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Techniques and methodologies for improving thickener performance

Conference Paper · September 2003

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 TECHNIQUES AND METHODOLOGIES FOR IMPROVING
THICKENER PERFORMANCE

John B. Farrow and Phillip D. Fawell

AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy
CSIRO Minerals, Box 90 Bentley, Western Australia 6982.
E-mail: John.Farrow@CSIRO.au and Phillip.Fawell@CSIRO.au

Louis Mittoni and Tuan V. Nguyen

AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy
CSIRO Minerals, Box 312 Clayton, Victoria Australia 3169.
E-mail: Louis.Mittoni@CSIRO.au and Tuan.Nguyen@CSIRO.au

Murray Rudman
CSIRO Manufacturing and Infrastructure Technology, Graham Road, Highett, Melbourne, Australia 3190.
E-mail: Murray.Rudman@CSIRO.au

Kosta Simic
AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy CSIRO Minerals, Box 312 Clayton, Victoria,
Australia 3169. E-mail: Kosta.Simic@CSIRO.au

Jean D Swift
AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy CSIRO Minerals, Box 90 Bentley, Western
Australia 6982. E-mail: Jean.Swift@CSIRO.au

ABSTRACT
Research projects towards developing a sound understanding of the factors controlling the performance of
gravity thickeners have been conducted by the AJ Parker Cooperative Research Centre for Hydrometallurgy
since 1988 through AMIRA International. The current phase of this work, the three year P266D “Improving
Thickener Technology” project, has 27 sponsors comprising mineral processing companies, reagent suppliers
and thickener manufacturers.
These projects have resulted in the development of a range of tools and techniques to address
flocculation, thickening and associated dewatering issues. A number of Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) models have been developed to predict likely full-scale thickener performance under various process
conditions, based upon a knowledge of thickener design, plant flows and assessment of the flocculation
behaviour of the feed slurry. At the same time, various laboratory and plant studies have been used to
quantify important thickener processes, and to provide validation of the CFD models. These numerical and
experimental capabilities have been applied to various thickener issues across a broad range of mineral
processing operations, leading to significant process improvements and substantial financial benefits.
This paper presents an overview of the work conducted during these projects, focussing on the research
tools, the nature of the information that has been gained and the implications for thickener performance.

Keywords: Flocculation, thickener technology, computational fluid dynamics

INTRODUCTION

Gravity thickeners are used widely throughout most mineral processing operations to provide solid-liquid
separation, either to clarify pregnant leach liquors, to concentrate mineral slurries prior to further treatment
or to recover process water from residue streams. The principle of operation is simple, in most cases
involving the addition of dilute slurries to large diameter tanks, with gravity sedimentation producing a clear
overflow liquor and a concentrated underflow suspension.

Proceedings: XXII International Mineral Processing Congress 29 September – 3 October 2003

