Outline – Modeling

g Modeling
g Issues
• Design Approaches
– Design by Emulation • Discrete-time:
– Direct Digital System Design
– Constant Coefficient Difference Equations (CCDEs)
• Constant Coefficient Difference
Equations are used to model the systems.
• Z-transforms – No information on discrete variables is available
– Examples between sampling instances
instances.
– Properties – Magnitudes of digital signals are quantized.
• Discrete-time System Modeling
• Examples: • Continuous-time:
– Cruise Control – Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) are used.
– Water Tank – Time and every physical quantity are continuous.
continuous
– Motor Position Control
– Magnitudes are usually not quantized.

Chapter 2a ME 534 2 Chapter 2a ME 534 3

Design
g Issues 1 - Design
g by
y Emulation
• Treat controller as a pseudo continuous-time
continuous time
• How do we design a digital controller? system:
– How to devise a control algorithm (CCDE) – Use control theory to design a continuous
continuous-time
time
controller:
yielding the desired control performance? • State-space
• There are two design approaches to • Laplace (frequency or s) domain

address this issue: • Once such a controller is designed, implement

its counterpart
co nterpart in discrete
discrete-time
time domain:
domain
– Design by emulation – This approach relies on mapping techniques:
– Design for discrete-time
discrete time domain • Assumes high sampling rates (small T!)
• Not practical for many applications.

Chapter 2a ME 534 4 Chapter 2a ME 534 5

 2 - Design
g for Discrete-time Domain Design Paradigm
Discrete-time
Physical System
Representations

• Represent the plant as a discrete-time Proper

Assumptions
Controller
Specifications

process: Physical Models Controller Design

– Use discrete-time controller design Worst Case
Si lifi ti
Simplifications
techniques: Scenarios

Mathematical Simulations
• State-space techniques Model for Plant Studies
• z-domain techniques Preliminary Fine
Analysis Tuning
• Most practical and reliable approach! S l ti off
Selection
Control System Test
Components

Si lifi ti
Simplifications
Chapter 2a ME 534 6 Chapter 2a ME 534 7

Constant Coefficient Difference

CCDE (Cont’d)
( )
Equations
Hence, the CCDE becomes
All relationships in discrete-time domain can be expressed in terms off
finite difference equations: N M
N M y( k ) = −∑ ai q −i y( k ) + ∑ bj q − j x ( k )
y( k ) = −∑ ai y( k − i ) + ∑ bj x ( k − j ) (N ≥ M ) i =1 j =0
i =1 j =0
The relationship between input x(k) and the output y(k) boils down
For convenience, let us define a unit delay operator q-1: to the ratio of two polynomials A(q-11) and B(q-11):
y( k − 1) = q −1 y( k ) y( k + 1) = q y( k )
−2
y( k − 2) = q y( k ) y( k + 2) = q 2 y( k ) y( k ) b0 + b1q −1 + ... + bM q − M B(q −1 )
OR = =
# # x ( k ) 1 + a1q −1 + ... + a N q − N A(q −1 )
−N
y( k − N ) = q y( k ) y( k + N ) = q N y( k )
where a1, .., aN, b0, b1, ... , bN ∈ ℜ (Real numbers).
In digital control literature, this operator q-1 is also known as backward
time-shift operator
operator.
Chapter 2a ME 534 8 Chapter 2a ME 534 9
 Z-transform of Sampled Signals Z-transform (Cont’d)
( )
A discrete-time signal can be Using the transport delay property of Laplace transforms, we have
visualized
i li d as a sequence off
binary numbers. As a L{δ (t − T )} = e − sT ⋅ 1, L{δ (t − 2T )} = e − s 2T ⋅ 1,...
mathematical abstraction, this
sequence can be represented Therefore, F * ( s) = L{ f * (t )} = f (0) + f (T ) e − sT + f (2T ) e − s 2T + ...
by a sum of impulse (Dirac-
delta)) functions: Define a new complex variable as z ≡ e sT :
∞ ∞
f * (t ) = f (0)δ (t ) + f (T )δ (t − T ) + f (2T )δ (t − 2T ) + ... = ∑ f ( kT )δ (t − kT ) F ( z ) =ˆ f (0) + f (T )z −1 + f (2T )z −2 + ... = ∑ f ( kT )z −k
k =0
0
k =0
where
0+
Consequently, F ( z ) = Z { f * (t )} = Z { f ( kT )}
⎧∞, t = 0
δ (t ) =ˆ ⎨ while ∫ δ (t )dt = 1
⎩ 0, t ≠ 0 0−
where Z{f*(t)} is called the Z-transform of sampled time function f*(t).

