface
consists of various compounds of Cu, Ni, Ti, and Zn
such as Cu5Zn8, Ni4Ti3, Cu4O3, NiTi, TiO, Ti2O3, and
NiCuO2 after WEDM. The high reactivity of Ti and
Figure 8. XRD analysis of machined surface of Ni50.89Ti49.11
SMA after WEDM: (a) spark gap voltage of 35 V; (b) SOFF of
52 ms; (b) SON of 125 ms.
SV: spark gap voltage; SOFF: spark off time; WS: wire speed; WT:
wire tension.
Figure 9. Microhardness profile of machined surface at higher spark on time (125 ms), SOFF – 54 ms, SV – 50 V, WS – 8 m/min, and
WT – 600 g.
Proc IMechE Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science 233(3)
Ni atoms is mainly ascribed to the formation of oxides
of Ni and Ti on the recast layer near the machined
surface.28,29 The formation of the compounds of Cu
and Zn is due to the diffusion of Cu and Zn atoms
from the brass wire to the machined surface. The pres-
ence of these compounds on the machined surface
strongly supports the EDS results.
Microhardness analysis
Figure 9 illustrates the variation of surface microhard-
ness against the depth from the machined surface for
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at higher spark on time. It is found
that the hardness of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA near the outer
surface has been increased several times as compared
to the bulk hardness of the material. This hardening
effect near the machined surface is due to either
‘‘quenching effect’’ or ‘‘oxide formation’’. During
WEDM, the surface of material experiences rapid
cooling by the high-pressure dielectric just after
machining at elevated temperature, which can enhance
the surface hardness in the vicinity of recast layer.36
The increase in the surface hardness may be due to
the formation of oxides of TiO, Cu4O3 and another
alloying element in recast layer. The machining zone
consists of three layers namely, recast layer, heat-
affected zone, and converted layer, respectively. In
the recast layer (0–37 mm), the hardness in this zone
was found to increase to 58%, approximately, whereas
in the heat-affected zone (40–90 mm), the hardness was
increased to 31% approximately in comparison to bulk
material hardness. However, in the converted layer, the
hardness was almost equal to the bulk hardness of the
material. Similar observations were recorded by Soni
et al.28 in WEDM of Ti50Ni40Co10 SMA. The micro-
hardness of machined surface at the different levels of
SON, SOFF, and SV are given in Table 2.
Bisaria and Shandilya
Conclusions
In this experimental study, the effect of WEDM vari-
able parameters such as spark on time, spark off
time, spark gap voltage, wire tension and wire
speed on cutting efficiency, surface roughness, and
surface integrity (recast layer, surface morphology,
phase analysis, and microhardness) for Ni50.89Ti49.11
SMA has been studied. The following conclusions
can be drawn based on the experimental results
and analysis:
1. The SR and CE are strongly influenced by spark
gap voltage, spark off time, and spark on time,
whereas the wire speed and wire tension have the
trifling effect. CE and SR increase with the
increase in SON and decrease with the increase in
SOFF and SV.
2. The surface of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA after WEDM is
characterized for many microcracks, debris, cra-
ters, voids, and re-solidified molten material.
3. The nonuniform recast layer of order 20–35 mm
formed on the machined surface at different par-
ameters. EDS analysis of recast layers divulges the
migration of foreign elements (Cu, Zn, C, and O)
from brass wire and dielectric on the recast layer
near the machined surface.
4. XRD analysis of machined surface reveals that the
various oxides and chemical compounds of Cu,
Zn, Ni, and Ti, namely Cu5Zn8, Ni4Ti3, Cu4O3,
NiTi, TiO, and NiCuO2 were formed on the
machined surface after WEDM.
5. The surface hardness near the recast layer was
increased to 58% in comparison to bulk hardness.
The hardening effect was due to the formation of
various oxides and quenching effect of the
machined surface.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Himanshu Bisaria http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4867-607X
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electrical discharge machining of nitinol shape
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MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 2001,
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discharge energy on machining characteristics in EDM.
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Experimental investigations on performance character-
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Ti50Ni42.4Cu7.6 shape memory alloy. Proc IMechE,
Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 2013. DOI:
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Effect of electrode material in wire electro discharge
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memory alloy. Precis Eng 2015; 41: 68–77.
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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-019-1655-5

TECHNICAL PAPER

Study on crater depth during material removal in WEDC of Ni‑rich

nickel–titanium shape memory alloy
Himanshu Bisaria1   · Pragya Shandilya1

Received: 6 September 2018 / Accepted: 20 February 2019

© The Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 2019

Abstract
The objective of this experimental investigation is to reveal the individual effect of wire electrical discharge cutting (WEDC)
process parameters, namely discharge energy density, wire feed rate, spark frequency, wire tension, and spark gap voltage on
average crater depth, material removal rate (MRR), and metallographic changes of ­Ni55.95Ti44.05 shape memory alloy (SMA).
The analysis of crater size during material removal in WEDC has been also discussed in this study. The three-dimensional
surface topography at higher discharge energy density divulges the formation of deeper and wider craters with high surface
roughness on the machined surface compared to lower discharge energy density. MRR and average crater depth increase with
the increase in discharge energy density and decrease with the increase in spark frequency and spark gap voltage, whereas
wire feed rate and wire tension have the trivial effect. The analysis of X-ray diffraction peaks of the machined surface shows
the presence of various compounds such as NiTi, TiO, ­TiO2, ­Ni4Ti3, CuZn, ­Cu2NiZn, ­NiTiO3, and NiZn and tensile residual
stress.

Keywords  SMA · WEDC · MRR · Crater depth · XRD

1 Introduction task because of the high reactivity of titanium which causes

NiTi SMAs have been initially developed by William J.
Buehler at the Naval Ordinance Laboratory in 1963; from
then onward, the NiTi alloys were started calling Nitinol
[1]. SMAs belong to the class of smart materials in which
phase transformations (solid-to-solid) induced by stress
changes and/or temperature changes and have the capabil-
ity to recover seemingly permanent strains. Currently, SMAs
are being widely used in various sectors, such as robotics,
biomedical, aerospace, and other important industries due
to their outstanding properties [2, 3]. Ni-rich NiTi SMAs
show better superelasticity and shape memory effect com-
pared to equiatomic NiTi SMAs because of higher intrinsic
strength, and they can be precipitation-hardened [4–6]. Con-
ventional machining of NiTi SMAs is the most challenging
Technical Editor: Márcio Bacci da Silva, Ph.D.
* Himanshu Bisaria
himanshubisaria20@gmail.com
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Motilal
Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad,
Prayagraj 211004, India
poor surface finish, high tool wear, and high machining time
[7, 8]. In order to overcome the difficulties in conventional
machining of SMAs, advanced machining is another suit-
able option. WEDC, also known as wire electric discharge
machining (WEDM) [9], is one of the advanced machin-
ing processes, which is widely used in various industries to
machine hard and conductive materials with complex shapes
irrespective of strength and hardness. WEDC is a distinct
variant of EDM in which a continuously moving conductive
wire as an electrode is used. The removal of material from
workpiece arises from spark erosion as the wire is fed from
a spool of fresh wire through the workpiece [10, 11].
Researchers have studied the influence of WEDM param-
eters on the performance characteristics of NiTi SMAs.
Manjaiah et al. [2] studied the machining characteristics of
­Ti50Ni40Cu10 and ­Ti50Ni30Cu20 ternary SMA in WEDM. It
was found that material removal rate (MRR) shows increasing
trend with pulse on time, whereas pulse off time and spark gap
voltage show reverse trend. Bisaria et al. [6] conducted the
experimental study on machinability of Ni-rich NiTi SMA in
WEDM and suggested that a thin recast layer with less transfer
of foreign elements and small size craters was deposited on
the machined surface at the lower level of discharge energy.

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 157   Page 2 of 11 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering
Bisaria et al. [9] performed the parametric study on Ni-rich
NiTi SMA in electrical discharge wire cutting process and
observed that the pulse on time, pulse off time and spark gap
voltage were the main influencing parameters for cutting rate
and surface roughness, whereas wire tension and wire feed
rate were non-influencing parameters. Soni et al. [12] con-
ducted WEDM of ­Ti50Ni49Co1 shape memory alloy (SMA)
and investigated the effect of input parameters on cutting rate
(CR) and SR (surface roughness). It was observed that both
CR and SR were increased with the increase in pulse on time,
while spark gap voltage showed the opposite trend and high
surface crack density was also observed at higher CR and SR.
Few researchers have attempted to investigate the direct influ-
ence of discharge energy on the performance characteristics
of the different material. Gostimirovic et al. [13] studied the
influence of discharge energy on MRR, recast layer thick-
ness, gap distance, and SR for tool steel ASTM 681 in elec-
trical discharge machining (EDM). It was noticed that with
the increase in discharge energy, MRR, SR, and recast layer
thickness increased. Punturat et al. [14] studied the effect of
WEDM variable parameters on damage in the machining of
silicon and characteristics of cut surface and concluded that
high spark energy density causes the formation of deeper cra-
ters, high surface roughness, and high deposition of foreign
elements (Cu and Zn) from brass wire. Giridharan and Samuel
[15] have also investigated the influence of discharge energy
on machinability of AISI 4340 steel in WEDM. It was noticed
that the SR, MRR, and recast layer thickness were increased
with the increase in discharge energy.
The profound study of past literature reveals that the major
research work was focused on the study of the influence of
wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) parameters on
performance characteristics of NiTi SMAs and few researchers
have considered the discharge energy density and spark fre-
quency. Some attempt has been made keeping in view of crater
size, but the study on the effect of discharge energy density and
spark frequency on crater depth and MRR of Ni-rich SMAs
has been seldom reported which is the interesting and novel
aspects of this study. The aim of this experimental investiga-
tion is to reveal the effect of WEDC process parameters such
as discharge energy density ( 𝛷s ), sparks frequency (fs), wire
tension (WT), spark gap voltage (SV), and wire feed rate (WF)
on MRR, average crater depth, and metallographic changes of
­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA. The three-dimensional surface topography
was utilized for the measurement of crater depth, whereas the
XRD analysis was used for metallographic changes.
13
(2019) 41:157
2 Materials and methodology
2.1 Material
The experiments were performed on N ­ i55.95Ti44.05 SMA.
­Ni55.95Ti44.05 (55.95 wt% Ni, rest-Ti) SMA has been procured
in the square plate of dimension 165 mm × 165 mm × 6 mm
and having the density of 6.7 g/cm3. The shape recovery
ability of SMA depends on the martensitic phase transforma-
tion between austenite and martensite phase. The martensi-
tic phase transformation temperatures of ­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA
such as austenite start and end temperature, and martensite
start and end temperature detected by differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) test were 31.45 °C, 56.19 °C, 10.33 °C
and − 14.5 °C, respectively [9]. EDS test was performed
for finding the elemental composition of ­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA
which is shown in Fig. 1.
2.2 Experimental procedure
Electronica Ultracut-834, four-axis, computer numeri-
cal control (CNC)-based wire cut machine was utilized
for machining of N ­ i55.95Ti44.05 SMA in the dimensions of
10 mm × 10 mm × 6 mm. The effect of discharge energy
density ( 𝛷s ), sparks frequency (fs), wire feed rate (WF),
wire tension (WT), and spark gap voltage (SV) on MRR,
average crater depth (h c), and metallographic changes
of ­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA was studied in this work using one
factor at a time (OFAT) approach. The levels of variable
parameters are shown in Table 1. A thin brass wire of diam-
eter 0.25 mm as an electrode has opted in WEDC process.
WEDC parameters such as the pressure of dielectric (deion-
ized water), dielectric conductivity, and pulse peak current
were kept constant at 0.88 MPa, ± 20–24 µs/m, and 12 A,
respectively, during experimentation. In WEDC process, the
thermal energy required for removal of material is obtained
Fig. 1  EDS results of N
­ i55.95Ti44.05 SMA
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157 Page 3 of 11  157

Table 1  WEDC variable Variable parameters Unit Symbol Levels Responses

parameters and their levels
2
Discharge energy density mJ/mm 𝛷s 6.22 6.52 6.82 7.11 7.41 Crater depth
Spark frequency kHz fs 5.65 5.75 5.85 5.92 6.02 MRR
Spark gap voltage V SV 30 40 50 60 70
Wire feed rate m/min WF 2 3 4 5 6
Wire tension N WT 2 3 4 5 6

from the discharge energy or energy of spark. The discharge
energy and discharge energy density can be given as Eqs. (1)
and (2) [6, 14]:
te
∫
Discharge energy(E) = Ve (t) × Ie (t) × dt ≅ Ve × Ie × te
0 3 Analysis of discharge crater
Ve × Ie × tON
Discharge energy density(𝛷s ) =
𝜋 × H × (Dw + 2rg )
where Ve is discharge voltage (V), te is discharge duration
(µs), and Ie is discharge current (A). For ideal discharge
condition, i.e., zero ignition delay, the discharge duration
becomes equal to pulse duration, Dw is the diameter of
wire electrode (0.25 mm), H is the thickness of workpiece
(6 mm), and rg is the radial gap. The discharge voltage and
peak current 28 V and 12 A were, respectively, maintained
constant during the study.
Spark frequency (number of sparks per second) is given
according to Eq. (3) [6] which increases with the decrease
in tON. Here tON is pulse on time, the five levels of tON, 105,
100, 115, 120, and 125 µs, and pulse off time (tOFF), 52, 55,
57, 60, and 63 µs, were considered during experiments.
103
Spark frequency(kHz) =
TON + TOFF
The MRR was calculated using Eq. (4) [2]:
MRR(mm3 ∕min) = Vs × t × b (4)
where Vs is cutting speed (mm/min); t is height of sample
(mm); b is width of cut (mm), i.e., b = 2rg+ Dw.
Few researchers have attempted to measure crater depth
experimentally by using scanning electron microscope (SEM)
technique [16], optical profilometer [17], and metallographic
microscope [18] in EDM process. In this study, optical pro-
filometer was utilized for measuring the depth of crater formed
on the machined surface of ­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA in WEDC
process. The crater depth was measured using Bruker Con-
tour GTK optical profiler. The measurement was made at
three distinct locations on the machined surface by selecting
240 µm × 180 µm sample area. 3D surface topography shows
the height of the protrusion and the depth of depression on the
average crater depth. The metallographic changes have been
determined by using XRD analysis. PANalytical X’PERT
machine was utilized for XRD examination of the machined
surface with 2θ rang (5°–100°) and the scanning rate of 2°/
min.
(1)
In WEDC process, the heat energy of spark is utilized for
(2) removing the material from the workpiece surface. A spark
is generated at the narrowest gap between the electrically
conductive tool and the workpiece. Spark is effective over a
very small area, i.e., spark radius is very small. However, the
temperature of the region is extremely high where the spark
effects. Due to the high temperature, the material is removed
in the form of craters which spread over the whole machined
surface [19, 20]. The nature of surface generated after machin-
ing is the resultant of many craters generated owing to spark-
ing in the gap.
For the calculation of the amount of material removal due
to a single discharge, the crater’s diameter and the depth to
which the melting temperature is reached are considered. Let
us assume a uniform circular heat source due to spark on the
electrode surface and spark diameter (= 2R) remains constant.
The surface of the electrode is a semi-infinite region, and it is
(3) insulated except the heating portion. During discharge, the rate
of heat input remains constant. The properties of the electrode
material also remain unchanged with the temperature. Figure 2
represents the schematic diagram of a circular heat source,
the zone of the influence, i.e., semi-infinite region, and heat
conduction within workpiece, respectively [19].
Due to circular symmetry, the temperature at any point
depends on both r and z coordinates. The heat conduction
equation within the domain can be given as Eq. (5) [20].
( 2 )
𝜕 T 1 𝜕T 𝜕 2 T 1 𝜕T
+ + = in D (5)
𝜕r2 r 𝜕r 𝜕z2 𝛼 𝜕t
The initial and the boundary conditions are
t ≤ 0, T(r, z, t) = 0,
t > 0, r > R, 𝜕T = 0,
0 < r ≤ R, − k 𝜕T
𝜕z
= q a
𝜕z

machined surface. The average of three values was taken as

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 157   Page 4 of 11 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157

Fig. 2  Schematic representation of a circular heat source. b Zone of influence. c Domain (semi-infinite region). d Heat conduction and influence
of heating (constant heat source)

Since the melting temperature reached is maximum at the

zm

∫
center, the desired solution lies at r = 0. The temperature at a Volume of crater(Vc ) = 𝜋 r2 dz
point on the axis at the end of the discharge is given as Eq. (6): (9)
0

∝
Vc
2 𝜋kRtd ∫
1 H
T(0, z, td ) = Anode erosion rate(AER) =
tp (10)
0
� � �� (6)
J0 (𝜀R)J1 (𝜀R) e −𝜀z
erfc
Z √
− 𝜀 𝛼td
d𝜀 Under the idealized condition of uniform strength, the
𝜀 diameter of the crater may be assumed to be equal to the
√
2 𝛼td
where ε is a dummy variable, H is the heat input (J), qa spark diameter (2R). However, experimentally, it is very
is heat flux going to anode (J/cm2), T is temperature (°C), difficult to measure the spark radius because the arc plasma
t is time (s), k is thermal conductivity (J/cm-sec-°C), α is expands for few microseconds after dielectric breakdown.
thermal diffusivity (­ cm2/s), td is discharge duration (s), hc Spark radius is dependent on the material properties and
is crater depth (µm), Dc is crater diameter (µm), and Tm is machining condition. According to Salonitis et al. [23],
melting temperature. If zm is the depth to which the melting the discharge crater diameter can be calculated by using
temperature is reached, the equation of Tm and zm is obtained Eq. (11).
according to Eqs. (7) and (8) [19]. In this mathematical DC = a(I × td )b (11)
model, the constant heat source (qa) is used for making the
where a and b are constants which depend on the workpiece
analysis of discharge carter. Jilani and Pandey [21] and Jilani
material, and I and td represent discharge current and dis-
et al. [22] have also utilized constant heat source for predict-
charge duration, respectively. So, the volume of crater can
ing crater geometry.
be predicted by using Eq. (12).
√ � √ �
2qa 𝛼ton zm Z 2 + R2 𝜋
(
3
)
Tm = ierfc √ − ierfc √ (7) vc (cm3 ) = hc D2c + h2c (12)
k 2 𝛼ton 2 𝛼ton 6 4
where vc is crater volume (­ cm3) and hc (∝ z) is crater depth
(cm). So, it is clear that z gives an indication of the volume
R2 KTm
zm = R − √ − (8) of material removed by each spark. The melting temperature
2 𝜋𝛼ton qa depth z is related to the crater volume as given in Eq. (12):
According to the method proposed by Giridharan and
The volume of crater produced by single spark can be cal- Samuel [24], the crater diameter in terms of discharge
culated using Eq. (9), whereas the anode erosion rate (AER) energy (E), latent heat of melting (Lm), and latent heat of
can be calculated with the help of crater volume and cycle vaporization (Lv) of workpiece material and density (ρ)
time (tp) according to Eq. (10): can be given according to Eq. (13):

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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157 Page 5 of 11  157

√ Figures 3 and 4 show the formation of discharge crater

0.086E
Dc = 2 × 3
on the machined surface and two and three dimensional (2D
𝜌(Lm + Lv ) (13) and 3D) surface topography at higher and lower value of dis-
charge energy density, respectively. It can be distinctly seen
As per Eq. (12), the calculation of volume of crater or that at higher 𝛷s , deeper crater with average crater depth of
the material removed by single spark was based on the 43 μm (approximately) with high average surface rough-
assumption that 100% plasma flushing efficiency, i.e., no ness (Ra) 4.377 µm was formed on the machined surface,
loss of energy and no deposition of removed material on whereas at lower 𝛷s , the surface roughness was decreased
the machined surface. However, the complete utilization from 4.377 to 2.503 μm and average crater depth was also
of spark energy to remove the material is practically not reduced to 31 µm.
possible, so let us assume f is the fraction for removal effi-
ciency and Np is number of pulse per second. So, the anode
erosion rate can be given as Eqs. (14) and (15): 4 Results and discussion
6× 104 𝜋 × f × Np × 𝜌 × h c ( 3 2 )
AER(g/min) = Dc + h2c 4.1 Analysis of material removal rate and average
6 4
crater depth
(14)
[ ( )2 ] The variation of average crater depth and MRR with respect
0.086E 3
AER(g/min) = 𝜋 × 𝜌 × f × hc × Np × 10 × 3 4 2
+ hc to discharge energy density, sparks frequency, spark gap
𝜌(Lm + Lv )
voltage, wire feed rate and wire tension is shown in Figs. 5,
(15)