Chief Editors: L. Lorenzen and D.J. Bradshaw Cape Town, South Africa
ISBN: 0-958-46092-2 Produced by: Document Transformation Technologies
827
 Thickeners can be a significant process bottle-neck due to the slow settling rate of the particles and
subsequent rate of consolidation. When the feed slurry contains a high proportion of fine particles (e.g
below say 50 µm), then substantial enhancement of the settling rates is required for viable thickening. Such
enhancement is best achieved through the addition of high molecular weight polymeric flocculants
(sometimes following pre-treatment with a coagulant), which induce the formation of large fast settling
aggregates and usually increase the permeability of the settled sediment.
Flocculation processes have been extensively studied over the past 40 years and a large number of
detailed reviews exist (e.g. La Mer and Healy, 1963; Mortimer, 1991; Hocking et al., 1999; Hogg, 2000).
Most of the literature deals with batch studies that are not necessarily applicable to continuous processes.
Many are carried out on synthetic particles of a size and density that have minimal relevance to mineral
systems.
However, there is a poor link between such fundamental studies and practical applications in the minerals
industry. Consequently an ad hoc approach is usually taken to optimising flocculation within full-scale
thickeners involving running with “better” flocculants selected from laboratory-scale cylinder flocculation
tests, shifting the flocculant addition point to better mixing positions based on visual observations, or making
“try it and see” feedwell engineering modifications.
Research aimed at improving the understanding of the fundamental processes occurring within full-scale
gravity thickeners was initiated by the Parker Centre in 1988 through the AMIRA coordinated "Improving
Thickener Technology" P266 project.
This research has resulted in the development of a range of novel tools and techniques that can be used to
determine the underlying processes that control the operating efficiency of full-scale thickeners. The
approach has been to develop a full-thickener modelling capability based upon computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) models of the processes occurring with the various sections of a thickener, such as those within the
feedwell, clarification/settling zone, consolidation zone and raking region. These CFD models are built upon
knowledge of the fundamental physical and chemical processes occurring within the different regions of a
thickener, gained from a comprehensive range of experimental measurements conducted on the laboratory,
pilot scale and full-scale. The experimental techniques have provided a unique insight into key aspects
governing thickener operation, such as the structural properties (e.g. size, density and strength) of aggregates
formed in feedwells, feedpipes or launders by the addition of flocculant, the fluid flow patterns and solids
distribution throughout each region of a thickener, sediment consolidation behaviour, transport patterns and
secondary dewatering induced by the action of rake structures, etc. These techniques have been applied to
investigate the performance of more than 100 full-scale thickeners, washers and clarifiers that cover the full
range of designs used in industrial practice in the minerals industry.
In the remainder of this paper, an outline is given of some of the tools and techniques that have been
developed within the AMIRA “Improving Thickener Technology” projects, the information that is gained
from these tools and the implications for the performance of full-scale thickeners.

UNDERSTANDING FLOCCULATION MECHANISMS

Perhaps the greatest challenge in any study of flocculation is to properly characterise the structure of the
aggregates formed by polymer-bridging. Flocculation of a suspension produces a broad range of aggregate
structures that vary in size and density, as well as having extreme shape irregularity (see Figure 1).

High small, dense

aggregates

Aggregate large, porous

aggregates
density

Low
Small Large
Aggregate size

Figure 1. Schematic of the range in the size and density of aggregates produced by flocculation.

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 These properties have a profound effect upon suspension dewatering properties, controlling the settling
rate, consolidation and rheology. Effective measurement of aggregate properties in flocculated suspensions
is complicated by their fragile nature, and utmost care needs to be taken that the measurement technique
itself does not change their size or structure.

Imaging of aggregated systems

Conventional borescopes may be used in situ to give images of individual aggregates, providing a
reasonable degree of magnification. However, they typically have a large depth of field, which means that
bodies of similar size but at different distances may be sharply in focus. As a consequence, the recorded
images may not give a reliable indication of relative size.
This is avoided using a Particle Vision & Measurement (PVM) probe. The special lens/lighting
configuration of the PVM probe results in a limited depth of field, such that any particle that is in focus can
be sized correctly. It offers highly focused strobing laser illumination of a stirred slurry, capturing up to 30
images per second and converting the images of the observed area to a video signal. Each captured image
represents an area of 660×880 µm, with a resolution of 5 µm.
Figure 2 presents selected images acquired for the flocculation of hematite fines with a nonionic
flocculant. The unflocculated slurry shows some particles of up to 40 µm, but the majority are at or below
the resolution of the probe (Figure 2a). However, the images of flocculated hematite (Figure 2b-c) are far
more distinct, clearly showing the formation of separate aggregates. The focal position may also be set very
close to the probe window, which allows measurements at substantially higher concentrations than a
borescope (up to 60 wt% solids, depending on particle size, shape and how well the material backscatters
light).

(c)
(b)
(a)

Figure 2. PVM images of 4 wt% hematite slurry. A: unflocculated; B, C: with nonionic flocculant. Red bar =100 µm.

The main limitation of the PVM probe is its resolution of 5 µm, which means that in most slurries,
unflocculated primary particles cannot be distinguished. For any system with a significant fraction of fines
(i.e. <5 µm), it is likely that such particles may effectively “blind” the probe, preventing larger bodies from
being readily detected. However, it should be noted that this is an issue for any optical sizing technique, and
the PVM’s narrow depth of field limits this effect to some degree.