Chapter 2a ME 534 10 Chapter 2a ME 534 11

Transport
p Delay
y Property
p y Conventions in Z-transforms
Z-transform is only defined for
R
Recall
ll th
thatt sampled time functions as
∞
F ( z ) = Z { f (kT )} = ∑ f (kT ) z − k
L{ f (t )} = F ( s) k =0
0
sT
where z =ˆ e .

However, the following

f conventions are commonly used for
f convenience:
while
f(t-T)

L{ f (t − T )} = e − sT F ( s)

t
T

Chapter 2a ME 534 12 Chapter 2a ME 534 13

 Z-transform - Examples
p Examples
p ((Cont’d))

1. Unit Impulse: f * (t ) = 1 ⋅ δ (t ) + 0 + 0 + ... 3. Unit Ramp:

Z { f * (t )} = Y ( z ) = 1 ⋅ z −0 + 0 ⋅ z −1 + 0 ⋅ z −2 + ... = 1 f * (t ) = 0 ⋅ δ (t ) + T ⋅ δ (t − T ) + 2T ⋅ δ (t − 2T ) + ...
2. Unit Step: f * (t ) = 1 ⋅ δ (t ) + 1 ⋅ δ (t − T ) + 1 ⋅ δ (t − 2T ) + ... ∞

∞
Z { f * (t )} = 0 ⋅ z −0 + T ⋅ z −1 + 2T ⋅ z −2 + ... = ∑ ( kT )z −k
Z { f * (t )} = 1 ⋅ z −0 + 1 ⋅ z −1 + 1 ⋅ z −2 + ...∑ z −k k =0

k =0
∞
1 Tz −1
Recall that ∑ k
a =
1−a
( a < 1) F (z) =
k =0 (1 − z −1 )2
1
F (z) = (|z −1 |< 1)
1 − z −1

Chapter 2a ME 534 14 Chapter 2a ME 534 15

Examples
p ((Cont’d)) Z-transform Table
4 Arbitrary Function:
4. F(s) f(kT) F(z)
1 δ(kT) 1
f * (t ) = 0 ⋅ δ (t ) + 1 ⋅ δ (t − T ) + 2 ⋅ δ (t − 2T )
1/s 1(kT) 1/(1 − z-1)
+ 2 ⋅ δ (t − 3T ) + 1 ⋅ δ (t − 4T ) + 0 + ....
1/s2 kT ( − z-1)2
Tz-1/(1

1/s3 (kT)2/2! T2z-1 (1+z-1)/[2(1−z-1)3]

1/(s+a) e-akT 1/(1 − z-1e-aT)

−1 −2 −3 −4
Z { f * (t )} = 1 ⋅ z + 2⋅z + 2⋅z +1⋅ z
1/(s+a)
( )2 ((kT)) e-akT ( − z-1e-aT)2
z-1Te-aT/(1

F ( z ) = z −1[1 + 2z −1 (1 + z −1 ) + z −3 ] a/[s(s+a)] 1 − e-akT z-1(1− e-aT)/[(1 − z-1)(1− z-1e-aT)]

Chapter 2a ME 534 16 Chapter 2a Example 1 ME 534 Example 3a 17

Example 2 Example 3b
 Z-transform Table (Cont’d)
( ) Miscellaneous Issues in Z
Z-transforms
transforms
F(s) f(kT) F(z) • One can break up an unknown (Laplace)
z-1(A + Bz-1)/[a(1 − z-1)2(1 − z-1e-aT)]
A ≡ aT − 1 + e-aT
function into (a summation of) familiar functions
a/[s2(s+a)] (a-11)(akT−1+e-akT
akT)
B ≡ 1 − e-aT − aTe-aT that
h are lik
likely
l to b
be ffound
d iin the
h given
i tables
bl
s/(s+a)2 (1−akT)e-akT [1−z-1e-aT(1+aT)]/(1 − e-aTz-1)2 using the following methods:
a/(s2+a2) sin(akT) z-1 sin(aT)/[1 − 2cos(aT)z-1 + z-2] – Partial fraction expansion or
s/(s2+a2) cos(akT) [1− z-1cos(aT)]/[1 − 2cos(aT)z-1 + z-2] – Residue method