Fig. 3  Machined surface characteristics at higher 𝛷s . a SEM micrograph showing crater. b Analytical results. c 2D surface topography. d 3D
surface topography showing crater depth

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 157   Page 6 of 11 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering
Fig. 4  Machined surface characteristics at lower 𝛷s , a SEM micrograph showing crater, b analytical results, c 2D surface topography, d 3D sur-
face topography showing crater depth
6, 7, 8, and 9, respectively. Figure 5 shows the variation
of MRR and average crater depth against discharge energy
density while keeping other variable parameters at the con-
stant level. It can be observed that MRR and hc were found
to be increased considerably with an increase in 𝛷s . The
high discharge energy causes more conduction of heat into
the workpiece which leads to enhancing the melting of the
workpiece that finally results in higher MRR. MRR at higher
𝛷s (7.41 mJ/mm2) was found more approximately 3.84, 3.26,
2.32, and 1.08 times than those of MRR at 6.22, 6.52, 6.82,
and 7.11 mJ/mm2. The direct relationship between anode
erosion rate and MRR in terms of discharge energy or spark
energy is shown in Eq. (15) which also mathematically vali-
dates the experimental findings. As the discharge energy
increases, the rate of removal of material is also increased
which causes the formation of deeper and wider craters
throughout the machined surface. It was noticed that the hc
at higher 𝛷s (7.41 mJ/mm2) was enhanced by approximately
9.80%, 20.47%, 34.54%, and 42.41% as compared to hc at
7.11, 6.82, 6.52, and 6.22 mJ/mm2.
13
(2019) 41:157
The mathematical relation between crater depth and dis-
charge energy can be mentioned in Eq. (16) [19].
hc ≈ KE0.33 mm (16)
where K is a constant whose value depends on the material.
This mathematical relationship also demonstrates that cra-
ter depth is increased with an increase in discharge energy
which also rectifies the experimental findings. Similar find-
ings were recorded by Sharma et al. [25] for Inconel 706
superalloy in WEDM. The effect of wire material at dif-
ferent levels of discharge energy on performance charac-
teristics was studied and observed that for all types of wire
material at higher discharge energy, productivity in terms
of cutting speed and surface roughness were increased sev-
eral times as compared to lower level of discharge energy.
Gostimirovic et al. [13] also encountered with similar find-
ings during EDM of tool steel and suggested that MRR and
surface roughness ( ∝ crater size) were directly increased
by discharge energy. Figure 6 displays the decreasing trend
of MRR and hc with the spark frequency; however, the
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157 Page 7 of 11  157

Fig. 5  Effect of discharge
energy density on MRR and
average crater depth

Fig. 6  Effect of spark frequency

on MRR and average crater
depth

other WEDC variable parameters were fixed. This is due to
fact that as spark frequency increases, pulse duration (tON)
decreases which reduces the conduction of heat energy into
workpiece and hence less material is removed. With an
increase in spark frequency, sparking ampere output, i.e.,
sparking current, is also decreased thus MRR decreases [6].
On increasing the spark frequency from 5.65 to 6.02 kHz,
MRR drops down 7.132 to 2.860 mm3/min. At the higher
value of spark frequency, MRR and surface roughness
are decreased and finally crater size is also decreased. On
increasing fs, pulse on duration decreases which causes
less material removal and creates small size craters. The

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 157   Page 8 of 11 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157

Fig. 7  Effect of spark gap volt-

age on MRR and average crater
depth

Fig. 8  Effect of wire feed rate

on MRR and average crater
depth

average crater depth was declined from 27.35 to 19.89 μm
on increasing fs from 5.65 to 6.02 kHz. Generally, lower
spark frequency is preferred for the rough machining opera-
tion, whereas higher spark frequency is used for the finishing
operation [20]. The individual effect of spark gap voltage on
MRR and average crater depth is presented in Fig. 7. MRR
and hc show the decreasing trend with spark gap voltage like
spark frequency. This is due to the fact that at higher SV,
the discharge gap is widened which decreases the spark’s
intensity as well as the strength of spark. Therefore, at higher
SV, lower MRR with small size crater is achieved. MRR and
hc were found to be decreased by approximately 2.034 times
and 1.33 times, respectively, with the increase in spark gap
voltage from 30 to 70 V. The inverse effect of spark gap volt-
age on cutting rate ( ∝ MRR as per Eq. 4) was also confirmed
by Nain et al. [26] for WEDM of Udimet-L605 alloy.
The influence of wire feed rate and wire tension on MRR
and average crater depth is illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9,

13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering
Fig. 9  Effect of wire tension on
MRR and average crater depth
respectively, while other variable parameters remain fixed.
The effect of WF and WT on MRR and average crater depth
is inconsequential. The slight variation in MRR and average
crater depth was observed with respect to WF and WT. In
WEDC process, the machining cost is mainly depending on
the cost of the wire electrode, so lower WF is always pref-
erable for cost-effective machining. The major role of WT
is to control dimensional accuracy in WEDC. An adequate
wire tension is vital for maintaining accuracy and precision
during WEDC; however, larger WT may increase the wire
breakage frequency. So, the selection of the proper level of
WF and WT is essential for economic, accurate, and precise
machining of N ­ i55.95Ti44.05 SMA in WEDC. Bisaria et al. [9]
also found similar findings during WEDC of Ni-rich NiTi
SMA and concluded that wire feed rate and wire tension
have the trifling effect on cutting rate ( ∝ MRR) and surface
roughness ( ∝ crater size).
4.2 Phase analysis
Figure  10a–b shows the XRD pattern for N ­ i 55.95Ti 44.05
SMA’s machined surface at higher and lower discharge
energy density, respectively. In WEDC process, the outer
machining surface is exposed to the extremely high tem-
perature which leads to the formation of different phases.
For the identification of XRD peaks of machined sur-
face, X’PERT HighScore Plus software was utilized.
The machined surface consists of various compounds of
titanium, nickel, and oxygen such as TiO, ­Ti2O3, ­Ni4Ti3,
­NiTiO3, and NiTi. The high reactivity of Ni and Ti might
be responsible for the compound formation of Ni and Ti
(2019) 41:157 Page 9 of 11  157
with oxygen from the dielectric. The transfer of Cu and
Zn from brass wire to the machined surface is responsible
for the formation of the compound of Cu and Zn such
as CuZn, C ­ u2NiZn, and NiZn. It can be noticed that the
intensity of peaks is decreased at higher discharge energy
density compared to the lower level because crystal size
is reduced at higher 𝛷s but crystal structure remains unal-
tered. It can be also noticed that the machined surface
consists of tensile residual stress which is confirmed by
the shifting of peaks toward the right side in XRD pattern.
The details of the identified phases in XRD peaks are sum-
marized in Table 2.
5 Conclusions
The effect of discharge energy density, wire feed rate, spark
frequency, wire tension, and spark gap voltage on crater
depth, MRR, and metallographic changes has been experi-
mentally investigated during WEDC of ­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA.
The following substantial conclusions are drawn on the basis
of obtained results and discussions:
1. The results of three-dimensional (3D) surface topogra-
phy divulge that the machined surface consists of deeper
and wider craters with high surface roughness value at
higher discharge energy density as compared to lower
discharge energy density.
2. The average crater depth and MRR monotonically
increase with an increase in discharge energy density.
13
 157   Page 10 of 11 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:157

Fig. 10  XRD pattern of
­Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at a higher
and b lower discharge energy
density

Table 2  Details of identified peaks in XRD analysis for WEDC of N

­ i55.95Ti44.05 SMA
Ref. code Identified compound Crystal structure Lattice parameters Space group Calculated
density (g/
a/b/c (Å) α/β/γ (°) cm3)

98-009-0783 Nitinol (NiTi) Cubic a = b = c = 2.998 α = β = γ = 90 Pm-3m 6.57

98-012-2611 Ni4Ti3 Hexagonal a = b = 11.1776 α = β = 90 R-3 6.89
c = 5.0582 γ = 120
98-005-5003 TiO Monoclinic a = 9.34 α = 90 C 12/m1 4.91
b = 4.142 β = 107.53
c = 5.855 γ = 90
98-009-9253 Cu2NiZn Cubic a = b = c = 3.639 α = β = γ = 90 Fm-3m 8.66
98-007-2839 CuZn Cubic a = b = c = 2.950 α = β = γ = 90 Pm-3m 8.34
98-005-5003 TiO2 Hexagonal a = b = 5.291 α = β = 90 P3121 2.68
c = 6.133 γ = 120
98-003-3679 NiTiO3 Hexagonal a = b = 5.05 α = β = 90 R-3 5.03
c = 13.86 γ = 120
98-009-0821 NiZn Cubic a = b = c = 2.914 α = β = γ = 90 I-43m 8.02

The increase in spark frequency and spark gap voltage
leads to a decrease in the average crater depth and MRR.
However, an inconsequential effect of wire tension and
wire feed rate on responses has been observed.
3. With an increase in discharge energy density (6.22 to
7.41 mJ/mm2) and a decrease in spark frequency (6.02
to 5.65 kHz) as well as spark gap voltage (70 to 30 V),
MRR was approximately increased by 4.84 times, 2.53
times, and 2.03 times, respectively.
4. With the decrease in discharge energy density (7.41 to
6.22 mJ/mm2) and an increase in spark frequency (5.65
to 6.02 kHz) as well as spark gap voltage (30 to 70 V),
the average crater depth approximately decreased by
42.41%, 37.51%, and 33%, respectively.
5. The analysis of XRD peaks of machined surface reveals
­ i4Ti3, NiTi,
the presence of various compounds such as N
CuZn, TiO, ­TiO2, ­Cu2NiZn, ­NiTiO3, and NiZn. In the

13
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering
XRD pattern, the existence of tensile residual stress can
be also certified.
Acknowledgements  The author would like to acknowledge ACMS
Department, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur, for providing optical profiler and
XRD facility for achieving this work. The author would also like to
thank AMD, MNNIT Allahabad, for providing X’PERT software.
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 Materials and Manufacturing Processes

ISSN: 1042-6914 (Print) 1532-2475 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lmmp20

Experimental investigation on wire electric

discharge machining (WEDM) of Nimonic C-263
superalloy

Himanshu Bisaria & Pragya Shandilya

To cite this article: Himanshu Bisaria & Pragya Shandilya (2019) Experimental investigation
on wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) of Nimonic C-263 superalloy, Materials and
Manufacturing Processes, 34:1, 83-92, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2018.1532589

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MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
2019, VOL. 34, NO. 1, 83–92
https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2018.1532589

Experimental investigation on wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) of Nimonic

C-263 superalloy
Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya
Mechanical Engineering Department, MNNIT Allahabad, Allahabad, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Nimonic C-263 superalloy offers a wide range of outstanding properties, namely, high-temperature Received 28 May 2018
resistance, high specific strength, high thermal fatigue, and hot corrosion resistance. The concern of the Accepted 12 September 2018
present study is mainly focused on the effect of wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) process KEYWORDS
parameters namely, spark energy, spark frequency, and peak current on surface roughness, average Nimonic C-263; WEDM; CR;
cutting rate, and surface integrity aspects of Nimonic C-263 superalloy by using one-parameter-at-a-time SR; XRD; SEM; EDS
(OPAT) approach. Surface roughness and average cutting rate were showing the increasing trend with
the spark energy and peak current and reverse trend with the spark frequency. Surface integrity aspects
of Nimonic C-263 such as surface topography, surface morphology, recast layer thickness, elemental
composition, and phase analysis have been also considered in this study. Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) micrograph of the machined surface shows the presence of micro-voids, discharge craters, micro-
globules, and droplets of molten material. A recast layer of minimum thickness, with less transfer of
foreign atoms (Mo, C, and O) from dielectric fluid and molybdenum wire, has been formed at lower
spark energy compared to higher spark energy. The various compounds of Ni, Fe, Al, and Ti such as
Fe1.2Ni0.8, Fe1.5Ni0.5, Co0.06Fe0.94, and Alo.29Ni0.27Ti0.44 were formed on the machined surface identified
through analysis of XRD peaks.

Introduction close dimensional tolerance using computer numerical con-

trol (CNC) programming.[9,10] As WEDM is an advanced
Nowadays, the concern of scientists and researchers on the
machining process which utilizes the thermal energy of
machining of Ni-based superalloys has been increased due to
spark for melting of material, the outer machining surface
their rising demand for the gas turbine engine. Nimonic
experiences very high temperature around 10,000°C during
C-263 is a high-temperature resistant superalloy which exhi-
spark on-time and sudden quenching from the dielectric
bits high oxidation resistance and high hot corrosion resis-
during spark off-time. This huge temperature gradient experi-
tance up to about 1100°C.[1,2] Recently, Nimonic C-263 has
enced by the outer machining surface led to the deposition of
been used in the aerospace, power generation, blades of the
a layer of transformed phases.[11] This layer of transformed
gas turbine, and heat exchangers applications due to their
phases or re-solidified layer of melted material is called recast
outstanding characteristics. The conventional machining of
layer. The formation of the recast layer of considerable thick-
these superalloys is another extremely difficult task due to
ness on the machined surface during machining which is
low thermal conductivity, high tool wear, high hardness, and
enormously damaging to the aerospace application can be
work hardening tendency.[3,4] Due to the huge requirement of
reduced in WEDM with the use of low spark energy.[12,13]
super-finished components in aircraft applications, aircraft
Gostimirovic et al.[14] experimentally explored the effect of
manufacturing industries are looking for an alternative
discharge energy on performance parameters such as material
approach for machining of these superalloys with high
removal rate (MRR), recast layer, gap distance, and surface
production rate (cutting rate), high surface quality, and low
roughness (SR) for tool steel ASTM 681 in electrical discharge
cost.[5,6] To overcome the hurdle in the machining of these
machining (EDM). It was observed that with the increase in
superalloys by conventional machining practices, the
discharge energy, MRR, SR, and recast layer thickness
advanced machining processes such as laser beam machining,
increased. Punturat et al.[15] studied the effect of WEDM
electrochemical machining, and discharge machining (EDM/
variable parameters on damage in the machining of silicon
WEDM) can be successfully exploited.[7,8] Among the
and characteristics of cut surface and concluded that high
advanced machining processes, wire electrical discharge
spark energy density causes the formation of deeper craters,
machining (WEDM) is an effective and economical approach
high SR, and high deposition of foreign elements (Cu and Zn)
for machining of these superalloys. WEDM process is flexible
from brass wire. Soni et al.[16] applied WEDM process for
in machining of any complex profile with high accuracy and

CONTACT Himanshu Bisaria rme1509@mnnit.ac.in Mechanical Engineering Department, MNNIT Allahabad, Allahabad, India
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lmmp.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
84 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
machining of Ti50Ni49Co1 shape memory alloy and studied
the influence of input parameters on cutting rate (CR) and SR.
It was noticed that CR and SR were increased with the
increase in pulse on-time, while spark gap voltage showed
the reverse trend and high surface crack density was also
observed at higher value of CR and SR. Sharma et al.[17]
examined the influence of material of wire electrode on CR
and surface integrity aspects for Inconel 706 superalloy in
WEDM. It was reported that the improved surface quality in
terms of lower SR, smoother topography, and thin recast layer
was obtained with the hard brass wire, whereas higher cutting
speed as productivity was obtained with zinc-coated wire.
However, the effect of diffused wire was moderate. The effect
of discharge energy on the machinability of AISI 4340 steel
was also investigated by Giridharan and Samuel.[18] It was
found that the MRR, SR, and recast layer thickness were
increased with the increase in discharge energy.
The conclusions from the comprehensive analysis of
previous literature can be made that the most of the past
research work was focused on the machinability of Ni-
based superalloys, but consideration of spark energy and
spark frequency for the performance characteristics of
these superalloys in WEDM was rarely reported. Hence,
the goal of this investigation is to explore the influence of
WEDM process parameters such as spark energy, spark
frequency, and peak current on SR, average CR, and sur-
face integrity aspects for Nimonic C-263 superalloy using
one-parameter-at-a-time (OPAT) approach. Under surface
integrity aspects, the surface morphology, surface topogra-
phy, elemental composition, recast layer thickness, and
phase analysis have been studied by using Scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM), optical profilometer, energy dis-
persive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
technique, respectively.
Figure 1. Elemental composition of Nimonic C-263 superalloy using EDS.
Materials and methods
Material
Nimonic C-263 superalloy, which is extensively used in aero-
space industries for the turbine blade manufacturing, was
selected as target material for the experimental studies. For
the elemental composition of the Nimonic C-263, EDS test
was used which is shown in Fig. 1. The procurement of
material was in the square-shape plate of dimensions
155 × 155 × 5 mm3. The mechanical and physical properties
of Nimonic C-263 are given in Table 1.
Experimental methodology
The experiments were performed on Nimonic C-263 super-
alloy by using four-axis, CNC Express cut 7732C wire cut
machine which is shown in Fig. 2. For this experimental
study, the most influencing parameters of WEDM such as
spark energy (Es), spark frequency (fs), and peak current (Ip)
with five levels were selected based on preliminary experi-
ments which are tabularized in Table 2, whereas some WEDM
parameters were kept at a fixed level during experimentation
are listed in Table 3. SR, average CR, and surface character-
istics have opted as response parameters. For measuring the
surface quality of the machined surface, average SR (Ra) has
been considered, whereas average CR epitomizes the produc-
tivity. The detail description of response parameters and their
measurements are summarized in Table 4.
The energy required for material removal in WEDM is
gained from the conversion of spark energy to thermal energy.
Thus, the spark energy or discharge energy may be defined as
the average electrical energy per pulse. The spark energy can
be given as Eq. (1)[11]:
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 85

Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of Nimonic C-263 superalloy.[4,5]

Properties Density (g/cm3) Avg. hardness (Hv) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%) Creep stress (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa)
Specification 8.36 300 ≥400 24.1 120 ≥540

Figure 2. Pictorial view during the machining of Nimonic C-263 in WEDM (EX7732).

Table 2. Variable parameters and their levels of WEDM for Nimonic C-263 superalloy.

Variable parameters Levels Response parameters

Spark energy (mJ) 6.72 8.40 10.08 11.76 13.44 Avg. cutting rate
Spark frequency (kHz) 18.19 20 22.23 25 28.57 Surface roughness
Peak current (A) 1 2 3 4 5 Surface integrity

Table 3. Fixed parameters for WEDM of Nimonic C-263 superalloy. Es ffi Ve  Ie  tON (2)
Parameters Specification where tON is pulse on-time, the five levels of tON, 40, 50, 60,
Wire electrode Molybdenum (Ø 180 µm) 70, and 80 µs and pulse off-time (tOFF), 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 µs
Dielectric fluid De-ionized water
were selected during experiments. The discharge voltage and
Dielectric pressure (MPa) 0.98
Dielectric conductivity (µs/m) ±20–23
peak current 28 V and 6 A were, respectively, maintained
Working temperature (°C) 25 constant during the study. Sparks frequency (number of
Polarity Straight polarity sparks per second) is given according to Eq. (3),[11] which
Wire feed rate 7 m/min increases with the decrease in tON.
Sparkfrequency ðkHzÞ ¼ 103 =ðTON þ TOFF Þ (3)
te
Spark energy ðJ Þ ¼ ò Ve ðtÞ  ie ðtÞ  dt ffi Ve  Ie  te
0 Results and discussion
(1) Surface roughness and average cutting rate
where Es is the spark energy (J), Ve is discharge voltage (V), te The effect of separate WEDM process parameters on SR and
is discharge duration (µs), and Ie is discharge current (A). For CR is shown in Figs. 3–5, while other WEDM process para-
ideal discharge condition i.e. zero delay in ignition, the dis- meters are kept at the middle level. Figure 3 displays the
charge duration becomes equal to pulse duration and spark influence of spark energy on SR and CR. CR and SR are
energy can be written as Eq. (2)[11]: significantly increased with an increase in ES, whereas the
86 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA

Table 4. Detail description of response parameters of Nimonic C-263 superalloy.

