Globalization and Cross Cultural Understanding.d

GS 3300 “Nations, Cultures and Peoples”
Globalization and
Cross-Cultural
Understanding
The Embracing of Basic Universal Values
Tina M. Covey
Globalization will facilitate universal cross-cultural understanding through a tolerance of all world belief
systems, thereby embracing our common values and transcending differences.
From the foundations of civilization, man has explored and migrated from his points of origin.
Conquering or conquered, prevailing, exiled, assimilated or made extinct, cultures have blended from the
dawn of man. The world has become very connected with the rapid emergence of technology, such that
cultures have blended more than at any other time in human history. Technology has radically changed
the way we relate to each other and to our world. It has expanded our reach to other nation states and
cultures with speed and efficiency, out stripping our development of cross-cultural understanding. What
makes cross-cultural germination either a success or a failure is dependent upon the acceptance of another
culture’s fundamental beliefs, which grow out of an indigenous religion or belief system. “Even in
modern secular societies, religion is still regularly used as the source for moral values and arguments for
reform.”1
Globalization is inevitable. And as such, how it affects individual cultures around the world
depends upon how man chooses to relate to one another. Global cultural cooperation and conflict
resolution will grow from the embracing of common universal values, which are rooted in developed
belief systems. Globalization is defined in widely varied ways. One sociologist, Roland Robertson defines
globalization as “the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a
whole” (p. 8).”2 Another scholar, Martin Albrow believes globalization is the movement towards a
“global society”3. However, yet another scholar in the field, Arjun Appadurai believes that the force
1
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 1st ed., s.v. “Globalization and World Culture”, 2.
Globalization and Cultural Differentiation, 6262. http://www.sociology.emory.edu/jboli/isb408026.pdf (accessed
May 21, 2012)
2
Lauren Movius, “Cultural Globalization and Challenges to Traditional Communication Theories”, PLATFORM:
Journal of Media and Communication 2(1) (January): 6-18. http://journals.culture-
communication.unimelb.edu.au/platform/resources/includes/vol2_1/PlatformVol2Issue1_Movius.pdf (accessed
May 21, 2012)
3
Ibid
1
technology has on globalization will bring complexity and discord between different cultures. Appadurai
also suggests that cultural diversity, and not cultural uniformity or domination will prevail as a result of
five ‘scapes’: “ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes, and ideoscapes. Ethnoscapes refer
to flows of people, such as tourists and immigrants. Technoscapes include technology that crosses
boundaries. Financescapes refer to flows of currency markets. Mediascapes refer to mass media
technology and images. Ideoscapes…refer to the political and ideological aspects.” 4 So media will
inevitably bring cultural differences into greater light and diversity will emerge. Mass media plays a
major role in cultural globalization, which is “the emergence of a specific set of values and beliefs that are
largely shared around the planet” (Castells, 2009, p. 117).” 5 This shared set of values and beliefs
“ostensibly breaks down nationalism, erodes ethnic stereotypes, and unites diverse peoples around
common ideals.”6
Globalization is both critical due to the available opportunity to achieve a diverse yet peaceful
global society and also very tenuous due to the major barriers to achieving universal cross-cultural
understanding: cultures, languages, political and economic systems and religious or belief systems. The
opportunity and the challenge to bridge the differences and embrace our similarities are more emergent
and imperative today than at any other time in history.
Belief systems are indigenous in origin, spread through globalization. Most have roots in some
common values. Values could serve as basis for international/inter cultural cooperation and tolerance.