(s+a)/[(s+a)2+b2] cos(bkT) e-akT (1 − Az-1)/[1 − 2Az-1 + e-2aTz-2]

• Similar techniques could be employed to
A≡ e-aT cos(bT)
(bT) obtain the inverse Z
Z-transform
transform of an arbitrary
b/[(s+a)2+b2] sin(bkT) e-akT z-1e-aTsin(bT)/[1 − 2Az-1 + e-2aTz-2]
function of z.
A≡ e-aT cos(bT)

Chapter 2a ME 534 18 Chapter 2a ME 534 19

Properties
p of Z-transform Properties
p ((Cont’d))

1. Linearity: Z { a ⋅ f ( kT )} = a ⋅ Z { f ( kT )}
6. Final Value Theorem: (valid only for stable systems)

Z { f1 ( kT ) ± f2 ( kT )} = Z { f1 ( kT )} ± Z { f2 ( kT )} ((zz − 1)
2. Addition: f ( ∞ ) = lim f ( kT ) = lim F (z)
k →∞ z →1 z
3. Time Shift: kT )} = z − n Z { f ( kT )}
Z { f ( kT − nkT where F ( z ) = Z { f ( kT )}

+∞
4. Convolution: Z { ∑ f1 (iT ) f2 ( kT − iT )} = F1 ( z ) F2 ( z ) 7. Initial Value Theorem:
i = −∞

f (0) = lim F ( z )
5. Scaling: Z {r − k f ( kT )} = F (rz ) z →∞

Chapter 2a ME 534 20 Chapter 2a Example 2 ME 534 21

 Assumptions in Digital Systems
Discrete-time System
y Modeling
g
Modeling
• A/D and D/A conversions are non-linear
non linear
operations:
–S
Such
h converters
t cause a major
j diffi
difficulty
lt iin d
developing
l i
mathematical models in discrete-time domain.
• F
For the
th sake
k off convenience,
i these
th elements
l t
embedded inside the I/O interfaces are ignored.
– IImplies
li th
the use off high-resolution
hi h l ti converters
t in
i th
the
actual control system.
r(k) + e(k) m(k) b(k)
Discrete-time
Discrete time
m(k)
(k)
Discrete-time
System Model
b(k)
_
Controller
System Model • Th
Thus, only
l latch
l t h (i.e.
(i zero-order
d h hold)
ld) and
d
(CCDE) (CCDE)
sampler are taken into consideration.
Chapter 2a ME 534 22 Chapter 2a ME 534 23

Sampled
p Impulse
p Response
p Sampled
p Impulse
p Response
p ((Cont’d))
x(t) y*(t)
Ideal y(0) Note that y (t ) = g (t ) = L−1{G ( s )}
(t) Sampler y(T)
y(2T)
x(t)
Linear Time-
y(t) y*(t) y * (t ) = g (0) ⋅ δ (t ) + g (T ) ⋅ δ (t − T ) + g (2T ) ⋅ δ (t − 2T )
t t
0 a a t Syste
invariant System
T 0 T 2T
+ ... + g ( kT ) ⋅ δ (t − kT ) + ...

In Laplace
p domain: Similarly
Similarly, Y * ( s) = L{ y * (t )} = g (0) + g (T ) e − sT + g (2T ) e − s2T + ...

X ( s) = L{δ (t )} = 1 Z-transform
Z transform of the sampled impulse response y*(t)
y (t) becomes
∞
Y ( z ) = g (0) + g (T )z −1 + g (2T )z −2 + ... = ∑ g ( kT )z −k =ˆ G( z )
where G(s) is the transfer function of LTI system
system. Hence
Hence, k =0

Y ( s ) = G( s ) X ( s ) = G( s ) ⋅ 1 = G( s ) where G(z) is called the discrete-time transfer function of the system.

Chapter 2a ME 534 24 Chapter 2a ME 534 25

 Sampled Response to an Impulse Response
p to a Sequence
q ((Cont’d))
x(t)
Sequence
Ideal
(T)
x(T)
Sampler
p y1 (t ) = L−1 { x (T )e − sT G( s)} = x (T ) g (t − T )
x(2T)
x(t) y(t) y*(t)
x(0) Linear Time-
invariant System where g(t) = L-1{G(s)}. Therefore, the sampled time-function is
t T
0 0 by definition
T 2T