Parameters Description Calculation/condition Apparatus used

Avg. cutting rate
Surface roughness
Surface morphology
3D, Surface topography
Recast layer thickness
Phase analysis
It is defined as the average rate of length of cut ðmmÞ Stop watch for measuring cutting
cutting at which desire profile is cut.
CR ¼ cutting time ðminÞ time
[7]
It is the component of surface texture Stylus speed Mitutoyo SJ-410 surface roughness
and quantification of surface quality. It (0.1 mm/s) tester
is defined as the average of the vertical cutoff length
deviations from the nominal surface (0.8 mm)
over a specified surface length.[19] evaluation length
(5 mm)
It is defined as the texture of machined Magnification value was 500 i.e. JEOL JSM-6010LA
surface. 500 × SEM attached with energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy
It is defined as the three-dimensional Area for measurement Bruker Contour GTK
surface texture, showing the protrusion 240 × 180 µm2 optical profiler
and depression on the machined
surface.
It is defined as thin layer of re-solidified Area of recast layer Cross-sectional SEM image,
molten material on the machined
RLT ¼ length of reacst layer ImageJ software
surface during discharge.[13] [7]
Formation of different phases and Radiation Cu-Kα Pan Analytical X’PERT XRD machine
compound on the machined surface. range of 2θ (5–100°)
scanning rate 2° min−1.

Figure 3. Effect of spark energy on average cutting rate and surface roughness.

other WEDM process parameters were kept at a fixed level.
The spark energy directly affects the amount of thermal
energy required for material removal. With the increase in
Es, more thermal heat transferred to material causes high
temperature which assists in the removal of material and
hence CR is increased.[20] It can be observed from Fig. 3
that the SR also exhibited the similar trend with ES i.e. it
increases with the increase in ES. This is because at the higher
value of Es, deeper and wider craters are formed on the
machined surface, and as a result, SR is increased. This effect
of ES on SR can also be explained with the help of the
mathematical relationship between crater depth and spark
energy as given in Eq. (4).[21] As spark energy is increased,
the deeper craters are formed because of high crater depth.
hc ðmmÞ  K Es 0:33 (4)
where hc is crater depth (mm), Es is spark energy (J), K is
constant whose value depends on the material.
The variation of CR and SR with spark frequency, keeping
other WEDM process parameters at the middle level, is shown

Figure 4. Effect of spark frequency on average cutting rate and surface roughness.
in Fig. 4. The CR was found to decrease with the increase in fs.
This is because of shorter pulse duration at higher fs. At
shorter pulse duration i.e. pulse on-time, the spark energy
and spark’s intensity are decreased which causes low MRR
and thus CR is decreased. The similar trend is shown by SR, it
decreased with the increase in fs. As fs increases, sparking
ampere output i.e. sparking current decreases. So, lower fs is
generally used for rough cutting operation, whereas higher fs
is preferred for the finishing operation.[11]
Figure 5 depicts the effect of peak current on CR and SR
keeping other WEDM process parameters at the middle level.
Similar to spark energy, the CR and SR are increased with an
increase in IP. At the higher value of IP, the amount of spark
energy is increased which led to increasing MRR and crater
size. Therefore, the CR and SR are found to be increased at
higher IP compared to lower IP.
Surface morphology
For microstructural analysis of machined surface, SEM
images were captured at 500 × magnification. Fig. 6(a–b)
shows the morphology of the machined surface generated
at lower and higher spark energy, respectively. SEM
micrograph of machined surface illustrates the formation
of discharge craters, micro-voids, droplets of molten mate-
rials, and micro-globules. It was also detected that there
was no formation of micro-cracks on the machined sur-
face due to the high toughness of Nimonic C-263 super-
alloy. The similar findings were also observed by Sharma
et al.[17] during machining of Inconel 706 in WEDM. It
can be also noticed that at higher Es, the surface has more
distorted morphology compared to lower Es because at
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 87
higher Es, more material is melted which led to the for-
mation of surface irregularities.
Surface topography
The machined surface’s 3D surface topography generated
at lower and higher ES are shown in Fig. 7(a–b), respec-
tively. From 3D surface topography, it can be concluded
that at lower ES, fine surface with higher smoothness was
obtained compared to higher Es. At higher ES, deeper
craters (average depth 42 µm shown in Fig. 7(b)) are
formed compared to the shallow crater (average depth
18.443 µm) formed at lower Es which also experimentally
rectifies the Eq. (4) i.e. the mathematical relationship
between crater depth and spark energy. At higher Es,
more thermal heat is transferred to workpiece surface
which led to more melting of material and hence the
formation of wider and deeper craters is increased.
Recast layer thickness and EDS analysis
Figure 8 illustrates the thickness of the recast layer depos-
ited with the elemental composition of constituent ele-
ments present on outer machining surface at higher Es.
It can be observed that a thick recast layer of thickness
32 µm is deposited on the outer machining surface with
high deposition of foreign atoms, for example Mo, C, and
O form the dielectric fluid and the wire electrode. At
higher Es, the amount of thermal energy transferred to
workpiece material is enhanced which causes the more
melted material to re-solidify on the outer machining sur-
face which led to the deposition of thick recast layer. The
88 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
Figure 5. Effect of peak current on average cutting rate and surface roughness.
Figure 6. SEM micrograph of machined surface at (a) lower Es (6.72 mJ) and (b) higher Es (13.44 mJ).
elemental composition of Mo-wire is shown in Fig. 9.
Since the Mo-wire was used for machining, Mo atoms
on the machined surface were recorded approximately
2.80 times more compared to the base material composi-
tion. Oxygen and the high carbon content from ionization
of dielectric besides base material were also observed on
the outer machining surface in EDS analysis. The deposi-
tion of recast layer on the outer machining surface is
unfavorable to applications related to aerospace industries.
So, this recast layer was significantly reduced at lower Es.
As can be seen in Fig. 10, a recast layer of lower thickness
with less transfer of foreign atoms was formed on the
outer machining surface compared to higher Es. Similar
observations were recorded by Bisaria and Shandilya[7] for
electrical discharge wire cutting of Ni-rich NiTi-shape
memory alloy. It was noticed that a thick recast layer
with high percentage of foreign elements (Cu, Zn, C, and
O) was deposited on the machined surface at higher pulse
on-time as compared to lower pulse on-time. Similar find-
ings were also supported by Sharma et al.[17] for Inconel
706 superalloy in WEDM. A thick recast layer was depos-
ited on the machined surface at higher discharge energy
compared to lower discharge energy.
XRD phase analysis
The XRD pattern of the outer machining surface at lower and
higher Es is illustrated in Fig. 11(a-b), respectively. The surface
after WEDM comprises the various compounds such as
Fe1.2Ni0.8, Fe1.5Ni0.5, Co0.06Fe0.94, and Alo.29Ni0.27Ti0.44 identi-
fied through analysis of XRD peaks. The high reactivity of
titanium and nickel are mainly accountable for the various
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 89

Figure 7. 3D surface topography of machined surface at (a) lower Es (6.72 mJ) (b) higher Es (13.44 mJ).

Figure 8. Recast layer and elemental composition of machined surface at higher Es (13.44 mJ).

compounds formation. XRD pattern of machined surface
divulges that the peak intensity has been decreased with the
increase in Es. This is due to fact that the crystal size of the
surface after WEDM has been reduced at higher Es; however,
crystal structure remains unchanged only orientation of pre-
ferred is changed. The shifting of peaks in XRD pattern is also
noticed toward right side which shows the existence of resi-
dual stress of tensile in nature within the surface after WEDM
of Nimonic C-263 superalloy. Similar observations are also
observed by Sharma et al.[17] for Inconel 706 in WEDM. The
detail information of identified peaks in XRD pattern is given
in Table 5.
90 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
Figure 9. Elemental composition of molybdenum wire using EDS test.
Figure 10. Recast layer and elemental composition of machined surface at lower Es (6.72 mJ).
Conclusions
In this present study, an attempt has been made to study
the effect of variable parameters of WEDM on perfor-
mance characteristics of Nimonic C-263 superalloy;
experimentally, the following significant conclusions are
drawn from the extensive analysis of experimental results:
(1) The SR and average CR were increased signifi-
cantly with an increase in spark energy and peak
current and decrease with the increase in spark
frequency.
(2) Machined surface’s morphology reveals the existence of
micro-voids, micro-globules and discharge craters,
whereas surface topography shows the formation of
fine and smoother surface with the shallow crater at
lower spark energy.
(3) A thinner recast layer with less transfer of foreign
atoms, namely, Mo, C, and O from dielectric fluid
and molybdenum wire was deposited on the outer
machining surface at lower spark energy as com-
pared to the higher value of spark energy.
(4) The investigation of XRD plot reveals the presence of
various compounds such as Fe1.2Ni0.8, Fe1.5Ni0.5,
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 91

Figure 11. XRD peaks of machined surface at (a) lower Es and (b) higher Es.

Table 5. Detail of identified peaks in XRD analysis.

Compound Ref Code Density (g/cm3) Crystal Structure Space group Lattice parameters
a/b/c (Å) α/β/ϒ (°)
Fe1.2Ni0.8 98–008-8175 8.02 Cubic Im-3m a = b = c = 2.869 α = β = ϒ = 90
Fe1.5Ni0.5 98–008-8167 7.69 Cubic Im-3m a = b = c = 2.868 α = β = ϒ = 90
Co0.06Fe0.94 98–009-9003 7.46 Cubic Fm-3m a = b = c = 3.618 α = β = ϒ = 90
Alo.29Ni0.27Ti0.44 98–011-7656 5.08 Hexagonal P63/mmc a = b = 5.013, α = β = 90
c = 8.073 ϒ = 120

Co0.06Fe0.94, and Alo.29Ni0.27Ti0.44 and also the existence
of tensile residual stress.
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 Materials and Manufacturing Processes

ISSN: 1042-6914 (Print) 1532-2475 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lmmp20

Processing of curved profiles on Ni-rich

nickel–titanium shape memory alloy by WEDM

Himanshu Bisaria & Pragya Shandilya

To cite this article: Himanshu Bisaria & Pragya Shandilya (2019): Processing of curved profiles
on Ni-rich nickel–titanium shape memory alloy by WEDM, Materials and Manufacturing Processes,
DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2019.1594264

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MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2019.1594264

Processing of curved profiles on Ni-rich nickel–titanium shape memory alloy by

WEDM
Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya
Mechanical Engineering Department, MNNIT Allahabad, Prayagraj, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) process, to the machine, sharp corner without error is an Received 14 November 2018
extremely challenging issue which is vital for precision machining. Owing to the presence of huge wire Accepted 8 February 2019
deflection, the accuracy of the machined corner is undesirably affected. The aim of this study is to KEYWORDS
explore the effect of process parameters namely, spark on time, spark off time, wire tension, wire feed WEDM; SMA; corner error;
rate, and spark gap voltage on corner error for acute angle (60°), right angle (90°) and obtuse angle wire deflection; SON; SOFF; SV
(120°) triangular profiles during WEDM of Ni50.89Ti49.11 shape memory alloy (SMA). Owing to the effect of
discharge concentration, corner error for acute angle profile is predominantly affected by spark on time,
spark off time, and spark gap voltage. Wire tension was the most influencing parameter for corner error
of obtuse and right angle profile due to the effect of wire deflection and wire vibration, whereas wire
feed rate has trivial effect for all type of profile. In order to reduce the corner error, pulse modification
technique was utilized. At low pulse parameters, corner error for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile was reduced
by 43.38%, 31.12%, and 29.04%, respectively, as compared to high pulse parameters.

Introduction process parameters.[11–14] The age-long problem associated

with WEDM process is to machine the error-free small-
Accompanying the development of robotics, aerospace, and
radius corners. During WEDM process, owing to the wire
biomedical industries, the demand for materials having super-
vibration, discharge concentration, and wire deflection, the
elasticity (SE), shape memory effect (SME), high corrosion
wire deviates from its programmed path. This deviation of
resistant, high specific strength, and high wear resistant is
the wire electrode from its computer numerical control
rising abruptly.[1,2] In 1963 at the Naval Ordinance
(CNC) path or the difference between the desire path and
Laboratory, the family of NiTi shape memory alloy (SMA)
the actual path is known as corner error (CE).[15]
was initially developed by Dr. William Buehler.[3] Ni-rich
Garg et al.[16] studied the WEDM of Al/ZrO2(p) metal
nickel–titanium SMAs have greater wear resistance, relatively
matrix composite (MMC) and optimized the machining
high ductility, and high corrosion resistance compared to
parameters for material removal rate and spark gap. The
equiatomic NiTi SMAs.[4–6] For manufacturer, the most chal-
obtained maximum material removal rate (25.375 mm3/
lenging task is to machine these alloys by conventional
min) and minimum spark gap (0.017 mm) at optimized
machining processes because of large strain hardening, poor
parameters shows the capability of WEDM process for
surface quality, low tool life, and burr formation.[7,8] To
machining such hard and difficult to cut developed MMC.
improve the machinability, the researchers have explored the
Chen et al.[17] explained that wire deflection which is the
advanced machining processes such as laser beam machining
prime culprit for geometrical inaccuracy in WEDM process
(LBM), electrochemical machining (ECM), jet machining
occurred owing to unbalances of forces, wire vibration, and
(water and air jet), and discharge machining (EDM/WEDM)
discharge concentrations. In WEDM process, wire electrode
for efficient and cost-effective machining of NiTi SMAs.
experiences many forces of different nature and different
Among the advanced machining process, WEDM is a better
direction such as electromagnetic forces, electrostatic forces,
alternative or sometimes only alternative for machining these
hydraulic forces (due to dielectric fluid), wire tension, and
hard alloys with intricate shapes.[9,10] WEDM is a non-
discharge force (due to spark between wire and
contact, thermal energy based advanced machining process
workpiece).[18] Puri, and Bhattacharyya[19] explained that
in which material is removed by melting or melting and
among the external forces experienced by wire, the dis-
evaporation by series of sparks occurring between the work-
charge force is a major cause of wire vibration and wire
piece and traveling thin wire. WEDM is capable of machine
lag. Wire experiences an impact force due to individual
any conductive material with intricate shape irrespective of
spark in the direction reverse to the occurrence of dis-
the hardness of the material. WEDM is a complex machining
charge. In WEDM process, to minimize the error during
process in which the performance is controlled by various
curved profile cutting, the various approaches such as pulse

CONTACT Himanshu Bisaria rme1509@mnnit.ac.in Mechanical Engineering Department, MNNIT Allahabad, Prayagraj 211004, India
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lmmp.
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
2 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
parameter modification, trim cutting, and path modifica-
tion have been used by many researchers. The mechanism
of CE and approach for reducing error for the various
profile is summarized in Table 1. In pulse parameter mod-
ification technique, the pulse parameters (pulse off time,
pulse peak voltage, spark gap voltage, and pulse on time)
are modified in order to decrease the wire deflection by
reducing discharge energy.[20] For rough cutting operation,
this technique can be successfully utilized to reduce the CE
but the main disadvantage associated with this technique is
the decline of productivity. Because at low discharge energy
parameters, the CE might be reduced but cutting speed is
suddenly decreased. This technique is also not suitable for
reducing huge corner error arising owing to high thickness
of the workpiece, and higher flushing nozzle height.[19,21]
Selvakumar et al.[22] applied pulse parameter modification
technique for Monel 400 alloy in order to reduce CE during
WEDM. It was concluded that this technique is suitable for
improving small CE but for large CE due to the higher
thickness of job and high flushing nozzle height, this tech-
nique is not effective. In this case, other techniques such as
path modification and multi-pass cutting can be utilized at
corner. In path modification strategy, the trajectory of wire
is modified to compensate for CE in WEDM. Selvakumar
et al.[23] proposed a path modification strategy by providing
additional traveling distance to reduce the die CE during
WEDM of Monel 400 alloy. It was concluded that by
providing 0.5 mm additional distance for traveling wire
which causes 35% reduction in CE and corner angle was
also the most significant parameters for CE. Dodun et al.[24]
applied another path modification technique in which
online monitoring and reducing strategy of wire lag in
WEDM were used for achieving better corner accuracy.
Few researchers have proposed some fitting methods for
improving the trajectory of wire for reducing CE such as
Puri and Bhattacharyya[25] proposed quadratic regression
model, Zhang et al.[26] proposed parabolic model while
Sarkar et al.[27] developed arc fitting model. Chen et al.[28]
carried out modeling and reduction in CE for Ti6Al4
V titanium alloy during WEDM. The CE was approxi-
mately decreased by 5–27% for surface microstructures
wire electrode as compared to brass wire electrode in
rough corner cutting. Further, the proposed cut-back
method compensate wire electrode path and reduced CE
by 87% in rough corner cutting. Abyar et al.[29]
Table 1. Mechanism of corner error and method for reducing error for different
profile.
Cutting Cause of Method for error
profile corner error reduction
Acute angle Discharge Parameter
(θ ≤ 60°) Concentration modification
Right angle Wire deflection, wire Parameter
(θ = 90°) vibration, and discharge modification and
concentration path modification
Obtuse Wire deflection and Path
angle wire vibration modification
(θ ≥ 110°)
experimentally analyzed the error due to wire deflection
during processing of small arced corners for 1.2510 tool
steel in WEDM. It was concluded that the CE due to wire
deflection was one of the foremost cause of machining
errors during processing of small arced corners; this error
accounts for 57% of the total machining error.
The outcome of detailed scrutiny of the literature review is
that the domain of the previous research work was mainly
restricted up to the estimation of CE and reduction in CE
during WEDM process. The individual effect of WEDM para-
meters on CE in all type of profile (acute angle, right angle,
and obtuse angle profile) for Ni-rich NiTi SMA has seldom
been reported which is the novel and interesting aspects of
this study. The objective of this experimental investigation is
to explore the individual effect of WEDM parameters namely,
spark on time (SON), wire tension (WT), spark gap voltage
(SV), spark off time (SOFF), and wire feed rate (WF) on CE for
60°, 90°, and 120° triangular profile. The parametric study was
carried out by using one factor at a time (OFAT) approach in
which a particular parameter is varied while other parameters
were fixed at constant level.[4] A pulse parameter modification
technique has utilized for CE reduction during WEDM. An
optical microscope was utilized to study and analyze the CE.
Material and methodology
Material
For the experimental analysis of CE, a square plate of Ni-rich
NiTi SMA, i.e. Ni50.89Ti49.11 (50.89-at. % Ni and 49.11-at. % Ti)
SMA with dimensions 165 × 165 × 6 mm3 has been targeted.
Figure 1 shows the elemental composition of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA
detected by EDS test. Physical, mechanical and thermal proper-
ties of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA are summarized in Table 2.
Experimental details
For cutting the triangular profile having an acute angle (60°),
right angle (90°), and obtuse angle (120°) on Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA
as shown in Fig. 2, Electronica Ultracut, 843, four axes, CNC
wire cut machine was utilized. The effect of WEDM variable
parameters namely, SOFF, SV, WT, SON, and WF on CE has been
investigated experimentally. The levels of WEDM variable para-
meters are mentioned in Table 3. A brass wire of 0.25 mm
diameter was selected as electrode with negative polarity while
workpiece was fixed with positive polarity. Pulse peak voltage,
pulse peak current, and servo feed were maintained at 12 V, 2 A
and 2060 machine unit, respectively, while deionized water (DI-
water) with pressure 1 kg/cm2 was selected as dielectric fluid.
Remarks
The conductivity of dielectric was ±20–24 µs/m fixed during
Low
experimentation. All the experiments were conducted at room
productivity temperature (25°C).
at low
discharge
energy Measurement of corner error
Moderate
productivity
and accuracy
The CE is the uncut area left between the actual profile and
Comparatively desired profile (as programmed profile). Leica D-35578 opti-
low accuracy cal microscope used for the analysis of CE as shown in Fig. 3
with the specification. ImageJ software was utilized for
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 3

Figure 1. EDS analysis of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA.