Measuring aggregate size distributions

A number of techniques have been tried for measuring aggregate size distributions (Farrow and Warren,
1993), including methods based on laser light scattering (e.g. Malvern Mastersizer), sedimentation (e.g.
Sedigraph) and turbidity fluctuations. While such techniques are proven for characterising dispersed
particles, they are challenged by the fragility of aggregates, which readily rupture prior to or within the
measurement zone. In addition, these techniques are not easily used on-line and require significant dilution
prior to off-line measurement, usually resulting in additional rupture.
Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement (FBRM) probes have been highly successful for in-process
monitoring of pharmaceutical crystallisations, but are also ideally suited to in-situ characterisation of
flocculated aggregates. With this technique, a highly focused laser beam is projected through a sapphire
window and rapidly scans at a fixed velocity across any particle or aggregate flowing past the probe window
(Heath et al., 2002). The duration of the reflected light is related to the chord length of a particle. Many
thousand chords are measured per second, providing a chord length distribution between 1 and 1000 µm.
The main advantages of FBRM for flocculation are the ability to provide information over a very wide range
of solids concentrations (i.e. no need for dilution) from in situ measurements and its rapid response
(measurements made every 2 s) to changes in aggregation state.

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 The FBRM probe has been used within our Shear Vessel system (a continuous-flow Couette mixing
device, described in Farrow and Swift, 1996) to substantially enhance the information that is acquired during
continuous flocculation testing. An example of this is given in Figure 3a which shows the settling rate
versus flocculant dosage response for a 4.5 wt% kaolin slurry flocculated with a 35% anionic low molecular
weight flocculant in the Shear Vessel at 200 rpm. These tests compared the effect of diluting the flocculant
with either water or a 0.10 M NaCl solution prior to flocculation.
20 1200
No added salt
(a) 1000 (b) 50 g t-1
60 g t-1
Settling rate (m h-1)

15 No added salt 0.10 M NaCl

800 0.10 M NaCl
70 g t-1
unflocculated

Counts
100 g t-1
10 600

400
5
200

0 0
25 50 75 100 125 1 10 100 1000
Dosage (g t-1) Chord length (µm)
Figure 3. Settling rate and FBRM data for a kaolin slurry using flocculant solutions diluted with or without salt.

The sharpness of the settling rate response to dosage is commonly observed with kaolin slurries and is
consistent with the initial formation of small, slow settling aggregates up to a critical dosage, above which
“clustering” to larger aggregates becomes the dominant process. The presence of 0.10 M NaCl in the diluted
flocculant solution greatly increase the dosage required for effective flocculation. This is a consequence of a
reduction in solution dimensions for the flocculant chains in the salt solution. In salt the flocculant’s
behaviour approaches that of its nonionic equivalent.
Figure 3b shows the unweighted chord length distributions of suspensions flocculated with or without
added salt to produce settling rates of 1 m h-1 (low dosage) or 4 m h-1 (high dosage). In all cases, flocculation
produced a substantial reduction in the measured counts compared to the unflocculated sample, even when
the settling rate was minimal. This highlights the great sensitivity of FBRM to the onset of aggregation
compared to changes in the settling rate. With higher flocculant dosages, the distribution is seen to shift
further towards longer chord lengths and lower counts.
Closer examination of the distributions highlights differences in the behaviour of the two flocculant
solutions. At the same settling rate, the solution diluted in salt gave a higher fraction of counts below 10 µm,
despite the use of a higher flocculant dosage. This is thought to be due to the flocculant’s reduced solution
dimensions in salt, which may reduce the probability of bridging between fine particles to induce
aggregation. Such behaviour is not always readily apparent from batch residual turbidity measurements, as
fine particles can be “dragged down” during hindered settling.
Applying a length-square weighting to the chord length distribution emphasizes the volumetric
contribution of the aggregates, and a relationship between the settling rate and the mean weighted chord
length has been established for different substrates (e.g. Owen et al., 2002). FBRM has also been used
successfully within full-scale thickeners to determine the flocculation state in different parts of the feedwell.
Thus, the on-site use of the FBRM technique to identify the conditions that give the largest chord length
distribution offers a new approach to optimising thickener performance for a given flocculant-feed system.