y (t ) = g ( −T ) ⋅ x (T ) ⋅ δ (t ) + g (0)x (T )δ (t − T ) + g (T )x (T )δ (t − 2T ) + ...
*
1
Superposition
p p p
principle
p allows us to determine the overall response
p
∞
as a summation of individual impulse responses. For instance, when Y1 ( z ) = 0z −0 + g (0)x (T )z −1 + ... = x (T )∑ g ( kT )z −k z −1
x(0)δ(t) is applied alone, the corresponding output becomes

k =0
 

G( z )
y0* (t ) = g (0)x (0)δ (t ) + g (T )x (0)δ (t − T ) + ... −1
∴Y1 ( z ) = G( z ) ⋅ x (T ) ⋅ z
∴ Y0 ( z ) = G( z ) ⋅ x (0)
− sT Similarly, Y2 ( z ) = G( z ) ⋅ x (T ) ⋅ z −2 and so on...
Likewise, the response to x(T)δ(t-T) is Y1 ( s) = G( s)[
x (
T ⋅ e
) ⋅

1]
d l
delayed
d impulse
i l

Chapter 2a ME 534 26 Chapter 2a ME 534 27

Overall Response
p Transfer Function of ZOH / Latch

Y ( z ) = Y0 ( z ) + Y1 ( z ) + ...
−1 −2
= G( z )[
x ( +
0) x (
T )
z + x
( 2T ) z +
...]

]
Z { x ( kT )} = X ( z )
1 2
x(kT) x(kT) x(kT)

Y ( z ) = G( z ) ⋅ X ( z )
Y (z)
t t t
kT (k+1)T kT kT (k+1)T

∴ G( z ) =
X (z)
D l
Delayed
d step
t b by kT
kT: Dela ed step b
Delayed by (k+1)T:
(k+1)T

x(kT) x(kT) -skT x(kT) -s(k+1)T

e-skT(1 e-sT)

Chapter 2a ME 534 28 Chapter 2a ME 534 29

 Transfer Function of ZOH (Cont’d)
( ) Discrete-time Model
Input function is the delayed impulse with a magnitude of x(kT):

X ( s) = x ( kT ) ⋅ 1 ⋅ e − skT

Similarly, the output function becomes

x ( kT ) −skT
Y ( s) = ⋅e (1 − e −sT ) B( z )
s = G( z ) = Z {Gzoh ( s) ⋅ G1 ( s) ⋅ G2 ( s) ⋅ H ( s)}
M (z)
Y ( s)
Si
Since Gzoh ( s) = 1 − e − sT 1 − z −1
X ( s) Since Gzoh ( s) = =
s s

1 − e − sT Using the third property of Z-transforms

Z transforms yields
Gzoh ( s) =
s ⎧G ( s) ⋅ G2 ( s) ⋅ H ( s) ⎫
G( z ) = (1 − z −1 )Z ⎨ 1 ⎬
⎩ s ⎭
Chapter 2a ME 534 30 Chapter 2a ME 534 31

Overall System
y Model Operators
p / Complex
p Variables
Continuous-time:

Laplace Domain Time Domain Physical Meaning

s D operator d/dt (derivative)
1/s 1/D ∫dt (integration in time)

Discrete-time:

B( z ) Gc ( z )G( z ) z-Domain Time Domain Physical Meaning

= z-11 q-11
R( z ) 1 + Gc ( z )G( z ) unit delay (delay by T)

Chapter 2a ME 534 32 Chapter 2a ME 534 33

 Example
p 1 – Cruise Control Part ((a)) – Differential Equation
q
v

Ignoring rolling friction along with the cross-wind drag gives

dv
M = ∑ f = fe − fw
Consider the sports car shown. dt
a) Develop a (simplified) equation of motion. Assume that fw = C ⋅ v
b) Derive the corresponding CCDE. fe = K eα
c) Simulate its response for a constant throttle.
where α is throttle angle;
g Ke is engine
g constant.

Chapter 2a ME 534 34 Chapter 2a ME 534 35

Part ((a)) – Transfer Function Part (b) – Discrete-time Model

Hence
dv
M + Cv = K eα
dt
Laplace transform of this ordinary differential equation becomes