Figure 2. Triangular profile (60°, 90° & 120°) cutting for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA by WEDM.

Table 2. Properties of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA[4,5].

Properties Specification
Density 6.7 g/cm3
Hardness 312 Hv
Phases Austenite (B2) phase, martensite
(identified in XRD peak of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA) phase, and Ni-rich phase
Martensitic phase transformation temperatures (K)
Austenite-start temperature 304.6
Austenite-finish temperature 329.34
Peak temperature (A*) in reverse transformation 323.2
Martensite-start temperature 283.48
Martensite-finish temperature 258.65
Peak temperature (M*) in forward transformation 278.52

measuring the uncut area by selecting the desired portion. 4. The measurement of CE for 60° profile is shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 4 depicts the CE for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile, respec- The CE was measured by the difference between the desired
tively. Owing to the discharge concentration, wire deflection, area and actual area and recorded as 62709 μm2 as displayed
and wire vibration, the uncut area (CE) be clearly seen in Fig. in Fig. 5.
4 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA

Table 3. Level of WEDM variable parameters.

S. no. Parameters Symbol Unit Levels Response
1. Spark on time SON µs 105 110 115 120 125 Corner error for
2. Spark off time SOFF µs 52 55 57 60 63 60°, 90° &
3. Spark gap voltage SV V 35 45 55 65 75 120° angle
4. Wire tension WT N 2 4 6 8 10
5. Wire feed rate WF m/min 4 6 8 10 12

Figure 3. Leica D-35578 optical microscope with specification.

Figure 4. Optical microscope image of profile (a) 60° (b) 90° (c) 120°cut by WEDM process for Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at SON-125 μs, SOFF-5 μs, SV-55 V, WT-6 N and WF-
8 m/min.

Figure 5. Corner error measurement for 60 ° profile at high pulse parameter (SON-125 μs, SOFF-57 μs, SV-55 V, WT-6 N and WF-8 m/min).

Results and discussion
The individual effect of SON, SOFF, SV, WT, and WF on CE
for 60°, 90° and 120° profile is illustrated in Fig. 6–10, respec-
tively, while keeping other variable parameters of WEDM at
a fixed value. Figure 6 depicts the variation of CE for 60°, 90°
and 120° profile against spark on time, whereas other variable
parameters were kept at a constant level. From Fig. 6, it can be
distinctly seen that for all type of profile (acute angle, right
angle and obtuse angle), CE increases in proportion with the
increase in SON. This is because of the increase in wire
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 5

Figure 6. Effect of spark on time on corner error during WEDM of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at SOFF-57 μs, SV-55V, WT-6N and WF-8 m/min.

Figure 7. Effect of spark off time on corner error during WEDM of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at SON-115 μs, SV-55V, WT-6N and WF-8 m/min.

deflection which causes high CE during WEDM. As discharge
energy in WEDM process (as given in Eq. (1)[5]) is propor-
tional to spark on time and peak current. With an increase in
SON, discharge energy increases which cause more bubble
generation in the gap between the wire and the workpiece
that finally results in huge wire deflection [25]:
te
E ¼ ò Ue ðtÞ  ie ðtÞ  dt ffi Ue  ie  te
0 sharp corner point during small angle cutting in WEDM
where E is discharge energy, Ue is discharge voltage (V), te is
discharge duration (µs) and ie is discharge current (A). In case
of ideal discharge condition (no ignition delay), the discharge
duration becomes equal to pulse duration (spark on time).
It can be also seen that the higher CE is observed for 60°
followed by 90° and 120° profile with respect to SON. On
increasing SON from 105 to 125 μs, CE was approximately
increased by 63.22%, 51.54%, and 38.09% for 60°, 90°, and
120° profile, respectively. This is mainly due to fact that
discharge concentration phenomenon is the predominant
cause of CE for acute angle profile.[17] So, on increasing
spark on time, discharge concentration increases at the
(1)
which increases wire deflection. For rough cutting of acute
corner, discharge concentration phenomenon can be reduced
by pulse modification technique, i.e. decreasing SON at corner
point which generates low discharge energy at the sharp
6 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA

Figure 8. Effect of spark gap voltage on corner error during profile cutting for Ni50.89Ti49.1 at SON-115 μs, SOFF-57 μs, WT-6N and WF-8 m/min.

Figure 9. Effect of wire tension on corner error during WEDM of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at SON-115 μs, SOFF-57 μs, SV-55 V and WF-8 m/min.

point. Selvakumar et al.[22] reported the similar findings dur-
ing corner cutting for Monel 400 alloy in WEDM.
At the fixed level of other variable parameters, the varia-
tion of CE for all type of profile with respect to SOFF is
illustrated in Fig. 7. Unlike SON, CE shows the reverse trend
with SOFF. At the lower level of SOFF discharge energy as well
as the intensity of spark increased which results in more wire
deflection leading to higher CE. Owing to the decrease in
flushing time, i.e. time to wipe out the debris particle and
molten droplets from the machined surface at lower SOFF, CE
is also increased. CE was approximately increased by 57.05%,
35.83%, and 21.23% for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile, respectively,
with a decrease in SOFF from 63 to 52 μs. Similar to the SON,
SOFF is prominently affected the CE for acute angle profile
followed by the right angle and obtuse angle profile. As dis-
charge concentration phenomenon is the dominating source
of CE for acute angle, so higher level of SOFF can be preferred
for acute angle cutting because of low discharge concentration
at higher SOFF. Thus, it is suggested to increase SOFF at corner
point in order to decrease CE. Figure 8 displays the influence
of SV on CE for all type of profile. Similar to SOFF, SV shows
the inverse effect on CE for all profile. As compared to higher
SV (75 V), the CE at lower SV (35 V) increased by 62.20%,
49.84% and 40.59% for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile, respectively.
This is due to the fact that at the higher level of SV, the spark
gap is widened leading to decrease in discharge energy and
intensity of spark which results in less wire deflection.[20]
Thus, CE for all type of profile is decreased at the higher

Figure 10. Effect of wire feed rate on corner error during WEDM of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA SON-115 μs, SOFF-57 μs, SV-55 V and WT-6 N.
level of SV. As SV affects the level of discharge energy, so SV
is also the main influencing parameter for CE for acute
profile. The reason is similar to SON and SOFF; discharge
concentration is also a key phenomenon for CE in acute
profile. Puri and Bhattacharyya[25] observed the similar effect
of pulse off time and spark voltage on CE for die steel in
WEDM.
The effect of WT on CE for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile is
depicted in Fig. 9 and other variable parameters were con-
stant. It can be distinctly seen in Fig. 9, for all type of profile,
CE decreased with an increase in WT. In WEDM process, the
foremost function of WT is to control dimensional accuracy
and precision. With an increase in wire tension, tensile force
on wire electrode rises which keeps the wire straight and thus
reduces wire deflection and wire vibration. So, CE for all type
of profile decreased with the increase in WT because of wire
straightening. CE was found to be decreased by approximately
17.65%, 73.21%, and 80.86% for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile,
respectively, with an increase in WT from 2 to 10 N. Unlike to
pulse parameter (SON, SOFF and SV), It can be noticed that the
larger decrement in CE was observed for 120° profile followed
by 90°and 60° profile. This result is in support of fact that wire
deflection and wire vibration are the most influencing phe-
nomena for CE of obtuse angle profile, whereas discharge
Figure 11. Corner error for (a) 60° (b) 90° (c) 120° profile during WEDM of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA at low pulse parameters (SON-110 μs, SOFF-60 μs, SV-65 V, WT-8 N and WF-
6 m/min).
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 7
concentration becomes inconsequential. Wire tension and
wire deflection phenomenon are closely correlated to each
other. An ample wire tension is very essential for maintaining
dimensional accuracy and precision during WEDM, however,
larger WT may increase the wire breakage frequency. Figure
10 represents the variation of CE against WF while keeping
other WEDM variable parameters at the fixed level. It was
observed that WF has the trifling effect on CE for all type of
profile. There was trivial variation in CE with an increase in
WF. In WEDM process, wire cost has the major contribution
in machining cost, so the lower level of WF is always desirable
for economic machining. So, the choice of the appropriate
level of WF and WT is vital for cost-effective, accurate, and
precise machining of Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA in WEDM. Similar
observations also recorded by Chen et al.[17] during rough
corner cutting for SKD-11 steel in WEDM.
In order to improve the corner accuracy (reduction in CE),
a pulse parameter modification technique can be successfully
utilized. Figure 11 illustrates the CE for acute angle (60°),
right angle (90°), and obtuse angle (120°) profile at low
pulse parameters, i.e. SON-110 μs, SOFF-60 μs, SV-65 V, WT-
8 N and WF-6 m/min. It was found that the at low pulse
parameter, CE was improved by 43.38%, 31.12% and 29.04%
for 60°, 90°, and 120° profile, respectively, as compared to
8 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
high pulse parameter (SON-125 μs, SOFF-57 μs, SV-55 V, WT-
6 N and WF-8 m/min). The improvement in CE is due to
a huge reduction in discharge concentration at low pulse
parameter which results in less bubble formation at the
sharp corner point. But the limitation of this technique is
low productivity because at low pulse parameter (low dis-
charge energy), cutting speed is drastically decreased. So, to
overcome this drawback it is advisable to reduce the pulse
parameter only at near the sharp corner despite the whole
profile cutting.
Conclusions
In this experimental study, an attempt has been made to
explore the effect of process parameters, namely, spark on
time, spark gap voltage, wire feed rate, wire tension, and
spark off time on CE for acute angle (60°), right angle (90°),
and obtuse angle (120°) triangular profile during WEDM of
Ni50.89Ti49.11 SMA. For improving the CE, a pulse parameters
modification technique was utilized. Based on the experimen-
tal results and analysis, the following substantial conclusions
can be drawn:
(1) For all type of profile, CE was found to be increased
with the increase in spark on time and decrease with
the increase in spark off time, spark gap voltage, and
wire tension, whereas wire feed rate has an inconse-
quential effect on CE.
(2) Due to the dominating effect of discharge concentra-
tion in low angle profile cutting, CE for acute angle
profile was influenced by pulse parameters (spark on
time, spark off time, and spark voltage).
(3) For the obtuse and right angle profile, CE was mainly
influenced by wire tension because of the leading
effect of wire deflection and wire vibration in high
angle profile cutting.
(4) At low pulse parameters, CE was improved by
43.38%, 31.12% and 29.04% for 60°, 90°, and 120°
profile as compared to corner error at high pulse
parameter.
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 Materials and Manufacturing Processes

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Experimental studies on electrical discharge wire

cutting of Ni-rich NiTi shape memory alloy

Himanshu Bisaria & Pragya Shandilya

To cite this article: Himanshu Bisaria & Pragya Shandilya (2018) Experimental studies on
electrical discharge wire cutting of Ni-rich NiTi shape memory alloy, Materials and Manufacturing
Processes, 33:9, 977-985, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2017.1388518

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MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
2018, VOL. 33, NO. 9, 977–985
https://doi.org/10.1080/10426914.2017.1388518

none defined

Experimental studies on electrical discharge wire cutting of Ni-rich

NiTi shape memory alloy
Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Allahabad, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The experimental investigation explores the effect of electrical discharge wire cutting (EDWC) variable Received 18 April 2017
parameters such as spark gap voltage, wire tension, pulse off time, wire feed rate, and pulse on time on Accepted 30 September 2017
the surface roughness, average cutting rate, and metallographic changes of Ni55.95Ti44.05 shape memory KEYWORDS
alloy (SMA). The spark gap voltage, pulse off time, and pulse on time have the significant effect on the Average cutting rate; DSC;
surface roughness and average cutting rate, whereas wire tension and wire feed rate have the trifling EDS; EDWC; SMA; surface
effect. Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA’s surface after EDWC is characterized by many discharge craters, microcracks, morphology; surface
voids, and white layer of resolidified molten material. The elemental composition analysis of white layer roughness
using energy-dispersive spectroscopy divulges the deposition of the foreign element from the brass wire
as well as the dielectric on the surface after EDWC. The machined surface as well as the wire electrode
surface consists of various compounds of Ti, Ni, Zn, and Cu which have been identified by X-ray
diffraction peak analysis.

Introduction (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) integrated shapes with

electrically conductive material using thin wire as the electrode
Accompanying the development of smart materials and
with high accuracy and precision regardless of the hardness
demands of shape memory alloys (SMAs) having high
and strength of material.[15–17]
corrosion resistance, high electrical resistivity, biocom-
Lin et al.,[18] Weinert et al.,[19] and Guo et al.[20] have made an
patibility, high fatigue resistivity, and many other enhanced
attempt to study the conventional machining characteristics of
mechanical and physical properties are increasing day by day
SMAs and concluded that conventional machining creates poor
in industrial practice.[1] In recent decades, NiTi SMAs are
surface quality, tool wear, hardening of machined surface, large
the most promising material for biomedical,[2,3] aerospace,
cutting time, low dimensional accuracy. Hsieh et al.[11] explored
robotics,[4] and other important industrial applications
the machining characteristics of Ti–Ni–Cr/Zr ternary SMA in
because of its inherent properties, especially shape memory
WEDM. It was observed that electrodischarge energy signifi-
effect (SME) and superelasticity/pseudoelasticity (SE).[5–7]
cantly influenced the maximum wire feeding rate. It was also
Ni-rich NiTi SMAs are attracting prominence due to
noticed that the machined surface contained Cr2O3, TiO2,
their unique SE and SME as compared to near-equiatomic
TiNiO3, Cu2O, ZrO2, Cu–Zn brass, and Ni-rich phase and hard-
NiTi-based SMAs.[8,9] Nevertheless, the machining of these
ening effect near the outer machined surface due to the effect of
SMAs is extremely difficult by conventional machining pro-
various oxides. Manjaiah et al.[21] studied the machinability of
cesses. To surmount the difficulties in conventional machining
equiatomic SMA (Ni50Ti50) in WEDM. To optimize the material
of SMAs, advanced machining processes such as abrasive
removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness (SR), pulse duration
water jet machining, electrochemical machining, laser machin-
has most significant contribution followed by the pressure of
ing, electric discharge machining, and wire electric discharge
dielectric and pulse off time. The morphological analysis
machining (WEDM) have been performed for machining
of machined surface reveals the formation of the white layer of
SMAs.[10] Although every advanced machining process has
resolidified molten material, microcracks, and voids. The forma-
its own limitations, WEDM exhibits excellent machining
tion of different compounds of Cu, Zn, Ni, and Ti also noticed
capability for NiTi SMAs among them.[11] Further electrical
on the machined surface through X-ray diffraction (XRD) peak
discharge wire cutting (EDWC), more commonly known as
analysis. Manjaiah et al.[22] investigated WEDM characteristics of
WEDM,[12] is one of the versatile techniques to machine hard
TiNiCu SMA. The effect of machining parameters, namely, peak
and conductive alloys and SMAs.[13] EDWC is thermoelectric
current, pulse off time, table feed rate, and pulse on time on
spark erosion-based advanced machining process in which
MRR, surface morphology, and SR was studied using one-factor-
material has been removed by series of discrete sparks between
at-a-time approach. It was concluded that SR and MRR
thin traveling wire and workpiece.[14] EDWC can be success-
increased with an increase in peak current and pulse on time.
fully utilized to manufacture the intricate two-dimensional

CONTACT Himanshu Bisaria himanshubisaria20@gmail.com Department of Mechanical Engineering Allahabad, Allahabad-211004, UP, India.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/lmmp.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
978 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
The surface after machining was characterized for many micro-
cracks, craters, recast layer, pockmarks, and void. Liu et al.[23]
studied crystallography, elemental composition, and properties
of the white layer on Ni50.8Ti49.2 SMA’s machined surface layer
after the WEDM process. This white layer or recast layer of
porous and nonuniform bilayered structure was observed on
the surface after WEDM. The nanohardness of recast layer
was found higher than that of bulk material due to the effect
of oxide hardening.
From the intensive literature review, it is observed that
very handful work have been reported on the effect of EDWC
process parameters over the average cutting rate, surface
roughness (SR), and surface characteristics of Ni-rich NiTi
SMA. The aim of this experimental analysis is to explore the
machinability of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA in EDWC process. The
influence of EDWC process parameters such as spark gap volt-
age (SV), wire tension (WT), pulse of time (TOFF), wire feed
rate (WF), and pulse on time (TON), on average cutting rate,
SR, and surface characteristics of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA has been
studied. The surface characteristics of machined surface such
as surface morphology, elemental composition analysis of
white layer, and phase analysis have been identified using
scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy-dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and XRD.
Materials and Methods
Material
Ni55.95Ti44.05 (55.95 wt% Ni and 44.05 wt% Ti) SMA square
plate with the dimension of 165 � 165 � 6 mm3 was chosen
as a workpiece for this experimental investigation. The elemen-
tal composition of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA was detected using EDS
analysis which is shown in Fig. 1. In SMAs, the martensitic
Figure 1. EDS analysis of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA. Note: SMA, shape memory alloy;
EDS, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
phase transformation (austenite phase to martensite phase
and vice versa) is related to the release and absorption of latent
heat. The temperatures associated with this phase transform-
ation are detected by the differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) test which is displayed in Fig. 2. The temperatures
associated with martensitic phase transformation, namely,
martensite start temperature (Ms), martensite finish tempera-
ture (Mf), austenite start temperature (As), and austenite finish
temperature (Af) were calculated by drawing a tangent line to
the start and end areas of the transformation peak (exothermic
peak in cooling and endothermic peak in heating) and with the
baseline of the cooling and heating curves. M* and A* represent
the peak temperature at DSC curve in forward and reverse
transformation, respectively. The results of DSC test of
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA are summarized in Table 1.
Experimental details
Differential scanning calorimetry (PerkinElmer) was used for
measuring the martensitic phase transformation temperatures
of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA as per standard ASTM F2005. The
controlled heating/cooling rate of 10°C/min was used with
nitrogen gas (flow rate of 30 mL/min) during experimentation.
The weight of specimens was 30 mg. Electronica Ultracut, 843
four-axis CNC EDWC was used to machine Ni55.95Ti44.05
SMA. The EDWC parameters, namely, TON, TOFF, SV, WF,
and WT were selected as input parameters during experimen-
tation. Some parameters were fixed during machining as
shown in Table 2. The levels of variable parameters selected
for the experiments are shown in Table 3.
The specimens of dimensions 10 � 10 � 6 mm3 were
machined from a square plate. The cutting time was recorded
by the stopwatch. The average cutting rate (CR) was calculated
according to Eq. (1).
length of cut ðmmÞ
CR ¼ ð1Þ
cutting time ðminÞ
The surface roughness (SR) was measured by “Mitutoyo
SJ-410” surface roughness tester. The average surface rough-
ness (Ra) of individual sample was measured at five different
places on the machined surface and the average was taken as
a response parameter. The stylus speed of 0.1 mm/s and cutoff
length of 0.8 mm were used to evaluate the length of 4 mm.
The XRD phase analysis of machined surface was performed
at room temperature by PANalytical X’PERT using Cu
Ka radiation. The scanning rate of 2h range (5–100°) was
2°/min. Morphological analysis of machined surface was
performed using JEOL JSM-6010LA SEM equipped with
EDS facility. The thickness of the white layer was calculated
using ImageJ software. White layer thickness (WLT) was
calculated according to Eq. (2).[24]
AWL
WLT ¼ ð2Þ
LWL
where AWL is the area of white layer (µm2) and LWL is the
length of white layer (µm) calculated by ImageJ software.
The identification of XRD peak was accomplished using
database available in X’PERT High Score Plus software.
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 979

Figure 2. DSC analysis of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA. Note: SMA, shape memory alloy; DSC, differential scanning calorimetry.

Table 1. Martensitic phase transformation temperatures of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA.

Martensitic phase transformation temperatures (°C)
SMA Density Mf M* Ms As A* Af
Ni55.95Ti44.05 6.7 g/cm3 14.50 5.37 10.33 31.45 50.05 56.19
SMA, shape memory alloy.