Evolution of culture and globalization depends upon cooperation, acceptance, and tolerance of cultural
diversity, rooted in religious and belief systems. Nearly all cultures on earth have evolved with a
4
Ibid
5
Ibid
6
Carl Strikwerda, From World-Systems to Globalization: Theories of Transnational Change and the Place of the
United States, American Studies, 41:2/3 (Summer/Fall 2000).
https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/amerstud/article/viewFile/3115/3074 (accessed May 21, 2012)
2
dominant belief system, often but not always manifesting itself as what is commonly referred to as an
organized religion. Religion, by one source, is defined very broadly and the most inclusively in this way;
Religion is any specific system of belief about deity, often involving rituals, a code of ethics, and a
philosophy of life."7
Further, “Unlike most belief systems that are less rigid in their external structures and may be
transmitted orally from one generation to the next, whether by family members or by religious leaders
within the community, religious beliefs are organized and codified, often based on the teachings and
writings of one or more founders of virtually every society that has ever existed.” 8 “Belief systems
include both religions and philosophies that help to explain basic questions of human existence, such as
"Where did we come from?" Or "What happens after death?" or "What is the nature of human
relationships or interactions?" Many major beliefs systems that influence the modern world began during
the Foundations Era (8000 BCE to 600 CE).”9
An attempt to define the enormous number of world religious and non-religious belief systems
will not be made here, a task far too great for this writing. Our belief system was given to us by mere
chance of birth due to what was prescribed by our upbringing or was predominant in our part of the
world, until and if we consciously choose differently later in life. The top organized religions of the world
include Christianity at 33% of the world’s population, Islam at 21%, Hinduism at 14% and Buddhism at
6%. The six other top ten organized religions of the world break down by adherence to less than 1% of
the world’s population each. Judaism should be mentioned for its high profile, yet holds only 0.22% of
the world’s population. World religion statistics are only approximations. 10 Many less well known belief
7
Religion-Religions, “Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”, http://www.religion-
religions.com/html/sub_chapter.php?select=general0003&religion=General (accessed May 21, 2012)
8
Ibid
9
“Belief Systems”, http://www.historyhaven.com/BELIEF%20SYSTEMS.html (accessed May 21, 2012)
10
“Top Ten Organized Religions of the World”, http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0904108.html#ixzz1vR52SkZh
(accessed May 21, 2012)
3
systems also take on the form of what is referred to as an animist or a tribal belief system. Those who
would claim no religion or an indifference to or rejection of religion, or the existence of a God, are
grouped under the term “irreligion” which includes Atheists, Agnostics, Freethinkers, and other secular
Humanism denominations, which are largely not complete religious or ethical systems but rather
philosophies. This reflects approximately 16% of the world’s population. 11
“Religion has traditionally served as a source of authority, law, and moral norms for society, even
in predominantly secular societies. Through most of the world’s history, religious traditions have had
formal ties with governments and have been seen as an important source of legitimacy of rulers.” 12 Given
the diversity of belief systems adhered to worldwide, it is critical to the continued progress in the
evolution of human civilization that we continue to endeavor to adopt an ever more tolerant perspective
towards our differing religious and philosophical beliefs. Because belief systems are in almost all cases
the source of cultural values, we can identify many of these values as common between cultures, which
will inevitably lead to bridging the gap between our differences. At the risk of oversimplifying the
solution, the bumper sticker “Coexist” identifies a new era of religious tolerance that is beginning to
spread, in part thanks to globalization. There are primarily two schools of thought that are taken in this
endeavor. First is Inclusivism, in which there is recognized an element of truth across all faiths, such that
the commonalities are the focus, not the differences. Second is Pluralism, where no distinction is made
between faiths, acknowledging each as valid to its particular culture. 13
Religious tolerance has a dotted past in human history. The idea didn’t even fully emerge on a
global scale until the late 1600’s. Until then religion was used as a tool with which a civilization’s ruler
11
“Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents”,
http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html (accessed May 21, 2012)
12
Paul B. Batltes (Editor), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 1st ed., Elsevier Science
Publishing, 2001, “Globalization and World Culture”, 2. Globalization and Cultural Differentiation, 6262.
http://www.sociology.emory.edu/jboli/isb408026.pdf (accessed May 21, 2012)
13
Religion-Religions, ”Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”, http://www.religion-
4
could exert power and maintain control over his territories and people. They believed that “a common
religion was essential to social stability.”14 Secular and religious was indistinguishable, as the authority of
the land dictated the rule of church over the land as well. However, “…some rulers throughout history
have accommodated and tolerated minority religious traditions, …which served as a practical way to
handle a multiethnic, multi-religious empire.”15
Intolerance was exemplified through the persecution of heretics throughout the ages. An
Inquisition was instituted in 1231 by Pope Gregory IX, and throughout Europe continued until 1834.