( Ms + C )V ( s) = K e A( s)

where V(s) ≡ L{v(t)} and A(s) ≡ L{α(t)}. Therefore, the transfer function is
⎧ Pa ⎫ Use the Z-transform table (see Slide 17):
V (z) ⎪⎪ (1 − z ) K e
−1 C
⎪⎪
V ( s) Ke = Z⎨ ⋅ ⋅ M C ⎬ ⇒ V ( z ) = K e ⋅ (1 − z −1 ) (1 − e − aTT )z −1
= A( z ) ⎪  s
 C s+ M ⎪ A( z ) C (1 − z −1 )(1 − e −aT z −1 )
A( s) Ms + C ⎪⎩ ZOH  
⎪
Pr ocess ⎭
Chapter 2a ME 534 36 Chapter 2a ME 534 37
 Part ((b)) (Cont’d)
( ) Part ((c)) – The Response
p

V (z)
Ke
(1 − e − aT )z −1 b1 z −1 a1 =ˆ e −CT / M L t a1 = 0.99;
Let 1 α(k)
0 99 b1 = 1; (k) = 0
0.1.
1
= C
= where K
A( z ) 1 − e −aT z −1 1 − a1 z −1 b1 =ˆ e (1 − a1 )
C Coefs: 0 99
0.99 0 1
The corresponding CCDE is obtained by substituting k v(k) v(k-1) α(k) α(k-1)
z −1 −1
← q ; V ( z ) ← v( k );
) A( z ) ← α ( k ) 0 0 0 0.1 0
1 0.1 0 0.1 0.1
v( k ) b q −1
Hence = 1 −1 ⇒ v( k )(1 − a1q ) = b1q α ( k )
−1 −1
2 0.199 0.1 0.1 0.1
α ( k ) 1 − a1q
3 0 297
0.297 0 199
0.199 01
0.1 01
0.1
∴ v( k ) = a1v( k − 1) + b1α ( k − 1) 4 0.394 0.297 0.1 0.1

Chapter 2a ME 534 38 Chapter 2a ME 534 39

Part ((c)) – Response

p ((Cont’d)) Example
p 2 – Water Tank
3 10

9 m(t) Servo
2.5
8
-valve
qi(t) • Consider the water
2
7

6
tank illustrated.
city [m/s]

Buoy
city [m/s]

1.5 5 a)) Obtain the differential

Veloc
Veloc

1
4
Area: A equation.
3

0.5
2
h(t) b) Draw the block diagram
1 off the
th overallll control
t l
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
qo(t) system.
Time Index k
Time Index k
b(t)
O can easily
One il compute
t this
thi response with
ith Matlab:
M tl b c) Determine the discrete-
Here, qi (t ) = c1m(t ) time representation.
>> alpha = 0.1*ones(700,1); q o (t ) = c2 h(t ) d)) If m(k)
( ) = 1 [V]
[ ] (unit
( step)
p)
>> A = [1 -0.99];
0 99] B = [0 1]
1];
>> v = filter(B,A,alpha); b(t ) = c3 h(t ) is applied, calculate the
>> stem(v) final water height.
where c1, c2, and c3 are constants.
Chapter 2a ME 534 40 Chapter 2a ME 534 41
 Part ((a)) – Differential Equation
q Part ((b)) – Block Diagram
g
The differential equation
q of this system
y can be simply
p y written as
dh
A⋅ = qi (t ) − qo (t )
dt
Using the aforementioned relationships yields

A db c2
⋅ + b = c1m(t )
c3 dt c3
Taking the Laplace transform of this equation gives
B( s ) K
=
M ( s) s + a
where a = c2/A and K = c1c3/A.

Chapter 2a ME 534 42 Chapter 2a ME 534 43

Part ((c)) – Discrete-time Model Part ((c)) – Difference Equation

q
⎧ ⎫ The difference equation can be obtained conveniently by
B( z ) ⎪ (1 − z −1 ) K a ⎪ K −1 ⎧ a ⎫
= Z⎨ ⋅ ⋅ ⎬ = (1 − z )Z ⎨ ⎬ z −1 ← q −1 ; M ( z ) ← m( k ); B( z ) ← b( k )
M (z) ⎪  s
 a s+ 
a⎪ a ⎩ s( s + a ) ⎭
⎩ ZOH Pr ocess ⎭ Hence,

b( k ) q −1 β1 b( k )(1 − α1q −1 ) = m( k )q −1 β1
B( z ) K z −1 (1 − e − aT ) = ⇒
= (1 − z −1 ) m( k ) 1 − α1q −1
M (z) a (1 − z −1 )(1 − z −1e −aT )
b( k ) = α1 ⋅ b( k − 1) + β1 ⋅ m( k − 1)
B( z ) K z −1 (1 − e − aT )
= ⋅
M ( z ) a (1 − z −1e −aT ) where α1 ≡ e-aT and β1 ≡ (K/a)(1− e-aT)