Table 2. Fixed machining parameters in EDWC.

S. No. Machining parameters Fixed value
1. Wire Brass (Ø 0.25 mm)
2. Pulse peak voltage (V) 12
3. Servo feed (machine unit) 2060
4. Peak current (A) 2
5. Dielectric (DI water) pressure (kg/cm2) 1
6. Conductivity of dielectric (µs/m) �20–24
7. Working temperature (°C) 25 Figure 3. Effect of pulse on time on average cutting rate and surface
EDWC, electrical discharge wire cutting. roughness.

Table 3. Variable parameters and their levels. The effect of TOFF on the average cutting rate and SR is
S. No. Parameters Symbol Levels shown in Fig. 4. Unlike TON, the average cutting rate and
1. Pulse on time (µs) TON 105 110 115 120 125 SR decreases with an increase in TOFF keeping other variable
2. Pulse off time (µs) TOFF 52 55 57 60 63
3. Spark gap voltage (V) SV 35 45 55 65 75
parameters at fixed values. This is because at higher TOFF,
4. Wire tension (N) WT 2 4 5 6 8 both the discharge energy and intensity of sparks decrease
5. Wire feed rate (m/min) WF 4 6 8 10 12 which led to low cutting rate. The surface roughness

Results and Discussion

Machining characteristics
The effects of individual variable parameters of EDWC on the
average cutting rate and SR of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA can be
depicted from Figs. 3–7. Figure 3 represents the variation in
pulse on time on the average cutting rate and surface
roughness keeping other variable parameters at fixed values.
Both average cutting rate and surface roughness increase with
increased TON. At higher TON, the discharge energy and
spark’s intensity will be high enough to cause more material
erosion and form deeper and bigger size craters.[22] The
average cutting rate and surface roughness at higher TON
(125 µs) have been increased approximately 4.8 times and Figure 4. Effect of pulse off time on average cutting rate and surface
1.7 times, respectively, as compared to lower TON (105 µs). roughness.
980 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
Figure 5. Effect of spark gap voltage on average cutting rate and surface
roughness.
decreases due to the formation of the shallow crater on
machined surface at higher TOFF.[21] The value of average
cutting rate and SR at higher TOFF (63 µs) dropped approxi-
mately 1.5 times and 1.4 times, respectively, as compared to
lower TOFF (52 µs). Figure 5 represents the variation of aver-
age cutting rate and SR with SV. Similar to TOFF, the average
cutting rate and SR decrease with the increased SV. Because
at higher SV, the average spark gap becomes widened, which
led to low spark intensity as well as low discharge energy.[25]
Result shows that the average cutting rate and surface rough-
ness at higher SV decreased by 2 times and 1.4 times,
respectively, with respect to lower SV. The effects of wire
tension and wire feed rate on the average cutting rate and
SR are presented in Figs. 6 and 7. The average cutting rate
and SR slightly varied with wire tension and wire feed rate.
The average cutting rate and SR varied from 4.10 to
4.37 mm/min and from 2.30 to 2.41 µm, respectively, with
wire feed rate. The economics of EDWC mainly depends
on wire feed rate. The significant cost of machining is asso-
ciated with wire cost, so low wire feed rate is always prefer-
able for economic cutting. Further for high dimensional
accuracy, sufficient wire tension is required during machin-
ing, whereas higher wire tension may cause frequent wire
breakage.
Figure 6. Effect of wire feed rate on average cutting rate and surface
roughness.
Figure 7. Effect of wire tension on average cutting rate and surface roughness.
Surface characteristics
Surface morphology
The SEM micrographs of the machined surface are shown in
Figs. 8 and 9 at higher and lower TON, respectively. Craters,
microcracks, globules of debris, resolidified molten material,
voids, recast layer, and pockmarks were observed on the
machined surface which can be seen distinctively. In EDWC,
the machined surface consists of small spherical craters due
to the removal of material by individual sparks, whereas the
molten material which is neither evaporated nor carried away
by dielectric, resolidified on the machined surface to form
bulges of debris which can be seen clearly in SEM images.
EDS analysis of white layer and brass wire
In EDWC process, the material is removed at extremely high
temperature where some portion of the molten material is
evaporated and the rest is flushed away by the pressurized
dielectric fluid. However, due to the high thermal conductivity
of DI water the unexpelled material suddenly get resolidified
on the top surface, this resolidified layer is called recast layer
or white layer.[24] A quantitative analysis of the elemental
composition of the white layer formed on the machined
surface at different parameters has been done using EDS.
The thickness and elemental composition of the white layer
formed at different parameters are summarized in Table 4. It
is observed that TON, TOFF, and spark gap voltage are the most
influencing input parameters for response parameters of
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA in EDWC. Therefore, the effects of these
parameters on the thickness and the elemental composition
of the white layer have been studied at their lower and higher
levels. Figure 10(a) and 10(b) depicts the thickness and the
elemental composition of the white layer formed at lower
TON (105 µs) and higher TON (125 µs), respectively. As
observed from Fig. 10, a thick white layer is formed at higher
TON in which thickness is approximately 1.2 times to the
thickness of the white layer formed at lower TON. The EDS
analysis of white layer reveals that the atoms of foreign ele-
ments such as Cu, Zn, C, and O from brass wire and dielectric
are deposited on the white layer. The percentage atomic depo-
sition (PAD) of foreign elements in the white layer at higher
TON is approximately twice as compared to the lower TON.
The high discharge energy and intensity of spark at higher
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 981

Figure 8. SEM micrograph of machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at higher pulse on time (TON-125 µs, TOFF-54 µs, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-5). Note: SEM,
scanning electron microscope; SMA, shape memory alloy.

Figure 9. SEM micrograph of machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at lower pulse on time (TON-105 µs, TOFF-54 µs, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-5 N). Note: SEM,
scanning electron microscope; SMA, shape memory alloy.

Table 4. The average elemental composition of white layer formed on machined surface at higher and lower levels of variable parameters.
Variable White layer Average elemental composition (mass %) PAD of foreign elements
parameters Value Fixed parameters thickness (µm) Ni Ti Cu Zn O C R(Cu þ Zn þ O þ C)
Pulse on time (µs) 105 TOFF-54 µs, SV-50 V, 28.11 47.59 31.26 4.15 0.33 2.19 14.48 21.15
125 WF-8 m/min, WT-5 N 33.69 36.06 22.49 9.98 1.35 12.47 17.65 41.45
Pulse off time (µs) 52 TON-114 µs, SV-50 V, 25.90 26.24 32.55 19.18 1.71 15.17 5.15 41.21
63 WF-8 m/min, WT-5 N 20.19 39.67 42.14 9.36 1.95 1.07 5.81 18.19
Spark gap 35 TON-114 µs, TOFF-54 µs, 27.51 23.55 34.71 11.82 1.45 15.67 12.80 41.74
voltage (V) 75 WF-8 m/min, WT-5 N 22.22 41.45 36.71 5.23 1.31 3.27 12.03 21.84
Wire feed 4 TON-114 µs, TOFF-54 µs, 19.82 39.79 40.21 1.16 0.29 1.31 17.24 20.00
rate (m/min) 12 SV-50 V, WT-5 N 21.68 38.93 39.33 7.24 2.79 5.14 6.57 21.74
Wire tension (N) 2 TON-114 µs, TOFF-54 µs, 20.17 45.75 25.34 7.14 1.8 5.9 14.04 28.91
8 SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min 22.60 33.57 36.23 5.47 1.59 9.82 13.32 30.20
PAD, percentage atomic deposition.

Figure 10. The elemental composition and the thickness of white layer formed on the machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA: (a) pulse on time of 105 µs (b) and
pulse on time of 125 µs, (TOFF-54 µs, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-5 N). Note: SMA, shape memory alloy.
982 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA

pulse on time are mainly responsible for the formation of the composition of the white layer at higher TOFF (63 µs) and
thick white layer with the high PAD of foreign elements. lower TOFF (52 µs), respectively. As it can be seen in Fig. 11,
Figure 11(a) and 11(b) represents the thickness and elemental a thick white layer is formed at lower TOFF which is

Figure 11. The elemental composition and the thickness of white layer formed on the machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA: (a) pulse off time of 63 µs (b) and pulse
off time of 52 µs, (TON-114 µs, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-5 N). Note: SMA, shape memory alloy.

Figure 12. The elemental composition and the thickness of white layer formed on the machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA: (a) spark gap voltage of 75 V (b) and
spark gap voltage of 35 V, (TON-114 µs, TOFF-54 µs, WF-8 m/min and WT-5 N). Note: SMA, shape memory alloy.

Figure 13. The elemental composition of wire electrode (a) before machining and (b) after machining.
 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 983

approximately 1.3 times thicker than the white layer formed at

Figure 14. XRD pattern of machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at (a) pulse on
time of 105 µs and (b) pulse on time of 125 µs, (TON-114 µs, SV-50 V, WF-8 and
WT-5 N). Note: XRD, X-ray diffraction; SMA, shape memory alloy.
higher TOFF. The PAD of foreign elements in the white layer is
also high for lower TOFF. Unlike pulse on time, the discharge
energy is more at lower TOFF. At higher TOFF, the duration to
wipe out the molten material increased and hence leading to
thin white layer. The thickness and elemental composition of
the white layer formed at higher SV and lower SV are illu-
strated in Fig. 12(a) and 12(b), respectively. It is evident from
Fig. 12 that a thick white layer is formed at lower SV which is
approximately 1.3 times thicker than the white layer formed at
higher SV. The PAD of foreign elements is also high at lower
SV. Results show that wire feed rate and wire tension have the
insignificant effect on the white layer thickness and PAD of
foreign elements (Cu, Zn, C, and O) which also endorse the
results of the effect of wire feed rate and wire tension on
machining characteristics. Similar observations were reported
by Kumar et al.[24] in wire electrodischarge machining of pure
titanium. This white layer formed near the machined surface
does not affect the shape recovery ability of SMAs at normal
bending strain but a slight degradation in the shape recovery
ability is recorded at higher bending strain. This white layer
formed on the machined surface in the case of thin plates
can be removed by mechanically or electrochemical polish
before SME treatment to improve the shape recovery
characteristics.[11,26]
Figure 13 represents the EDS analysis of wire electrode
before and after EDWC. In EDWC process, machining takes
place at elevated temperature (∼12,000°C) resulting in the
migration of Ni and Ti atoms from the workpiece to the wire
electrode as well as Cu and Zn atoms from wire electrode to
the workpiece. The EDS analysis of machined wire (i.e., the
wire electrode used in EDWC) exposes the transfer of Ni
and Ti atoms from the workpiece to the machined wire
surface, whereas high carbon is deposited on machined wire
due to spark at elevated temperature. Further, the identified
compounds of XRD peaks of machined surface and machined
wire surface confirm the EDS results.

Figure 15. XRD pattern of machined wire at higher pulse on time of 125 µs
(TOFF-54 µs, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-5 N). Note: XRD, X-ray diffraction.
XRD analysis
The XRD phase analysis of the machined surface for
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at higher TON (125 µs) and lower TON
(105 µs) is shown in Fig. 14(a) and 14(b) respectively. The
XRD pattern of machined wire is shown in Fig. 15. The
XRD analysis results reveal that the machined surface layer
consists of Cu5Zn8, Cu0.6Ni1.4Zn2, Cu4O3, TiO, Ti2O3, Ni3Ti4,

Table 5. Details of identified phases on machined surface of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA and machined wire in XRD plot.
Chemical Crystal Density Space Lattice parameters
Ref. code formula structure (g/cm3) group a/b/c (Å) α /β/γ (°)
98-000-1121 Cu5Zn8 Cubic 7.98 I-4 3 m a ¼ b ¼ c ¼ 8.878 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-007-5006 Ni4Ti3 Hexagonal 6.79 R-3 a ¼ b ¼ 11.24, c ¼ 5.077 α ¼ β ¼ 90, γ ¼ 120
98-004-6051 Cu4O3 Tetragonal 5.93 I 41/ a m d a ¼ b ¼ 5.837, c ¼ 9.932 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-008-7512 Cuo.6Ni1.4Zn2 Tetragonal 8.47 P 4/ m m m a ¼ b ¼ 3.8360, c ¼ 3.3450 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-010-2932 NiTi Hexagonal 8.23 P 6/ m a ¼ b ¼ 4.02, c ¼ 4.61 α ¼ β ¼ 90, γ ¼ 120
98-007-1477 TiO Monoclinic 4.91 C 1 2/ m 1 a ¼ 9.34, b ¼ 4.142, c ¼ 5.885 α ¼ 90 β ¼ 107.53, γ ¼ 90
98-006-2016 Cu4O3 Tetragonal 5.99 141/a m d a ¼ b ¼ 5.818, c ¼ 9.8942 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-009-2398 C Cubic 3.52 F d-3 m a ¼ b ¼ c ¼ 3.567 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-009-9277 Cu5Zn8 Cubic 8.08 I-4 3 m a ¼ b ¼ c ¼ 8.840 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-011-3210 NiTi Cubic 6.46 P m-3 m a ¼ b ¼ c ¼ 3.015 α ¼ β ¼ γ ¼ 90
98-000-0774 Ti2O3 Hexagonal 4.57 R-3C a ¼ b ¼ 5.158, c ¼ 13.611 α ¼ β ¼ 90, γ ¼ 120
SMA, shape memory alloy; XRD, X-ray diffraction.
984 H. BISARIA AND P. SHANDILYA
and NiTi intermetallic. The formation of compounds for Ti
and Cu is mainly ascribed to the high reactivity of Ti and
Cu. The formation of compounds for Cu and Zn is due to
the deposition of Cu and Zn atoms from wire electrode to
machined surface. The identified peak of XRD pattern of
machined wire belongs to the compounds such as NiTi,
Cu5Zn8, C, and Cu4O3. The details of identified phases on
machined surface and machined wire surface are tabularized
in Table 5.
Conclusion
Electrical discharge wire cutting of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA has been
investigated in this study. The following significant conclusion
can be made on the basis of obtained experimental results and
analysis:
1. With an increase in pulse on time duration, the average
cutting rate and surface roughness increase significantly.
An increase in spark gap voltage and pulse off time results
in a decrease in the average cutting rate and surface
roughness, whereas wire feed rate and wire tension have
the trifling effect on response parameters.
2. Scanning electron microscope micrograph depicts the pres-
ence of many microcracks, craters, voids, bulges of debris,
and the resolidified layer of molten material on the
machined surface.
3. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis of white
layer and machined wire reveals the migration of Cu, Zn,
C, and O atoms from wire electrode and dielectric to the
machined surface as well as the migration of Ni and Ti
atoms from the machined surface to wire electrode surface
in EDWC.
4. The analysis of XRD peak exposes the formation of
compounds of Cu, Ti, Ni, and Zn such as Cu5Zn8, Ni4Ti3,
TiO, Cu4O3, Cu0.6Ni1.4Zn2, C, Ti2O3, and NiTi on the
machined surface and machined wire surface.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank ACMS department IIT Kanpur, Kanpur
for providing SEM, XRD, and DSC facility for accomplishing this work.
The author would also like to acknowledge Mr Samarjit Singh Research
Scholar at AMD, MNNIT Allahabad, Allahabad for his support.
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Original Article

Proc IMechE Part E:

J Process Mechanical Engineering
Wire Electric Discharge Machining 0(0) 1–8
! IMechE 2020
Induced Surface Integrity for Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
Ni55.95Ti44.05 Shape Memory Alloy DOI: 10.1177/0954408920951146
journals.sagepub.com/home/pie

Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya

Abstract
The current study unveils the variation of surface integrity aspects (micro-hardness, surface crack density, and surface
characteristics) for Ni55.95Ti44.05 shape memory alloy (SMA) with wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) process
parameters, namely, pulse off time, wire tension, spark gap voltage, wire feed rate and pulse on time. The experimental
results reveal that micro-hardness displays direct relationship with spark gap voltage, pulse on time, and pulse off time
whereas surface crack density shows direct relationship with pulse on time and inverse trend with spark gap voltage and
pulse off time. Wire tension and wire feed rate show trivial effect on both surface crack density and micro-hardness.
Machined surface comprises crater, micro-cracks, micro-voids, pockmarks, and lumps of debris while inspecting through
a scanning electron microscope (SEM). During energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, the foreign ele-
ments namely carbon, oxygen, copper and zinc were also detected on the surface. The high energy density at higher
pulse on time adversely affects the surface morphology. The formation of large size craters (deep and wide) with more
cracks on the machined surface were observed at lower pulse off time as compared to higher pulse off time.

Keywords
SMA, WEDM, micro-hardness, surface crack density, surface integrity
Date received: 2 June 2020; accepted: 28 July 2020