Determining flocculation kinetics

The intensity and duration of the mixing used to contact the flocculant with particles are critical to the
efficiency of flocculation and hence thickener performance. Strong mixing may give good distribution of the
polymer and a large aggregate size, but if it is maintained for too long the aggregates will rapidly rupture to a
much lower size. While the Shear Vessel offers greater control of mixing than batch cylinder tests, the shear
regime generated in the vessel is not readily matched with that of a thickener feedwell for modelling
purposes.
A linear pipe reactor (LPR) system has been developed (Swift et al., 2001) to investigate the kinetics of
flocculation under known turbulence conditions, enabling the optimum time for mixing flocculant and feed
to be identified.

830
 Incorporation of a FBRM probe into the system provides real-time, in-situ characterisation of the
aggregate dimensions during the flocculation process. At a constant flow rate, varying the distance between
the flocculant addition point and FBRM probe controls the flocculation “reaction” time.
The LPR consists of a sufficient length of stainless steel pipe to provide the required reaction time at a
given flow rate. The slurry feed and flocculant enter at one end with the FBRM probe located at the other,
its window projecting into the flow at an angle of 45°. Once flocculant is mixed with the slurry, the size of
the aggregates at a given point downstream in the LPR is determined by the relative rates of the competing
processes of aggregate formation and rupture. These processes depend, amongst others, upon the mixing
conditions, flocculant dosage and solids concentration of the slurry. The mixing intensity present within the
LPR is determined by the pipe diameter, flow rate and slurry viscosity.
An example of the information that can be obtained from the LPR is given in Figure 4. It shows the mean
square-weighted chord length as a function of reaction time for the flocculation of sand mine slimes at three
flow rates. At the highest flow rate (1.32 m s-1), the mean aggregate size grows rapidly to 150 µm in 3 s
before aggregate rupture dominates, leading to a steady decline. At the lowest flow rate (0.44 m s-1), the
aggregate growth rate is much slower, with the mean size increasing steadily to almost 300 µm over 9 s with
only minor aggregate rupture at longer reaction times.
350

300 0.44 m s-1

Mean 250
square
200 0.88 m s-1
weighted
chord
length 150
(µm) 100 1.32 m s-1

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Reaction time (s)
Figure 4. Mean square-weighted chord length versus flocculation reaction time at different flow rates in LPR.

A key consideration in feedwell design should therefore be the available “reaction” time between
flocculant addition and discharge into the settling zone of a thickener, which must accommodate the specific
flocculation kinetics of a given slurry/flocculant combination under a range of hydrodynamic conditions.
The reaction profiles as shown in Figure 4 are strongly influenced by the flocculant type and dosage, the
flocculant solution viscosity and the feed solids concentrations. A population balance model to describe
aggregate growth and rupture has now been developed. This is used to extract from LPR data four
parameters to characterise the flocculation kinetics of a given flocculant-substrate combination.
The LPR has been used at mineral processing sites to generate data for validating, modifying and
simplifying the population balance model. With its recent incorporation into the CFD feedwell model (see
below), it can now be used to predict aggregate sizes for different feedwell designs or operating conditions.

UNDERSTANDING FULL-SCALE PERFORMANCE

Feedwell processes
A detailed understanding is required of the chemical and physical processes occurring within a thickener
feedwell in order to understand how changes in process conditions (e.g. flow rates, feed solids concentration
and composition, flocculant type and dosage) or design features (open or closed feedwell, feedwell size,
presence of baffles or shelves, etc) will affect overall thickener performance. A number of research tools
have been developed to provide information on the solids distribution, fluid flow patterns, solids discharge
behaviour, flocculant distribution, aggregate growth and rupture, etc. Examples of the information that can
be gained from three of these tools, Electrical Impedance Tomography, Particle Image Velocimetry and
Computational Fluids Dynamics (CFD) modelling are given below.