Chapter 2a Z-transform Table ME 534 44 Chapter 2a ME 534 45

 Part ((d)) – Final Value Part ((d)) – Final Value ((Cont’d))
The z-transform of a unit step input is Let us use final value theorem (see Slide 21):
1 z −1
M (z) = h( ∞ ) = lim H (z)
1 − z −1 z→1 z
Hence, the measurement B(z) becomes
c z −1 (1 − e − c2T / A ) 1
h( ∞ ) = lim(1 − z −1 ) ⋅ 1 ⋅ ⋅
K z −1 (1 − e − aT ) 1 z →1 −1 −
c2 (1 − z e 2 ) 1 − z −1
c T / A
B( z ) = ⋅ −1 − aT
⋅ −1
a (1 − z e ) 1− z

M (z)
The final value of h becomes
Since B(z) = c3H(z),
H(z)
c1 (1 − e − c2T / A ) c1
−1 − aT −1 − c2T / A h( ∞ ) = ⋅ =
B( z ) K z (1 − e ) 1 c z (1 − e ) 1 c2 (1 − e −c2T / A ) c2
H (z) = = ⋅ −1 − aT
⋅ −1
= 1⋅ −1 −c2T / A
⋅
c3 T
c3a (1 − z e ) 1 − z c2 (1 − z e ) 1 − z −1
When a step input is applied to the servo valve, the water level rises
((exponentialy)
p y) to its final level h(∞).
( )
Chapter 2a ME 534 46 Chapter 2a ME 534 47

Example
p 3 - Motor Control Part (a)
( )
⎧ −1
⎫
Θ( z ) ⎪ (1 − z ) 1 1 ⎪ 1 ⎧1 ⎫
= Z⎨ ⋅ ⋅ 2 ⎬ = (1 − z −1 )Z ⎨ 3 ⎬
Ideal Torque
Modulator M (z) ⎪  s
 J
s ⎪ J ⎩s ⎭
⎩ ZOH Pr ocess ⎭

Θ( z ) T 2 ( z −1 + z −2 )
= (1 − z −1 )
Ideal Position
Sensor
M ( z ) 2J (1 − z −1 )3 2

• Consider the system shown. Θ( z ) T 2 z −1 (1 + z −1 )

a) Develop Θ(z)/M(z) = ⋅
M ( z ) 2J (1 − z −1 )2
b) Find Θ(z)/Ω(z)
Chapter 2a ME 534 48 Chapter 2a Z-transform Table ME 534 49
 Part (b)
( ) Part ((b)) (Cont’d)
( )
• To obtain Θ(z)/Ω(z), let us determine the transfer function
Ω(z)/M(z) first.
⎧ ⎫
Ω( z ) ⎪ (1 − z −1 ) 1 1 ⎪ 1 ⎧1 ⎫
• Even though the speed (Ω) is NOT actually sampled in = Z⎨ ⋅ ⋅ ⎬ = (1 − z −1 )Z ⎨ 2 ⎬
thi configuration,
this fi ti a fictitious
fi titi speed
d sensor iis added
dd d so as M (z) ⎪  s
N J s⎪ J ⎩s ⎭
to obtain the desired relationship. ⎩ ZOH Pr ocess ⎭

Θ( z ) T −1 z −1
= (1 − z )
M (z) J (1 − z −1 )2

Ω( z ) T z −1
= ⋅
M ( z ) J (1 − z −1 )

Chapter 2a ME 534 50 Chapter 2a Z-transform Table ME 534 51

Part ((b)) (Cont’d)

( ) A Common Mistake
T 2 z −1 (1 + z −1 )
⋅
Θ( z )
Θ( z )
2J (1 − z −1 )2 Θ( z ) T (1 + z −1 ) • Students are oftentimes tempted to do the
= M (z)
= ⇒ = ⋅ following:
Ω( z ) Ω( z )
M (z) T
⋅
z −1 Ω( z ) 2 (1 − z −1 )
J (1 − z −1 ) Since Θ(s)/Ω(s) = 1/s,

M(z) Tz-1 Ω(z) T(1 + z-1) Θ(z) Θ( z ) ⎧1 ⎫ 1

= Z⎨ ⎬ = −1
J(1 − z-11) 2(1 − z-1) Ω( z ) ⎩ s ⎭ (1 − z )

B(z)

Chapter 2a ME 534 52 Chapter 2a ME 534 53