Introduction
NiTi SMAs have been the matter of intensive research
since its birth. Now-a-days, Ni-rich NiTi shape
memory alloys are highly demanding material in
many important sectors in comparison with equia-
tomic NiTi SMAs because of their wonderful super-
elasticity and shape recovery ability.1,2 Ni-rich NiTi
SMAs have been extensively used in biomedical, aero-
space and robotics industries3–5 because of their
exclusive properties for example, high corrosion resis-
tance, shape memory effect, superelasticity, high spe-
cific strength, and smooth surface properties as
compared to equiatomic NiTi SMAs.6,7 The casting
and powder metallurgy are the commonly used tech-
niques for the manufacturing of SMA. Recently, the
additively manufactured SMAs’ components are
gaining more acceptability.8,9 Machining of these
alloys is an important aspect for the manufacturing
of the several components. However, these SMAs have
faced various difficulties such as high tool wear, strain
hardening, low surface quality, and fatigue hardening
during conventional machining and hence efficient and
cost-effective processes among the advanced machin-
ing processes (laser beam machining, electrical
discharge machining, electrochemical machining, and
jet machining) are essential for their machining.10,11
WEDM is an advanced machining approach based
on thermal energy of spark in which material is
removed by electric-spark erosion.12 WEDM process
has been widely used for producing the intricate profile
with the high surface finish on conductive materials
that are tough to machine by conventional machining
methods.13–15 In recent days, WEDM process has been
accepted as an effective process for precision machin-
ing as well as machining of the extremely hard
and complex workpiece due to its capability to pro-
duce high surface quality, burr-free surfaces, high
dimensional accuracy and excellent repeatability.16,17
Since WEDM process is based on high temperature
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Motilal Nehru National Institute
of Technology Allahabad, Allahabad, India
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, G H Raisoni Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Nagpur, India
Corresponding author:
Himanshu Bisaria, Mechanical Engineering Department, Motilal Nehru
National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Allahabad 211004, India.
Email: rme1509@mnnit.ac.in
2 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 0(0)
spark, so major surface integrity aspects are influ-
enced.18 After WEDM, the machined surface under-
gone various changes like morphological changes,
elemental changes, mechanical changes, and metallur-
gical changes.19,20
The machining of shape memory alloys is very
problematic work by conventional machining
processes. Guo et al.21 experienced many challenges
such as high wear of tool edge, machined surface’s
hardening, large machining time and high surface
roughness during milling of Ni50.8Ti49.2 SMA. The
milling of such alloys is extremely challenging as com-
pared to other metals. Weinert et al.22 attempted
turning and drilling of equiatomic NiTi SMA and
experienced many problems like combined effect of
strain and fatigue hardening, high machining time
and poor surface quality. To defeat these challenges,
researchers effectively used WEDM process for
machining of theses alloys. Bisaria and Shandilya2
were utilized WEDM process for successful machin-
ing of Ni-rich NiTi SMA and noticed that the level of
discharge energy is basically responsible for the for-
mation crater size and surface quality. It was noticed
that machined surface comprised many surface irreg-
ularities such as micro-cracks, resolidified material
and craters etc. Theses surface irregularities was min-
imized at low pulse energy parameters. The machined
surface was also contained some foreign elements
migrated from brass wire and dielectric to machined
surface. During the examination of surface morphol-
ogy and three-dimensional (3D) surface topography
for Ni-rich NiTi SMA after WEDM, it was found
that surface integrity aspects strongly affected by
pulse parameter (spark on/off time, and spark gap
voltage). It was also observed that recast layer thick-
ness was reduced at lower spark on time as compared
higher spark on time.4 Soni et al.15 attempted WEDM
of TiNiCo shape memory alloy and studied the para-
metric study for material removal rate, surface rough-
ness, and surface integrity. It was found that pulse
parameter (pulse on/off time, and servo voltage)
mainly affect the surface characteristics. The hardness
near the machined zone was increased several times as
compared to bulk hardness of base material. Liu
et al.17 investigated the fatigue analysis of Nitinol
SE508 SMA in WEDM and highlighted that surface
integrity at main cut mode was improved in successive
trim cut. It was also noticed that fatigue life is mainly
influenced by surface integrity. The formation of thin
white layer with low residual stress of tensile nature
results in increase in fatigue life. The fatigue life at
trim cut mode was increased by approximately 1.5
times as compared to main cut mode. Manjaiah
et al.20 investigated the WEDM of Ti50Ni40Cu10,
and Ti50Ni30Cu20 SMA. In this experimental inves-
tigation, the major surface integrity aspects such as
surface morphology, 3D surface topography, and X-
ray diffraction (XRD) were explored. It was summa-
rized that similar to material removal rate, and
surface roughness, the surface integrity aspects were
also influenced by pulse on/off time and servo volt-
age. The surface irregularities after WEDM was
found more at high pulse on time and low servo volt-
age as compared to low pulse on time and high servo
voltage. Hsieh et al.23 have also effectively machined
Ti-Ni-Cr/Zr ternary SMAs by WEDM and reported
that the max. wire feed rate was strongly influenced
by pulse duration. In WEDM process, the outer
machined surface gone through high-temperature
gradient leads to the presence of thermal and tensile
stresses, consequently, the formation of micro-cracks
was occurred on the machined surface. Soni et al.24
studied the micro-cracks and determined the surface
crack density (SCD) for Ti50Ni49Co1 SMA during
WEDM. It was concluded that the SCD was found
higher at higher pulse on duration and lower at lower
pulse off duration. During WEDM process, the
machined surface hardness is also affected because
material removal occurred at excessively high temper-
ature. Liu et al.25 described that the average nano-
hardness of the recast layer was increased as com-
pared to the nano-hardness of base material at main
cut mode after WEDM of Ni50.80Ti49.20 SMA. After
WEDM process, the machined surface comprises
many surface irregularities like discharge crater,
voids, debris, pockmarks, micro-cracks, recast layer
and globules of molten material. Khan et al.26 exam-
ined the influence of WEDM process parameters on
surface integrity aspects for high strength low alloy
(HSLA) steel. It was concluded that pulse off time
was the most significant parameters for surface
roughness and micro-hardness. Zhang et al.27
attempted the WEDM of tungsten tool YG15 and
accomplished parametric study on surface roughness,
surface crack density and white layer thickness. SCD
increased with an increase in pulse on time and peak
current. Wu et al.28 reported that a thin oxide layer of
TiO2 formed on the top surface of SMA thin films
which is responsible for elastic buckling upon thermal
cycling.
It was also summarized that the machined surface
was also altered after WEDM, which may result in
modification of the properties SMA. So, for efficient
WEDM of SMA, the choice of appropriate level of
WEDM process parameters is important.19 Bisaria
and Shandilya4 explained that the micro-hardness of
the machined surface for SMA after WEDM has been
increased several times as compared to bulk hardness
of material. This is mainly due to formation of vari-
ous compounds/oxides and quenching effect experi-
enced by outer surface. Huang et al.29 observed that
the effect of temperature on indents during micro-
indentation of NiTi SMA. At high temperature,
indents were pile-up whereas at low temperature
indents were sink-in. The strain hardening is mainly
accountable for this. The similar phenomena were
also exposed by Su et al.30 for NiTi SMA in micro-
indentation.
Bisaria and Shandilya
The conclusion from the comprehensive scrutiny of
literature can be drawn that research works on sur-
face integrity of Ni-rich NiTi SMAs in WEDM have
been hardly reported. Parametric study of micro-
hardness and SCD for NiTi SMAs in WEDM has
been seldom described in literature. In this experimen-
tal study, the objective of the research work is to
explore the individual influence of WEDM process
parameters on surface integrity for Ni55.95Ti44.05
SMA. The effect of WEDM process parameters
namely wire tension (WT), wire feed rate (WF),
pulse on time (PON), pulse off time (POFF) and
servo voltage (SV) on micro-hardness, surface
morphology, surface topography and surface crack
density of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA was experimentally
investigated. SEM techniques were utilized to study
the machined surface morphology and surface crack
density whereas optical profilometer was used for 3D
surface topography of selected samples. Vickers hard-
ness test was used to study the micro-hardness of
machined samples. EDS was used for analysis of ele-
mental composition of machined surface.
Material and methodology
Material
For performing experiments, Ni-rich NiTi SMA i.e.
Ni55.95Ti44.05 (wt.%) SMA was selected as target
material. The procurement of material has been car-
ried out in the form of square plate with thickness of 6
mm, length and width of 165 mm. The density of
target material was 6.7 g/cm3. The elemental compo-
sition of target material was confirmed by EDS test
conducted at accelerating voltage 20 kV. The shape
memorization ability of SMA by the application of
heat is mainly related to its martensitic phase trans-
formation behavior between martensite and austenite
phases. The austenite start/finish temperatures, and
martensite start/finish temperatures were detected by
Table 1. Properties of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA.2,11
Martensitic phase transformation temperatures ( C)
Mf M* Ms As
14.5 5.37 10.33 31.45
Table 2. WEDM process parameters and their levels.
Parameters Unit Symbol Levels
Pulse on time ms PON 100
Pulse off time ms POFF 46
Spark gap voltage V SV 30
Wire tension N WT 4 5
Wire feed rate m/min WF 4 6
3
differential scanning calorimeter test.2,4 The proper-
ties of target material are given in Table 1.
Experimental procedure
Experiments have been performed on Electronica
Ultracut-843 wire cut machine. One parameter at a
time (OPAT) approach was used for analysis.
WEDM process parameters such as SV, POFF,
PON, WF and WT, as mentioned in Table 2, were
selected on the basis of pilot experiments and
available range of process parameters on machine.
During experiments, pulse peak current (2 A), servo
feed (2060 machine unit), peak voltage (12 V) and
dielectric pressure (1 kg/cm2) were kept constant.
Brass wire (Ø 250 mm) with negative polarity was
selected as electrode for cutting the samples. Cracks
are characterized by sharp edges and length-to-width
ratios of 4:1 or more. JEOL JSM-6010LA SEM with
magnification-1000X was used for detecting SCD.
Figure 1 shows the existence of micro-cracks on the
machined surface and measurement of SCD. SCD
was calculated by using equation (1).
TLC
SCD ¼ (1)
A
Where TLC; total length of crack (mm) and A; area of
micrograph (mm2).
Vickers test was used for micro-hardness. CSM
micro-hardness tester with diamond indenter (pyra-
midal shape of 136 angle) was used micro-hardness
analysis. The load and dwell time were 250 mN and
15 s respectively. Surface morphology which repre-
sents the texture of machined surface was analyzed
by JEOL JSM-6010LA SEM with magnification-10
KX. Surface topography is the three-dimensional
representation of surface texture which shows the
protrusion and depression on the machined surface.
Bruker Contour GTK optical profiler was used for
Hardness
A* Af (Hv)
50.05 56.19 312
105 110 115 120
50 54 58 62
40 50 60 70
6 7 8
8 10 12
4 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 0(0)
Figure 1. Demonstration of surface cracks and SCD at higher
POFF (62 ms) (TON-114 ms, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-6 N).
3D surface topography with sample area 240 mm 
180 mm.
Results and discussion
Analysis of micro-hardness and surface crack
density
The effect of individual WEDM process parameters
on micro-hardness and surface crack density for
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA are presented in Figure 2(a) to
(e). Figure 2(a) illustrates the influence of pulse on
time on micro-hardness and SCD. As can be observed
from Figure 2(a), at the fixed values of other WEDM
parameters, micro-hardness increases with the
increased in PON. The micro-hardness for outer
machined surface at higher PON was increased by
nearly 2.02 times as against the bulk hardness of
target material. At high value of pulse on time, the
spark energy as well as spark frequency increased
which led to increase rate of heat conduction into
workpiece and simultaneously the formation of
many compounds and oxides on the machined surface
because of sudden quenching effect from dielectric.
Thus, micro-hardness is increased at higher PON.
Similar findings were observed by Bisaria and
Shandilya4 in WEDM of Ni-rich NiTi SMA. It
reported that the machined surface consists of three
different layer namely recast layer, heat affected zone
and converted layer which have different micro-
structure, metallurgy and micro-hardness. The incre-
ment in hardness in recast layer, and heat affected
zone was 58% and 31% respectively whereas the
hardness of converted layer was unchanged.
SCD shows the similar trend with PON as can be
seen in Figure 2(a). As spark energy depends on PON,
high value of spark energy at higher PON leads to
increase in thermal residual stresses. The spark
energy in terms of pulse on time is given by equation
(2).4 So, more micro-cracks were developed on
machined surface because of high thermal residual
stresses. Similar influence of pulse on time on SCD
and micro-hardness was observed by Soni et al.24
during WEDM of Ti50Ni49Co1 SMA.
Z te
Spark Energy ¼ Ue ðtÞ  ie ðtÞ  dt
0
ffi U e  Ie  t e (2)
Where Ue (t) and ie (t) are spark voltage and spark
current respectively and te infers the spark time. Since
the spark voltage is almost constant, so spark energy
mainly influenced by spark current and spark time. In
WEDM process, the spark voltage fluctuates from 15
V to 30 V. In this study, the spark voltage was 28 V
during the investigation whereas the spark current
was 12 A. For ideal ignition i.e. delay time (td ¼ 0),
the spark duration (te) equal to pulse on time (i.e.
te ¼ PON). Thus, spark energy directly proportional
to pulse on time as per equation (3).
Spark Energy / PON (3)
Figure 2(b) represents the variation of micro-
hardness and SCD with POFF whereas other process
parameters were fixed. Micro-hardness also increases
with the increased in the POFF. This is because of the
fact that the time period between consecutive spark is
increased with an increase in POFF which led to
increase the time for proper flushing and cooling of
machined surface and therefore micro-hardness is
increased at higher POFF. It was observed that the
machined surface’s micro-hardness was increased by
1.80 times compared to target material’s hardness.
Unlike micro-hardness, SCD decreases with an
increase in POFF. The decrease in residual stress at
lower spark energy is mainly attributed to decrease
in SCD at higher POFF. Similar variation of micro-
hardness with pulse off time was noticed by Khan
et al.26 during WEDM of High Strength Low Alloy
(HSLA) steel.
The effect of SV on micro-hardness and SCD is
presented in Figure 2(c). The effect of SV on micro-
hardness is similar to POFF. At lower SV, the spark
gap and discharge gap narrowed and the number of
sparks per unit time increase which worsen the flush-
ing condition and finally micro-hardness was reduced.
The micro-hardness for machined surface was
enhanced by approximately 1.92 times as compared
to target material’s bulk hardness. SCD shows similar
trend with SV like POFF. SCD was found to be
decrease at higher SV. This is also due to fact that
the residual stresses decreased at lower spark energy
because of higher SV. Soni et al.24 were also explained
the similar effect of SV on SCD and micro-hardness.
Figure 2(d) and (e) shows the variation of micro-
hardness and SCD against WF and WT respectively.
WF and WT show the negligible influence on
Bisaria and Shandilya 5

Figure 2. The variation of micro-hardness and surface crack density with (a) pulse on time (b) pulse off time (c) spark gap voltage
(d) wire feed rate (e) wire tension.

micro-hardness and SCD. Micro-hardness slightly Surface characteristics

varied with WF and WT. Both WF and WT are
Figure 3(a) and (b) depicts the SEM micrographs for
non-electrical WEDM parameters which have no
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA after WEDM process at higher
direct relationship with spark energy. The cost of
POFF (62 ms) and lower POFF (46 ms) respectively.
machining is associated with wire feed rate, whereas
Similar to SCD and micro-hardness, surface
WT is mostly influenced the dimension deviation in
morphology of machined surface was also strongly
WEDM. For economic, accurate, and precise
influenced by WEDM process parameters. After
machining proper consideration of WF and WT is
WEDM, the machined surface comprises micro-
vital. Since in WEDM, the spark energy is function
cracks, globules (melting drops), discharge craters,
of discharge duration (PON), pause duration (POFF)
micro-voids, pockmarks and recast materials as can
and spark gap voltage (SV), so theses parameters be seen in SEM micrograph. Crater is shown by
mainly influence the responses.
6 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 0(0)

Figure 3. SEM micrograph of machined surface at (a) higher POFF (62 ms) and (b) lower POFF (46 ms), (TON-114 ms, SV-50 V, WF-8
m/min and WT-6 N).

Figure 4. Elemental mapping and EDS of machined surface at lower POFF (46 ms), (PON-114 ms, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-6 N).

symbol ‘C’ in micrograph.The successive electrical
sparks led to a transfer of intense heat into the
machined surface results in the formation of dis-
charge craters after material removal. Lumps of
debris are shown by symbol ‘L’ in SEM image.
During POFF, some of the molten material wiped
out by the deionized water. However, the molten
material remains left re-solidified on the machined
causes the formation of lumps of debris. Pockmarks
are shown by symbol ‘P’ in micrograph. The
formation of pockmarks on the machined surface
was mainly because of entrap gases escaping from
the redeposited material. Micro-cracks are denoted
by ‘Mc’ in SEM micrograph. The high-temperature
gradient encountered by outer machined surface
results in the existence of thermal and tensile stresses,
as a result, the micro-cracks was developed on the
machined component. Micro-void is represented by
symbol ‘V’. Micro-voids were formed on the
machined during re-solidification of molten material.
Bisaria and Shandilya
Figure 5. Three-dimensional surface topography of machined surface at (a) higher POFF (62 ms) and (b) lower POFF (46 ms),
(PON-114 ms, SV-50 V, WF-8 m/min and WT-6 N).
Elemental mapping
After WEDM process, the machined surface not only
experiences morphological changes but also the ele-
mental composition changed. Figure 4 represents the
elemental mapping of elements observed on the
machined surface while examined through EDS.
The result of EDS analysis endorses the existence of
some external elements other than parent elements
(Ni and Ti). The other elements observed on the
machined surface was C, O, Cu and Zn which can
be seen in elemental mapping and their statistical
data are also given in Figure 4. In WEDM, the
machining takes place at extremely high temperature
and the material from brass wire (Cu and Zn) trans-
ferred to the machined surface. The existence of C
and O on the machined surface is mainly ascribed
to the deionization of dielectric. Similar observation
has been noticed by Liu et al.25 during study of NiTi
SMAs in WEDM.
Surface topography
It was also observed that at lower POFF deeper and
wider craters were formed with considerable micro-
cracks as compared to higher POFF. Figure 5(a) and
(b) illustrates the three-dimensional surface topogra-
phy for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA after WEDM at higher
and lower POFF respectively. It can be also noticed
that at lower POFF, deeper crater (depth  32 mm) and
wider carters were formed as compared to higher
POFF. The crater depth was significantly reduced at
higher POFF. Spark frequency is decreased at higher
POFF which leads to decrease in material removal rate
thus depth of crater also decreases. In WEDM pro-
cess, the spark frequency may be defined as no. of
sparks per second which increases with the decrease
in pulse off time at constant pulse on time. The spark
frequency in WEDM is given by equation (4).4
106
d ðkHzÞ¼
PON þ POFF
7
where d is sparking frequency (sparks/sec), PON-pulse
on time (ms) and POFF-spark off time (ms). Sparking-
ampere output decreases with an increase in sparking
frequency. So, low spark frequency favored for rough
cutting. Similar results were reported by Bisaria and
Shandilya14 during study of crater for Ni-rich NiTi
shape memory alloy.
Conclusions
In this experimental investigation, WEDM process
was successfully utilized for machining of
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA and the influence of WEDM pro-
cess parameters (SV, POFF, WT, PON, and WF) on
surface crack density, micro-hardness, and surface
morphology, and 3D surface topography was studied.
The significant conclusions are as follows:
1. Micro-hardness of machined surface was increased
by increasing PON, SV, and POFF whereas surface
crack density increases with an increase in PON and
decreases with POFF, and SV. Wire feed rate and
wire tension show trifling effect for surface crack
density and micro-hardness.
2. Surface morphology displays the existence of var-
ious discharge crater, pockmarks, micro-cracks,
void and lumps of debris on the machined surface
which can be controlled by discharge energy.
3D surface topography shows the existence of
deeper and wider discharge craters at lower pulse
off time as compared to higher pulse off time.
3. EDS analysis endorses the migration of external
elements like Zn, C, O, and, Cu from cutting
brass wire and deionization of dielectric to the
machined surface.
Future scope
This study can be extended for the NiTiCu SMA
because it belongs to new class of SMA, which dis-
plays superior properties such as superelasticity and
(4)
shape memory effect. During micro-hardness
8 Proc IMechE Part E: J Process Mechanical Engineering 0(0)
examination, the effect on indentation can be consid-
ered for SMA.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Himanshu Bisaria https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4867-
607X
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JMEPEG ASM International
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04477-2 1059-9495/$19.00

Surface Integrity of Ni-Rich NiTi Shape Memory Alloy

at Optimized Level of Wire Electric Discharge Machining
Parameters
Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya

(Submitted September 19, 2018; in revised form October 13, 2019)

The concern of this experimental work is to study the surface integrity aspects such as surface morphology,
three-dimensional surface topography, recast layer, phase analysis, and micro-hardness for Ni55.95Ti44.05
shape memory alloy at the optimized level of wire electric discharge machining parameters. A mathematical
model was developed for surface roughness and material removal rate considering servo voltage, pulse on
time, wire tension, wire feed rate, and pulse off time using response surface methodology technique. In
order to obtain the optimized parameters, multi-objective optimization technique grey relation analysis was
utilized. The adequacy of the developed model was also checked by analysis of variance. At optimal
parameters setting, i.e., pulse on time 123 ls, pulse off time 58 ls, servo voltage 50 V, wire tension 3 N, and
wire feed rate 5 m/min, maximum material removal rate (8.223 mm3/min) and minimum surface roughness
(1.93 lm) were achieved. Surface characteristics of machined surface divulge the presence of discharge
craters, debris, molten droplets, micro-voids, spherical nodules, and cracks. A recast layer of thickness
19 lm with approximately 21% of foreign elements was deposited on the machined surface at optimized
parameters, whereas the micro-hardness of the outer machined surface was found to be increased
approximately 1.98 times as compared to micro-hardness of bulk material. X-ray diffraction analysis shows
the presence of the following compounds on the machined surface NiTi, Ni4Ti3, Ti4O3, Cu5Zn8, Ni(TiO3),
and NiZn.

Keywords optimization, RSM, shape memory alloy, surface List of Symbols

integrity aspects, WEDM
TON Pulse on time (ls)
TOFF Pulse off time (ls)
Wg Spark gap
d Wire diameter

1. Introduction
Abbreviations
A wide spectrum of NiTi SMAsÕ unique properties stimu- WEDM Wire electric discharge machining
lates the interest of its usage in many sectors such as aerospace, SMA Shape memory alloy
biomedical, robotics, and other important domains because of SV Servo voltage (V)
their exceptional properties (Ref 1-5). In the past few decades, WT Wire tension (N)
NiTi SMAs undergo considerable modifications in their WF Wire feed rate (m/min)
phenomenal properties like shape memory effect, high wear MRR Material removal rate (mm3/min)
and corrosion resistant, superelasticity and high specific Ra Surface roughness (lm)
strength. The same properties that impart uniqueness are also RSM Response surface methodology
responsible for poor machinability in NiTi SMAs (Ref 6-8). A CCD Central composite design
great proportion of SMA product market is occupied by Ni-rich SEM Scanning electron microscope
SMAs (Ref 9). Owing to the poor machinability with conven- EDS Energy-dispersive spectroscopy
tional methods, it is difficult to maintain simultaneously low XRD x-ray diffraction
surface roughness, high MRR, and high dimensional accuracy GRA Grey relation analysis
(Ref 10, 11). Therefore, these issues must be dealt with extra GRG Grey relation coefficient
care; to control these responses, the advanced machining GRC Grey relation grade
processes must be exploited for effective and profitable ma- ANOVA Analysis of variance
chining of NiTi SMAs. However, unconventional machining SS Sum of square
processes, namely laser beam machining, chemical and elec- MS Mean square
DOF Degree of freedom
CI Confidence interval
Himanshu Bisaria and Pragya Shandilya, Mechanical Engineering
Department, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad, Allahabad 211004, India. Contact e-mail:
himanshubisaria20@gmail.com.