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Electrical Impedance Tomography
The CATSCAN technique is used routinely for diagnostic purposes by the medical profession to examine
the inside of a human body in a non-invasive fashion. A similar technique, electrical impedance tomography
(EIT) can be used to determine the solids distributions within process vessels. Application of EIT to
feedwells enables the measurement of solids distributions within different feedwell designs under different
operating conditions (e.g. flow rates, feed concentrations, split inlets, etc). This information can be used to
optimise natural or forced dilution of concentrated feed streams, improving feedwell discharge
characteristics and for identifying the best regions within the feedwell to introduce the flocculant.
The pilot feedwell system used for these measurements is shown on the LHS of Figure 5. It has eight
planes of conductivity sensors, with 16 sensors per plane. Measurements are conducted with the feedwell
immersed into a full scale thickener. The processed data is presented as an impedance (conductivity) map
that can then be correlated to the concentration of the solids phase. Examples showing the effect of three
different flow rates on the solids distribution within the feedwell are shown on the RHS of Figure 5. This
information enables the design of the feedwell to be optimised, and also provides information against which
CFD models (see below) can be validated.

Figure 5. Pilot feedwell (shown of LHS of figure) used to determine solids distributions by tomography for a 24 wt%
feed solids at three different inlet velocities. (A: 0.5 m s-1; B: 1.5 m s-1). Red colour represents regions of high solids
concentration, blue represents regions of low solids concentration.

Small-scale physical modelling

One way of gaining an understanding of the flow patterns in process equipment such as thickeners is by
the use of small-scale physical experimentation. A scale model of the equipment is designed and run with
optically clear fluids – in the case of feedwell studies, water is suitable but for some equipment model non-
Newtonian slurries must be designed. Injection of dye or small fluorescing particles can be used in
conjunction with laser light sheets to obtain a dynamic understanding of flow patterns. Provided the scaling
is performed correctly, slurries of fine glass or other particles can be used to more correctly model the effects
of buoyancy in equipment, especially when feed concentrations are less than about 5% v/v. Flow
visualisation studies give good qualitative information and sometimes allow some quantitative measurements
to be made, e.g. carry over of solids into the overflow.
There are two laser-based quantitative techniques available that allow measurements of velocity fields in
these models to be undertaken namely, Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Laser Doppler Velocimetry
(LDV). Both are non-intrusive techniques for measuring velocity fields in optically clear liquids. In PIV, a
laser sheet illuminates a plane through the model and is scattered by small particles seeded into the flow.
Subsequent images are taken and then a “join-the-dots” algorithm is used to reconstruct instantaneous
velocity vectors in the plane. PIV is good at capturing details of unsteady flow structure. LDV measures
one or more components of the velocity at a single point in the flow (an average value as well as a the mean
fluctuating velocity that is related to the turbulence intensity). A computer-controlled robotic system steps
the measurement point through the flow until the velocity vectors on the desired grid are obtained. An
example is shown in Figure 6 of two perpendicular vertical planes through a split entry feedwell.

832
 As well as providing fundamental understanding of the fluid flow patterns within a feedwell, these
techniques provide high quality data that can be used to validate computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models
of the feedwell – an essential step in any numerical modelling of physical processes

Figure 6. Experimental velocity field in the vertical plane through a split feed inlet feedwell (no shelf).
LHS: perpendicular to the main feed inlet pipe; RHS parallel to the main feed inlet pipe.

Computational Fluid Dynamic modelling

The nature of the flow in feedwells is of critical importance to the performance of industrial thickeners
since it is generally here that most of the flocculant-induced aggregation processes occur. The nature of the
usually turbulent flow has a major influence on flocculant mixing and particle aggregation processes, and
consequently affects the size and density of aggregates that are formed. Furthermore, the transport of
suspended solids from the feed inlet to various points in the settling zone is strongly influenced by the
hydrodynamics and turbulent mixing within the feedwell. Unless the feedwell is suitably designed, effects
such as asymmetric discharge and channelling (short-circuiting) can have a detrimental influence on settling
behaviour in the bulk of the thickener and therefore on through-put, underflow density and overflow clarity.
Another flow related phenomenon of importance is natural dilution, the extent of which also influences the
resultant aggregate properties and hence settling behaviour.
CFD modelling has been used extensively in the P266 projects to provide an understanding of the flow of
fluid and solids in thickeners, flocculant adsorption and to test design and operational opportunities for
achieving better performance. The CFD feedwell model incorporates a turbulent, two-phase treatment of
liquor and solids, using a full two-fluid technique. Two sets of continuity and momentum equations are
solved, one for each phase. The current model also includes two key steps in the flocculation process:
mixing and adsorption of flocculant onto the solids surface.
Examples of CFD simulations for a full-scale open feedwell with an attached shelf are shown in Figure 7a
(solids concentration distribution) and Figure 7b (vertical velocity distribution, depicting liquid internal
dilution). With this information, the impact of engineering modifications, such as a change in the diameter
of the feedwell or a change to the entry angle of the feedpipe, can be readily assessed.