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

trochemical machining, abrasive waterjet machining, and
electric discharge machining, have their own limitations like
burr formation, low surface finish, heat-affected zone, and
surface reactions. Among all these advanced machining
processes, WEDM has comparatively better suitability for
cutting hard and conductive alloys which are difficult to cut by
conventional machining processes (Ref 12, 13). In WEDM
process, a thin conductive traveling wire is used as electrode
and material is removed by a series of rapidly repeated sparks
between the workpiece and wire, separated by a dielectric fluid
and subjected to electric voltage (Ref 14-16). It can machine
any electrically conductive material regardless of the hardness
and complex geometries (Ref 17).
Few researchers have attempted the machining of NiTi
SMAs by WEDM. Bisaria and Shandilya (Ref 3, 5) performed
a parametric study for Ni-rich NiTi SMA during WEDM using
one factor at a time approach. It was found that surface integrity
aspects (recast layer, surface morphology, micro-hardness,
phase analysis, etc.) of the machined surface were predomi-
nantly influenced by pulse on time, spark gap voltage, and
pulse off time, whereas wire feed rate and wire tension were
related to the accuracy, precision, and economics of machining.
Hsieh et al. (Ref 12) examined the machining characteristics of
NiTi-based ternary SMA in WEDM and concluded that longer
pulse duration degraded the surface quality and increased the
recast layer thickness. Manjaiah et al. (Ref 18) have explored
the machinability of Ti50Ni40Cu10 and Ti50Ni30Cu20 SMA in
WEDM using full factorial design (FFD) approach and
concluded that MRR and surface roughness increased with an
increase in pulse on time and the decrease in pulse off time and
servo voltage. New phases were detected on the machined
surface because of the chemical reaction among wire electrode,
dielectric, and machined surface at elevated temperature. Liu
et al. (Ref 19) examined the properties, composition, and
crystallography of white layer for SE508 Nitinol (50.8 at.% Ni-
49.2 at.% Ti) in WEDM. A crystalline-structured white layer
formed on the machined surface comprises the small number of
foreign elements (copper and zinc) from brass wire electrode.
The nano-hardness of the white layer was found to be increased
compared to the bulk hardness of material due to oxide
hardening. For multi-response optimization in WEDM process,
researchers have effectively utilized GRA technique. Rajyalak-
shmi and Ramaiah (Ref 20) optimized the WEDM process
parameters for Inconel 825 alloy using Taguchi and GRA. At
the optimal set of parameters (using GRA), MRR was increased
by 6.04%, whereas surface roughness and spark gap were
reduced by 14.29 and 15.384%, respectively, which endorsed
the capability of the optimization process. Saha and Mondal
(Ref 21) experimentally studied the WEDM process for nano-
structured hardfacing material and developed a mathematical
model using RSM. Confirmatory experiments validating the
Taguchi coupled with principal component analysis (PCA)
enhanced the machining performance (MRR and surface
roughness) and optimized WEDM process parameters. Ma-
jumder et al. (Ref 22) developed RSM model for cutting time
and surface roughness of Inconel 800 in WEDM process and
optimized the parameters using GRA technique. It was
concluded that the predicted values by the developed model
were closed to experimental values.
After a detailed scrutiny of the literature, it has been
concluded that the domain of previous research works was
directed to the effect of WEDM parameters on performance
characteristics of NiTi SMAs. Some attempt has been made
keeping in view of the optimization, but the study on surface
integrity aspects after optimization for Ni-rich NiTi SMA has
been seldom reported which is novel and interesting aspects of
this experimental study. The present study focuses on the
modeling and multi-objective optimization of WEDM param-
eters for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA, considering MRR and Ra as
response parameters and TON, TOFF, SV, WF, and WT as
variable parameters. CCD of RSM technique has been adopted
for developing a mathematical model for MRR and Ra. For
studying surface integrity aspects, GRA approach was used to
find out optimized process parameters at which maximum
MRR and minimum Ra can be achieved. Phase analysis, micro-
hardness, surface characteristics, and recast layer have been
studied under surface integrity aspects by using XRD, Vickers
micro-hardness tester, SEM, optical profilometer, and EDS
technique, respectively.
2. Materials and Methodology
2.1 Material
For the experimental studies, a square plate of Ni55.95Ti44.05
(55.95-wt.% Ni and 44.05-wt.% Ti) SMA with a density of
6.7 g/cm3 and dimensions 165 mm 9 165 mm 9 6 mm has
been procured. The elemental composition (wt.%) of
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA was detected by EDS test conducted at
20 kV accelerating voltage. The phenomena of shape recovery
ability by the application of stress and heat are associated with
martensitic phase transformation between austenite and marten-
site phase. The austenite start, austenite finish, martensite start,
and martensite finish temperatures were detected 304.6, 329.34,
283.48, and 258.65 K, respectively, by differential scanning
calorimeter test (Ref 3, 5).
2.2 Design of Experiments
The range and levels of WEDM parameters have been
decided on the basis of preliminary experiments by using one
parameter at a time technique. WEDM parameters such as TON,
SV, WT, TOFF, and WF have been considered as variable to
examine their effects on Ra and MRR for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA.
The range and levels of variable parameters are represented in
Table 1. A thin brass wire of diameter 0.25 mm as an electrode
has been selected in this study. The pulse peak current, pressure
of the dielectric fluid (deionized water), and dielectric conduc-
tivity were fixed at 12 A, 1 kg/cm2, and ± 20-24 ls/m,
respectively. A CCD technique of RSM has been employed
to design the experiments. RSM is a collection of statistical and
mathematical techniques in which desired response is affected
by multi-variables. RSM can be utilized for modeling and
analysis of engineering problems (Ref 23). During this process,
the influence of all the process parameters on responses is
collectively analyzed, instead of one factor at a time analysis.
The relation between response z and i variable factors y1, y2,
y3, y4…. yi is represented according to Eq 1.
z ¼ U ðy1 ; y2 ; y3 . . . yi Þ þ f ðEq 1Þ
where U is response function and f represents noise or error.
Let us consider f(z) is desirable response function and xi, xj,
…xn are the independent variable parameters. The quadratic
model for f(z) can be written as follows:
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
Table 1 WEDM variable parameters for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA
Levels

Parameters Unit Symbol Range (available on machine) Range (after pilot test) 22 21 0 1 2

TON ls A 105-130 115-123 115 117 119 121 123

TOFF ls B 45-63 52-60 52 54 56 58 60
SV V C 5-75 35-55 35 40 45 50 55
WT N D 1-10 2-6 2 3 4 5 6
WF m/min E 1-15 2-6 2 3 4 5 6

X
n X
n X
f ðzÞ ¼ ao þ ai xi þ aii x2i þ aij xi xj
i¼1 i¼1 i<j
where ao, ai, aj, and aij are intercept term, linear coefficient,
quadratic coefficient, and interaction term, respectively. For this
study TON, TOFF, SV, WF, and WT are variable parameters and
MRR and Ra are desirable response parameters.
CCD is a well-known technique for designing five-factor
and five-level type problems owing to the flexibility and
minimum error (Ref 23). For constructing second-order model
in CCD, each parameter is varied at five levels ( 2,  1, 0, 1,
and 2). According to central composite rotatable design, with
five process parameters at a full fraction, a total of 50
experiments have been performed for modeling and analysis as
per given in Eq 3.
No: experimental runs ¼ 2f þ 2  f þ Nc
¼ 25 þ 2  5 þ 8 ¼ 50
where f is factors and Nc is center points. This five-factor and
five-level design includes 32 (25) full factorial points, 10 axial
points (a = ± 2), and 8 center points (zero levels). The design
matrix for experiments and responses is shown in Table 2.
2.3 Experimental Procedure
The machining was conducted on computer numerical
control, four axes, Ultracut-843, WEDM. The effect of WEDM
process parameters, namely, TON, TOFF, SV, WT, and WF, on
MRR and Ra has been studied. The specimens with the
dimension of 10 mm 9 10 mm 9 6 mm were machined. The
digital stopwatch was used for calculating machining time.
Equation 4 was utilized to calculate MRR (Ref 24).
MRR ðmm3 =min) ¼ cutting speed ðmm/min)
 thickness of sample ðmm)
 width of cut ðmm)
where thickness of sample is 6 mm; width of cut = 2Wg + d;
Wg is spark gap (0.02 mm); and d is wire diameter (0.25 mm).
Ra (average surface roughness) of the machined surface has
been measured by ‘‘Mitutoyo SJ-410’’ surface roughness tester.
The surface roughness for the individual sample was recorded
at five distinct points, and the average was considered as a
response parameter. The stylus speed and cutoff length were
0.1 mm/s and 0.8 mm, respectively, used to evaluate the length
of 4 mm. PANalytical XÕPERT x-ray analyzer was utilized to
analyze the phase change of machined surface using Cu-Ka
radiation at room temperature. The power was 45 kV 9 40
mA, and the scanning rate of 2h (5-100) was 3 min1. JEOL
JSM-6010LA SEM attached with EDS facility was used for the
ðEq 2Þ morphological analysis of machined surface. The thickness of
the recast layer was measured by the analysis of a cross-
sectional SEM image of the machined surface with the help of
ImageJ software by using Eq 5 (Ref. 7).
Area of recast layer ðlm2 Þ
Recast layer thickness ¼
Length of recast layer ðlmÞ
ðEq 5Þ
Bruker contour GTK optical profiler was exploited for analyz-
ing three-dimensional surface topography. For the analysis of
three-dimensional surface topography, the sample area was
240 9 180 lm2. The three-dimensional surface topography
can be also utilized for the measurement of the height of the
protrusion and the depth of depression on the machined surface.
CSM micro-hardness tester having square-shaped pyramidal
indenter of the diamond at the load of 250 mN and dwell time
ðEq 3Þ of 15 s has been utilized to measure micro-hardness. The
micro-hardness was measured by Eq 6 (Ref 5).

2PSin 136
2
Vicker hardness ðHv) ¼ ðEq 6Þ
D2
where P is applied load (N) and D (mm) is the average of two
diagonal indenters having an angle of 136.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 ANOVA for Material Removal Rate
The experimental results (given in Table 2) were analyzed
by using Design Expert 9.0.5 software. ANOVA results for
MRR are summarized in Table 3. As per obtained fit summary
from the analysis, it can be noticed that the quadratic model
developed for MRR is statistically significant. In order to
ðEq 4Þ
remove nonsignificant terms in the developed model, the
backward elimination with a 95% CI is used. The F value of the
model is 52.42 which validates that the developed model is
significant. There is only 0.01% possibility that an F value this
large could occur due to noise. The probability value (Prob >
F or p value) < 0.05 designates the significance of model
terms. As per ANOVA results, for MRR, the parameters TON,
TOFF, SV, square of TON, square of TOFF, square of SV and
interaction of SV and TOFF were the significant factors, whereas
WF and WT were insignificant. The F value of lack of fit is
2.54 which infers that there is a 10.39% possibility that an ‘‘F
value of lack of fit’’ of this large could occur due to noise.
Determination coefficient (R2) value is 0.9658 which indicates

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Table 2 Experimental design and observed results
Standard run TON, ls TOFF, ls SV, V WT, N WF, m/min MRR, mm3/min Ra, lm

1 117 54 40 3 3 6.755 2.13

2 121 54 40 3 3 7.024 2.18
3 117 58 40 3 3 6.307 1.84
4 121 58 40 3 3 6.935 1.86
5 117 54 50 3 3 6.618 1.91
6 121 54 50 3 3 7.023 2.22
7 117 58 50 3 3 5.554 1.61
8 121 58 50 3 3 5.533 1.92
9 117 54 40 5 3 6.629 2.1
10 121 54 40 5 3 6.985 2.24
11 117 58 40 5 3 6.280 1.84
12 121 58 40 5 3 6.914 1.87
13 117 54 50 5 3 6.854 1.85
14 121 54 50 5 3 7.353 2.23
15 117 58 50 5 3 4.743 1.63
16 121 58 50 5 3 5.179 1.98
17 117 54 40 3 5 6.283 2.13
18 121 54 40 3 5 7.635 2.23
19 117 58 40 3 5 6.296 1.84
20 121 58 40 3 5 7.293 1.86
21 117 54 50 3 5 6.147 1.81
22 121 54 50 3 5 7.317 2.22
23 117 58 50 3 5 5.171 1.51
24 121 58 50 3 5 5.428 1.83
25 117 54 40 5 5 5.713 2.15
26 121 54 40 5 5 7.420 2.26
27 117 58 40 5 5 5.787 1.77
28 121 58 40 5 5 7.341 1.98
29 117 54 50 5 5 6.529 1.93
30 121 54 50 5 5 7.917 2.12
31 117 58 50 5 5 4.660 1.52
32 121 58 50 5 5 6.294 1.94
33 115 56 45 4 4 6.701 1.73
34 123 56 45 4 4 8.554 2.12
35 119 52 45 4 4 6.169 2.35
36 119 60 45 4 4 4.386 1.78
37 119 56 35 4 4 5.569 2.21
38 119 56 55 4 4 4.194 2.01
39 119 56 45 2 4 5.722 1.99
40 119 56 45 6 4 5.613 1.99
41 119 56 45 4 2 5.755 2.05
42 119 56 45 4 6 5.783 2
43 119 56 45 4 4 4.620 1.99
44 119 56 45 4 4 4.994 2.12
45 119 56 45 4 4 4.807 1.98
46 119 56 45 4 4 4.666 2.08
47 119 56 45 4 4 4.476 2.07
48 119 56 45 4 4 4.777 2.08
49 119 56 45 4 4 4.854 2.07
50 119 56 45 4 4 4.937 2.06

that this developed model is capable to explain 96.58%
variation and rest 3.42% variations may not be explained.
The predicted R2 (0.8832) is in realistic agreement with the
adjusted-R2 (0.9423) since the difference is < 0.2. Adequate
precision measures the ratio of signal to noise (i.e., ratio of
significant factors to nonsignificant factors); the value should
be greater than 4 for a model to be adequate. The value of
adequate precision is 25.60 (i.e., large signal-to-noise ratio)
which also validates that the developed model is significant.
Square of TON has the highest percentage contribution followed
by TOFF, TON, and SV.
The mathematical relationship between MRR and variable
parameters in coded form is given in Eq 7. The equation in
coded form can be used to predict the value of MRR at a given
level of variable parameters. The high levels of the parameters
are assigned + 1 code, and the low-level factors are coded as
 1. This coded equation is useful for finding the relative
influence of the factors by comparing the coefficients of factors.
Equation 8 depicts the mathematical relationship in actual
factors which can also be used to make predictions of MRR at a
given level of each factor; however, the levels should be
specified in the original units for each factor. This developed

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Table 3 ANOVA table for material removal rate
Source SS DOF MS F value p value Prob > F Remarks Percentage contribution

Model 52.42 20 2.62 40.99 < 0.0001 Significant …

A 7.20 1 7.20 112.60 < 0.0001 Significant 15.60
B 8.15 1 8.15 127.39 < 0.0001 Significant 17.66
C 3.62 1 3.62 56.54 < 0.0001 Significant 7.84
BC 4.43 1 4.43 69.28 < 0.0001 Significant 9.59
A2 19.44 1 19.44 304.02 < 0.0001 Significant 42.12
B2 1.18 1 1.18 18.43 0.0002 Significant 2.55
C2 0.28 1 0.28 4.32 0.0467 Significant 0.61
Residual 1.85 29 0.064
Lack of fit 1.65 22 0.075 2.54 0.1039 Not significant
Pure error 0.21 7 0.029 R2 = 0.9658
Corrected total 46.15 49 Adjusted-R2 = 0.9423
Predicted R2 = 0.8832
Adequate precision = 25.60

equation is not sufficient to identify the relative influence of

individual factor since the coefficients are scaled to accommo-
date the units of each factor and the intercept is not at the center
of the design space.
Figure 1(a) and (b) shows the variation of the normal
probability of residuals and the actual experimental value and
predicted value for MRR. The experimental values are close to
the predicted values with 95% CI. The residuals fall on the
straight line in Fig. 1(a), showing the normal distribution of
error.
The final equation for MRR in terms of coded factors:
MRR ðmm3 =minÞ ¼ 4:7151 þ 0:4243  A  0:4513  B
 0:3007  C  0:3721  B  C
þ 0:7795  A2 þ 0:1919  B2
þ 0:09289  C 2
ðEq 7Þ
As discharge voltage is almost constant, discharge duration and
discharge current mainly influence the heating capability of
individual spark. In case of zero ignition delay, the discharge
duration becomes equal to pulse duration (i.e., TON). Discharge
energy is directly influenced by TON. So, at higher TON, MRR
increases due to substantial increase in the discharge energy.
Figure 1(d) shows the variation of MRR with TOFF. The
increase in MRR with the decrease in TOFF can be observed
from experimental results. It was observed that sparkÕs energy
and intensity of spark decreased at higher TOFF which results in
less removal of material from the workpiece, which finally led
to lower MRR (Ref 3, 5). Simultaneously, with the increase in
TOFF, sparks frequency decreases which also reduced the MRR.
The spark frequency can be given as Eq 10 (Ref 5):
103
Sparks frequency ðkHz) ¼ ðEq 10Þ
TON þ TOFF

The final equation for MRR in terms of actual factors:
MRR ðmm3 =minÞ ¼ 2821  46:0997  TON  2:9188
 TOFF þ 2:2603  SV  0:0372
2
 TOFF  SV þ 0:1949  TON
þ 0:048  TOFF þ 0:0037  SV2
2 plot for MRR in terms of SV and TOFF. It was noticed from the
ðEq 8Þ
3.2 Effect of WEDM Parameters on Material Removal Rate
Figure 1(c), (d), (e), and (f) represents the effect of
significant parameters such as TON, TOFF, SV, and interaction
of SV and TOFF on MRR. As can be seen in Fig. 1(c), MRR
shows the increasing trend with TON. This is due to the fact that
at a higher TON, the spark energy significantly increases which
generates more heat to melt the material. In WEDM process,
the energy needed to remove the material is achieved from the
spark energy. So, the required thermal energy depends on the
level of spark energy per pulse which finally converted into
heat. The discharge energy is given by Eq 9 (Ref 5):
Discharge energy ¼ Discharge voltage  Discharge current
 Discharge duration
ðEq 9Þ
Figure 1(e) illustrates the effect of SV on MRR. The
increase in SV has the inverse effect on MRR. This is due to the
fact that the spark gap is widened at higher SV, which led to
decrease sparking frequency (as given in Eq 10) and hence
MRR finally decreased. Figure 1(f) displays the 3D response
response plot that MRR is decreased by increasing TOFF from
54 to 58 ls and parallel increasing SV from 40 to 50 V. Similar
effect of TON, TOFF, and SV on MRR was also supported by
Narendranath el al. (Ref 25) and Manjaiah et al. (Ref 26)
findings for Ti50Ni42.4Cu7.6 SMA and equiatomic NiTi SMA,
respectively, in WEDM.
3.3 ANOVA for Surface Roughness
ANOVA results for Ra are tabularized in Table 4; the F value
of the model is 35.50 which suggests the significance of the
developed model. The parameters TON, TOFF, SV, interaction of
TON and SV, and square of TON are the significant model terms
having a p value < 0.05 at 95% CI. It is observed that TOFF has
the highest percentage contribution followed by TON and SV
for Ra. The probability value (p value) for lack of fit is 0.4658
infers that the lack of fit is not significant relative to the pure
error. The R2 for the model is 0.9607 shows the closeness of
predicted values and actual experimental values. The predicted