(a) (b)

Figure 7. Examples of information that can be obtained from CFD modelling of a thickener feedwell.

833
 In the current AMIRA P266D project, the scope of the feedwell CFD model is being enhanced with the
incorporation of Population Balance capability to account for aggregate growth and rupture processes (i.e.
flocculation kinetics). The enhanced model will then be linked together with other CFD sub-models
representing aggregate settling, formation of a sediment bed and its consolidation, dewatering effects caused
by raking, etc.
This will enable:
! the passage of solids from the feed to overflow or underflow to be modelled;
! more complete representations of the physics of thickening, as well as improved “process chemistry”
through a better description of the flocculation kinetics;
! the influence of process conditions to be taken into account, such as the effect of bed scouring on the
concentration of solids reporting to the overflow.

Clarification processes
Overflow clarity is a key operating criterion in many mineral processing operations, especially where
solid-liquid separation by gravity thickening precedes precipitation (e.g. Bayer refineries), electrowinning
(zinc refineries) or solvent extraction (e.g. uranium, copper or nickel operations).
A simple approach to resolving the cause of unusually high thickener overflow solids involves the use of
a video/magnification system (termed the Floc Density Analyser, FDA) to measure the size and settling of
the solids in the overflow liquor under static hydrodynamic conditions (Farrow and Warren, 1989). Images
of the aggregates present are analysed to determine their individual sizes and settling rates. This simple but
powerful diagnostic approach can identify whether the high overflow solids are due to:
! poor flocculation (as indicated by the presence of discrete, unflocculated particles),
! flotation (air bubbles are seen entrained within aggregates),
! undispersed flocculant “fish-eyes” (particles are seen attached to globules of gel),
! aggregate rupture (evident from the presence of small, slow settling aggregates), or,
! fluid short-circuiting to the overflow (indicated by the presence of aggregates which settle faster than the
nominal average rise velocity of the thickener).
The latter is demonstrated in Figure 8 from measurements made on a clarifier overflow sample. The
horizontal broken line represents the average rise velocity in this clarifier for the prevailing operating
conditions (i.e. feed flow rate and underflow rate). Figure 8a shows a high proportion of aggregates with
settling rates much faster than the clarifier’s average rise velocity. In contrast, Figure 8b shows a sample
taken under different operating conditions, for which there is no evidence of short-circuiting.

Figure 8. FDA measurements on thickener overflow samples indicating the occurrence of flow short-circuiting.

Such measurements on overflow solids were used to identify short-circuiting on a clarifier at a zinc
refinery during “normal” operation (Johnston et al., 1998). Subsequent CFD modelling of the clarifier’s
feedwell established that the flow short-circuiting arose from the significant asymmetry of the discharge
from the (open) feedwell due to the angle of entry of the feed-pipe.

834
Sediment consolidation
Consolidation of sediment is an important aspect of thickener performance and is being addressed in the
current project for the first time. Previous modelling in this regard has been undertaken on the basis of
simplified one-dimensional models (e.g. Landman et al., 1988, Burger et al., 2000), however it is clear that
thickeners may be far from one-dimensional, and the effect of flow patterns, tank geometry and raking must
all be taken into consideration before an accurate picture of consolidation can be obtained. This work has
only just begun in P266D and promises to revolutionise predictive modelling of consolidation.