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 1 Residual graphs for MRR (a) normal probability vs. residuals, (b) actual experimental value vs. predicted value and effect of variable
parameters, (c) TON, (d) TOFF, (e) SV, (f) interaction of SV and TOFF on MRR

Table 4 ANOVA table for surface roughness

Source SS DOF MS F value p value Prob > F Remarks Percentage contribution

Model 1.76 20 0.088 35.50 < 0.0001 Significant …

A 0.43 1 0.43 173.80 < 0.0001 Significant 24.33
B 0.92 1 0.92 369.37 < 0.0001 Significant 52.06
C 0.15 1 0.15 60.57 < 0.0001 Significant 8.49
AC 0.13 1 0.13 50.96 < 0.0001 Significant 7.36
A2 0.065 1 0.065 26.23 < 0.0001 Significant 3.68
Residual 0.072 29 0.0024
Lack of fit 0.056 22 0.0025 1.13 0.4658 Not significant
Pure error 0.016 7 0.0022 R2 = 0.9607
Corrected total 1.767 49 Adjusted-R2 = 0.9337
Predicted R2 = 0.8749
Adequate precision = 24.605

R2 (0.8749) is in realistic agreement with the adjusted R2 ical equation for surface roughness in coded parameters and
(0.9337). For Ra, adequate precision is 24.605 which designates actual parameters is given in Eq 11 and 12, respectively. The
the adequate model discrimination. The developed mathemat- normal probability of residual graph and the actual experimen-

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

tal value and predicted value graph for Ra are given in Fig. 2(a)
and (b), respectively. The predicted values and experimental
values at 95% CI are close as shown in Fig. 2(b).
The final equation for Ra in terms of coded factors:
Ra ðlmÞ ¼ 2:07 þ 0:1038  A  0:1513  B  0:0613
 C þ 0:0628  AC  0:0451  A2
ðEq 11Þ
The final equation in terms of actual factors:
Ra ðlmÞ ¼ 129:949 þ 2:4248  TON þ 0:1909  TOFF
 0:7857  SV þ 0:0063  TON  SV
2 operation, whereas high sparking frequency is preferred for the
 0:0113  TON
ðEq 12Þ
3.4 Effect of WEDM Parameters on Surface Roughness
Figure 2(c), (d), (e) and (f) represents the effect of
significant parameters, namely TON, TOFF, SV, and interaction
of SV and TON on surface roughness. Figure 2(c) displays the
effect of TON on Ra. Ra was found to increase with an increase
in TON. In WEDM, at a higher value of TON, discharge energy
[given in Eq 9] is increased. At higher discharge energy, more
heat is available to remove the material and hence deeper and
wider craters are formed at the machined surface. Finally, SR
increases due to the formation of the deeper craters at the
machined surface at higher TON.
The effect of TOFF on Ra is shown in Fig. 2(d). Ra shows the
reverse trend with TOFF. Ra decreases with an increase in TOFF.
This is because of an increase in flushing time (time to wipe out
the molten droplets on the machined surface) at higher TOFF
(Ref 24]. Simultaneously, as TOFF increases, sparking fre-
quency decreases, and sparking-ampere increases. So, it is
suggested that low sparking frequency is used for rough cutting
finishing operation.
Similar to TOFF, the increase in SV has the inverse effect on
Ra. Figure 2(e) shows the decreasing trend of Ra with SV. This
is due to the reason that at higher SV spark gap widened which
led to decrease in sparking frequency and finally surface
roughness decreases. Three-dimensional response plot for
surface roughness in terms of SV and TON is shown in
Fig. 2(f). From the response plot, it can be seen that Ra is
increasing by increasing TON from 117 to 121 ls and parallel
decreasing SV from 40 to 50 V. Sharma et al. (Ref 27) and

Fig. 2 Residual graphs for surface roughness a normal probability vs. residuals, b actual experimental value vs. predicted value and effect of
variable parameters, c TON, d TOFF, e SV, f interaction of SV and TON on surface roughness

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Manjaiah et al. (Ref 28) also encountered with similar findings
for Ra during WEDM of Ni40Ti60 SMA and NiTiCu SMA,
respectively.
4. Multi-objective Optimization
4.1 Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) Technique
Among multi-response optimization technique, GRA tech-
nique can be utilized for solving the complex interrelationship.
In GRA technique, multi-response optimization problem can be
converted into single relational grade. GRA technique has been
utilized to optimize MRR and Ra for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA. In the
multi-optimization using GRA, the following steps are involved
(Ref 29):
Step 1 Data preprocessing (Normalization of experimental
data).
In GRA, first experimental results data are linearly normalized
in the range from 0 to 1 which is known as grey relational
generation. The experimental data can be normalized by three
different approaches according to objective, i.e., ‘‘smaller the
better,’’ ‘‘larger the better’’ and ‘‘nominal the better.’’ The
expression for normalizing the data using smaller the better and
larger the better type characteristics is given Eq 13 and 14:
For larger the better type objective (e.g., MRR)
0  
zi ðk Þ  min z0i ðkÞ
zi  ðk Þ ¼ ðEq 13Þ
½maxfz0i ðk Þg  minfz0i ðk Þg
For smaller the better type objective (e.g., Ra)
   
max z0i ðkÞ  z0i ðkÞ
zi  ðk Þ ¼ ðEq 14Þ
½maxfz0i ðk Þg  minfz0i ðk Þg
where z0i (k) and zi*(k) are the original sequence and sequence
after the data processing, respectively, whereas max z0i (k) is the
largest value of z0i (k) and min z0i (k) is the smallest value of z0i (k).
Step 2 Grey relation coefficient (GRC)
GRC represents the correlation between actual and desired
experimental data. GRC is calculated as per Eq 15:
½Dmin þ fDmax 
b0;i ðk Þ ¼   0 < b0;i ðk Þ  1 ðEq 15Þ
Doi ðkÞ þ fDmax
where b0,i (k) is grey relational coefficient, f is identification
coefficients, f [ [0, 1] and generally 0.5 is used. Doi (k) is the
difference of the absolute value z0*(k) and zi*(k), i.e., Doi
(k) = |z0*(k)  zi*(k)|, Dmin = min (min Doi (k)) and Dmax =
max (max Doi (k))
Step 3 Grey relational grade (GRG)
GRG is used for overall evaluation of multi-response charac-
teristics. The average of GRC value is considered as GRG.
GRG is given in Eq 16.
1X m
i ¼ b ðk Þ ðEq 16Þ
m k¼1 0; i
where m is the number of process response and the higher value
of GRG signifies the closeness of parameters to the optimum
solution. The higher value of GRG signifies the closeness of the
corresponding set of parameters to the optimal.
The normalized value, deviation, GRC, and GRG values for
individual experiment runs are given in Table 5. Experimental
run 34 has the highest GRG (1) representing the best
combination among 50 experimental runs. At experimental
run 34, i.e., A (123 ls), B (56 ls), C (45 V), D (4 N), E (4 m/
min), the max MRR (8.554 mm3/min) and min Ra (2.12 lm)
were achieved among 50 experiments. The mean response for
overall GRG is given in Table 6. It was observed that TON,
TOFF, and SV were the significant parameters having the highest
delta (max GRG–min GRG), whereas WF and WT are
insignificant parameters for the improvement in GRG. This
finding also validates the results of ANOVA for MRR and Ra.
From Table 6, it can be observed that at A2B1C1D1E1
parameter setting, i.e., A (123 ls), B (58 ls), C (50 V), D
(3 N), and E (5 m/min), respectively, max MRR and min Ra
can be achieved. A2B1C1D1E1 parameter setting is overall
optimized level of input parameters suggested by GRA
technique.
4.2 Confirmatory Experiment
Table 7 shows the optimized values obtained from confir-
matory tests. The max MRR was 8.223 mm3/min and min Ra
was 1.93 lm obtained experimentally at optimized levels of
parameters, whereas the value predicted by RSM model (Eq 8,
12) for MRR and Ra was 7.842 mm3/min and 2.01 lm,
respectively. The percentage error between the predicted and
experimental value for both MRR and Ra lies < 5% which
endorses the accuracy of developed RSM model. With respect
to initial setting (A1B1C1D1E1), an increment of 21.73%
and decrement of 9.34% for MRR and Ra, respectively, were
observed at optimal levels of parameters.
5. Surface Integrity Aspects
The processing and end use of the machined component are
directly affected by surface characteristics of the machined part.
During WEDM process, surface characteristics of the machined
part are altered. In surface integrity aspects, the altered surface
characteristics which affect the properties of workpiece material
are measured (Ref 30). Surface integrity may be defined as the
enhanced condition of the surface manufactured by any
machining process or other processes related to surface
generation. Surface integrity includes not only the topological
(geometrical) aspects of the machined surface but also the
physical, chemical, metallurgical, mechanical and biological
aspect (Ref 31).
After getting the optimized parameters setting
(A2B1C1D1E1), the surface integrity aspects such as surface
morphology, surface topography, recast layer thickness, phase
analysis, and micro-hardness analysis have been carried out at
optimized parameter setting.
5.1 Surface Characteristics
Figure 3(a) and (b) illustrates the surface morphology and
three-dimensional (3D) surface topography of the machined
surface for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at optimized parameters setting
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
Table 5 Grey relational coefficient and grey relational grade for MRR and Ra
Std. run Normal (MRR) Normal (Ra) Deviation (MRR) Deviation (Ra) GRC (MRR) GRC (Ra) GRG Rank

1 0.587 0.262 0.413 0.738 0.548 0.404 0.476 29

2 0.649 0.202 0.351 0.798 0.588 0.385 0.486 26
3 0.485 0.607 0.515 0.393 0.492 0.560 0.526 16
4 0.629 0.583 0.371 0.417 0.574 0.545 0.560 9
5 0.556 0.524 0.444 0.476 0.530 0.512 0.521 19
6 0.649 0.155 0.351 0.845 0.587 0.372 0.480 27
7 0.312 0.881 0.688 0.119 0.421 0.808 0.614 4
8 0.307 0.512 0.693 0.488 0.419 0.506 0.463 32
9 0.558 0.298 0.442 0.702 0.531 0.416 0.473 30
10 0.640 0.131 0.360 0.869 0.581 0.365 0.473 31
11 0.478 0.607 0.522 0.393 0.489 0.560 0.525 18
12 0.624 0.571 0.376 0.429 0.571 0.538 0.555 12
13 0.610 0.595 0.390 0.405 0.562 0.553 0.557 10
14 0.724 0.143 0.276 0.857 0.645 0.368 0.507 22
15 0.126 0.857 0.874 0.143 0.364 0.778 0.571 8
16 0.226 0.440 0.774 0.560 0.392 0.472 0.432 38
17 0.479 0.262 0.521 0.738 0.490 0.404 0.447 35
18 0.789 0.143 0.211 0.857 0.703 0.368 0.536 13
19 0.482 0.607 0.518 0.393 0.491 0.560 0.526 17
20 0.711 0.583 0.289 0.417 0.634 0.545 0.589 7
21 0.448 0.643 0.552 0.357 0.475 0.583 0.529 14
22 0.716 0.155 0.284 0.845 0.638 0.372 0.505 23
23 0.224 1.000 0.776 0.000 0.392 1.000 0.696 2
24 0.283 0.619 0.717 0.381 0.411 0.568 0.489 25
25 0.348 0.238 0.652 0.762 0.434 0.396 0.415 40
26 0.740 0.107 0.260 0.893 0.658 0.359 0.508 21
27 0.365 0.690 0.635 0.310 0.441 0.618 0.529 15
28 0.722 0.440 0.278 0.560 0.642 0.472 0.557 11
29 0.535 0.500 0.465 0.500 0.518 0.500 0.509 20
30 0.854 0.274 0.146 0.726 0.774 0.408 0.591 6
31 0.107 0.988 0.893 0.012 0.359 0.977 0.668 3
32 0.482 0.488 0.518 0.512 0.491 0.494 0.493 24
33 0.575 0.738 0.425 0.262 0.540 0.656 0.598 5
34 1.000 0.274 0.000 0.726 1.000 0.408 0.704 1
35 0.453 0.000 0.547 1.000 0.478 0.333 0.405 42
36 0.044 0.679 0.956 0.321 0.343 0.609 0.476 28
37 0.315 0.167 0.685 0.833 0.422 0.375 0.399 45
38 0.000 0.405 1.000 0.595 0.333 0.457 0.395 47
39 0.350 0.429 0.650 0.571 0.435 0.467 0.451 34
40 0.325 0.429 0.675 0.571 0.426 0.467 0.446 36
41 0.358 0.357 0.642 0.643 0.438 0.438 0.438 37
42 0.364 0.417 0.636 0.583 0.440 0.462 0.451 33
43 0.098 0.429 0.902 0.571 0.357 0.467 0.412 41
44 0.183 0.274 0.817 0.726 0.380 0.408 0.394 48
45 0.141 0.440 0.859 0.560 0.368 0.472 0.420 39
46 0.108 0.321 0.892 0.679 0.359 0.424 0.392 49
47 0.065 0.333 0.935 0.667 0.348 0.429 0.388 50
48 0.134 0.321 0.866 0.679 0.366 0.424 0.395 46
49 0.151 0.333 0.849 0.667 0.371 0.429 0.400 44
50 0.170 0.345 0.830 0.655 0.376 0.433 0.405 43

(A2B1C1D1E1), respectively. From the SEM micrograph
shown in Fig. 3(a), the presence of many pockmarks, spherical
nodules, micro-voids, craters, drops of molten material, and
micro-cracks on the machined surface can be distinctly
observed. In WEDM process, the successive electrical sparks
led to a transfer of intense heat into the machined surface result
in the generation of discharge craters. The size of craters
decides the quality of the machined surface (Ref 32). During
TOFF, some of the molten material was wiped out by the
deionized water. However, the melted material remains left
resolidified on the machined surface to form lumps of debris.
Pockmarks are formed on the machined surface due to entrap
gases escaping from the redeposited material. The high
temperature gradient experienced by outer machined surface
results in the existence of thermal and tensile stresses; as a
result, the micro-cracks were formed on the machined compo-
nent.
Figure 3(b) depicts the three-dimensional surface topogra-
phy which describes the height of protrusion and depth of
depression on the machined surface at optimized parameters

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

setting (A2B1C1D1E1). In Fig. 3(b), it can be clearly seen that 5.4 Analysis of Micro-hardness
the depth of material removed from the machined surface was
The variation of micro-hardness for the machined surface of
approximately 60 lm. In WEDM process, after the removal of
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA at optimized parameters setting
material, a crater is formed on the machined due to sparking
(A2B1C1D1E1) is displayed in Fig. 6. It was observed that
phenomenon. So, the crater depth is approximately 60 lm.
the micro-hardness in the vicinity of the outer machined surface
was increased approximately 1.98 times as compared to the
5.2 Recast Layer Thickness
bulk hardness of Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA. This increase in hardness
Figure 4(a) and (b) illustrates the recast layer deposited on may be due to either oxides formation or quenching effect. In
the machined surface and elemental composition of the recast WEDM process, the outer surface is exposed to extremely high
layer using EDS at optimized parameters setting temperature and experiences sudden cooling by the pressurized
(A2B1C1D1E1). A recast layer of thickness 19.51 lm is dielectric, which can increase the hardness near the outer
formed on the machined surface which is inspected by the surface. The oxide formation (NiTiO3 and Ti4O3) and the
cross-sectional view of the machined surface through SEM. diffusion of another alloying element in the recast layer may
The elemental composition of the machined surface using EDS
reveals the existence of foreign elements such as copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), carbon (C), and oxygen (O) from the dielectric and
wire electrode. In EDS of machined surface, 4.15% Cu, 0.33%
Zn, 2.19% O, and 14.48% C as foreign elements were detected.
Apart from the base material (Ni and Ti), the existence of the
foreign elements in the recast layer is because of chemical
reaction at the elevated temperature. At higher temperature, the
foreign elements were diffused to the machined surface.

5.3 XRD Analysis

The XRD peaks for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMAÕs machined surface
at optimized parameters setting (A2B1C1D1E1) with the
detailed information are illustrated in Fig. 5. The identified
peaks of XRD divulge the formation of oxides and compounds
of Ni, Ti, Zn and Cu, namely NiTi, Ni4Ti3, Ti4O3, Cu5Zn8,
Ni(TiO3), and NiZn on the machined surface. The oxides and
compounds of Ni and Ti were formed because of the high
reactivity of Ti and Ni atoms. The presence of compounds of
Cu and Zn is due to the diffusion of foreign atoms from brass
wire and dielectric fluid to the machined surface. The shifting
of peaks toward the right side in the XRD pattern indicates the
presence of tensile residual stress on machined surface. The
results of XRD pattern also support the EDS results of the
recast layer.
Table 6 Response table for GRG
Level TON (A) TOFF (B) SV (C) WF (D) WT (E)

( 2) 0.5984 0.4054 0.3985 0.4507 0.4376

( 1) 0.5364 0.5008 0.5113 0.5276 0.5136
(0) 0.4166 0.4428 0.4483 0.4419 0.4424
(1) 0.5139 0.5495 0.5389 0.5226 0.5366
(2) 0.7039 0.4760 0.3949 0.4461 0.4509
Delta 0.2873 0.14406 0.14404 0.0857 0.0990
Rank 1 2 3 5 4
Bold values indicate the corresponding parameters for optimization
Fig. 3 Surface characteristics a SEM micrograph and b 3D surface
topography at optimal parameters setting (A2B1C1D-1E1)

Table 7 Experimental validations of predicted value at optimal parameter level

Optimal condition

Initial setting Predicted value Experimental value Error (D), %

Level A1B1C1D1E1 A2B1C1D1E1 A2B1C1D1E1

MRR (mm3/min) 6.755 7.842 8.223 4.858
Ra (lm) 2.13 2.01 1.93  3.980

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 4 Cross-sectional SEM micrograph a recast layer formed on the machined surface and b EDS of recast layer at optimal parameters setting
(A2B1C1D-1E1)
Fig. 5 XRD peaks for machined surface at optimal parameters setting (A2B1C1D-1E1)
also be responsible for hardening effect. Similar hardening
effect near the outer machined surface in WEDM process was
also observed by Hsieh et al. (Ref 12) and Bisaria and
Shandilya (Ref 5) for NiTi-Cr/Zr ternary SMA and Ni-rich
SMA, respectively.
6. Conclusions
In this experimental work, MRR and surface roughness for
Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA have been mathematically modeled and
analyzed using RSM technique. Surface integrity aspects at the
optimized level of parameters were studied. Based on the
experimental results and analysis, the following findings can be
drawn.
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
1. As per GRA technique, WEDM optimized parameter set-
ting for Ni55.95Ti44.05 SMA was A2B1C1D1E1, i.e., A
(TON = 123 ls), B (TOFF = 58 ls), C (SV = 50 V), D
(WT = 3 N), and E (WF = 5 m/min). An increment of
21.73% for MRR and decrement of 9.34% for Ra were
achieved compared to initial setting A1B1C1D1E1,
i.e., A (TON = 117 ls), B (TOFF = 54 ls), C (SV = 40
V), D (WT = 3 N), and E (WF = 3 m/min). The percent-
age error between experimental and predicted value was
obtained 4.858 and 3.980 for MRR and Ra, respectively,
which validates the accuracy of the developed RSM
model.
2. Micro-structural analysis of machined surface reveals that
the machined surface contains micro-voids, micro-cracks,
debris, and spherical nodules, whereas the 3D surface

Fig. 6 Micro-hardness variation with the depth from machined
surface at optimal parameters setting (A2B1C1D-1E1)
topography shows the depth of crater was approximately
60 lm.
3. A recast layer of thickness 19.51 lm with 21.15% for-
eign elements (Cu, Zn, O, and C) from brass wire elec-
trode and ionization of dielectric fluid transferred to the
machine surface was formed.
4. XRD analysis of the machined surface exposes the pres-
ence of the compounds of Ni and Ti such as NiTi,
Ni4Ti3, Ti4O3, Cu5Zn8, Ni(TiO3), and NiZn.
5. Micro-hardness near the machined surface was found to
be increased 1.98 times as compared to bulk hardness be-
cause of quenching effect and oxide formation.
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