Sediment transport by rakes

Rake design and operation is an important issue in thickener performance, but receives little attention in
the literature. A study of individual rake components and full rake structures is under way to understand the
basics of rake design. The approach involves small-scale physical experiments to complement CFD models.
The physical experiments allow reliable data to be obtained for validating the CFD model, and also provide
insights into the flow around rake components and structures that are not easily attainable from CFD.
An example of the information that can be obtained from flow visualisation studies is shown in Figure 9.
In this work, polymer solutions are used to simulate the rheological behaviour of underflow slurries
(generally viscous, shear thinning fluids with a yield stress). Blobs of dye are added at various positions
allowing the flow patterns induced by a given rake design to be determined.
The results obtained from physical measurements are used to validate the outcomes produced from CFD
modelling of rake action shown in Figure 10. Once the CFD model is validated, it can be used to assess the
efficiency of different rake designs, as well as provide a detailed understanding of solids residence times and
movement patterns for sediments with different rheological properties.

Figure 9. Modelling showing the spiral pattern that results in thickener bed material as a result of rake action in an
inward raking thickener. The rake direction is indicated by the arrows.

Dye stream

Figure 10. CFD prediction of the spiral motion of dye released continuously at a point fixed behind the
right hand rake arm. Rake rotation is indicated by the arrows.

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER
Over the past decade, the AMIRA P266 projects have developed a considerable amount of valuable
knowledge on thickener design and operation, as well as an enhanced understanding of the factors affecting
flocculation performance. This has highlighted the need for improved technology transfer from the projects

835
to ensure the benefits of such knowledge can be accessed by all sites of the world-wide sponsorship base.
One of the mechanisms to address this has been to develop the comprehensive “Thickener Expert” CD,
which contains a wealth of information relating to thickener operation in a user-friendly form, as well as
various steady-sate and dynamic process models that can be tailored to the operation of a given plant’s
thickeners. An example of the contents of the “Knowledge Base” section of the “Thickener Expert” CD is
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Screens from the “Thickener Expert” CD. LHS – Knowledge Base section; RHS – Process Model section.

CONCLUSIONS

Long term support from the mineral processing companies, thickener manufacturers and chemical
suppliers via the series of AMIRA P266 “Improving Thickener Technology” projects has enabled a
comprehensive approach to be taken to the development of new tools and techniques required to optimise
thickener performance. Laboratory, pilot and full-scale measurements, as well as CFD modelling have been
used to identify the principal factors that affect the efficiency of the key processes (flocculation, settling,
consolidation and raking) within full-scale thickeners. This understanding is being used to develop a full-
thickener modelling capability (both CFD and process) that will enable prediction of full-scale performance
for a given thickener design under a range of operating conditions. Although still in the development stage,
this approach has been used to investigate the performance of more than 80 thickeners from a wide variety of
mineral processing industries. The outcomes have provided significant benefits to operators, such as
substantial higher through-puts, increased underflow densities, higher overflow clarities, much lower
flocculant consumption and greater process stability. However, further development is still required before
the methodology to improve thickener performance will be sufficiently robust to fully accommodate the
wide range of solid-liquid conditions encountered in the minerals industry.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was conducted as part of the AMIRA P266 ‘Improving Thickener Technology’ series of
projects. The authors thank the following companies for their support: Albian Sands Energy, Alcan, Alcoa
World Alumina, Anglo Gold, Anglo Platinum, Bateman Process Equipment, BHP Billiton, Cable Sands,
Centaur Mining & Exploration, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Cytec Australia Holdings, De Beers Consolidated
Mines, EIMCO Process Equipment, GL&V/Dorr Oliver, Glencore AG, Hydro Aluminium AS, Iluka
Resources Limited, Kumba Resources, Metso Minerals, Mt Isa Mines, ONDEO Nalco, Outokumpu
Technology Pty, Pasminco, Pechiney Aluminium, Queensland Alumina Limited, Queensland Nickel (QNI),
Rio Tinto, Tiwest, True North Energy, WMC Resources Ltd and Worsley Alumina Pty Ltd.
This research has also received support from the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centre
(CRC) program, through the AJ Parker CRC for Hydrometallurgy (the Parker Centre). This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
The direct involvement and extensive contributions from numerous industry personnel has been crucial to
the success of this work.
The authors also wish to acknowledge the contributions from a wide range of CSIRO staff to this work.

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