Simultaneously, seven Crusades were fought from the eleventh through the thirteenth centuries with the
purpose of recapturing the Holy Land from the Muslims. 16 Later, the Protestant Reformation that swept
across Europe brought new religious intolerance rather than religious freedom. 17 The subsequent wars
ended with the creation of the Peace of Westphalia settlement of 1648, which gave limited religious
tolerance. It was from within this climate that new ideas emerged regarding religious freedom, secular
states and natural rights, from such scholars as Thomas Hobbes, John Lock, John Milton and Erasmus
Voltaire. It was later, in the founding of the state of Rhode Island by Roger Williams that the ideological
roots of the future U.S. Constitution emerged, whereby a separation of church and state “requiring only
that they conform to standards of good citizenship.”18 This illustrates that it was understood without
further explanation that man held common values and morals, separate from but most likely rooted in
their belief system, which they were now free to adhere to individually, outside of the state’s governance.
14
Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd Ed., Berkshire Publishing Group, 2011, ‘Religious Freedom’,
http://0-www.credoreference.com.bianca.penlib.du.edu/entry/berkwhist/religious_freedom (accessed May 21,
2012)
15
Paul B. Batltes(Editor), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 1st ed., Elsevier Science
16
Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd Ed., Berkshire Publishing Group, 2011, ‘Religious Freedom’,
http://0-www.credoreference.com.bianca.penlib.du.edu/entry/berkwhist/religious_freedom (accessed May 21,
2012)
17
Ibid
18
Ibid
5
“The [U.S.] was the first nation in human history to formally adopt the principle of the separation of
church and state… in the hope that it would enable America to escape the persecutions and religious wars
that had characterized the Christian West for almost two millennia. Due to the success of this formula in
America, other nations have since adopted the idea of church-state separation as a guarantor of religious
freedom, and today, approximately one-half of the nations of the world make formal guarantees of
church-state separation in their constitutions.” 19
The first international document to address the principle of religious freedom came in the 20 th
century. The United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights, passed in 1948 declared that
“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to
change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or
private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance” (Claude and
Weston 1992, 421).”20 In 1966, “The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights”, ratified to
date by approximately 150 nations, “provides a broad definition of religion that encompasses both theistic
and nontheistic religions as well as rare and virtually unknown faiths.” The Covenant also “prohibits
religious discrimination “without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, political or
21
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status” (Claude and Weston 1992, 432).
“Finally, the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of
Discrimination Based on Religious Belief, enacted in 1981…includes the most comprehensive list of
rights to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion enumerated in any international instrument.” 22
Yet, predating modern day initiatives to bring religious freedom to a global scale, tolerance was
simultaneously pervasive throughout the centuries of suppression. “The lawyer-cleric Tertullian wrote, “it
19
Ibid
20
Ibid
21
Ibid
22
Ibid
6
is a fundamental human right, a privilege of nature that every man should worship according to his own
convictions. One man’s religion neither helps nor harms another man” (Pfeffer 1967, 15). “ 23
Constantine, the Turk emperor who converted to Christianity, “…was instrumental in the passage
of the Edict of Milan in 313…[which] provided “that liberty of worship shall not be denied to any, but
that the mind and will of every individual shall be free to manage divine affairs according to his own
choice” (Pfeffer 1967, 13).”24 In other examples, the Persian emperor Cyrus II (559–530 BC) to instituted
a policy of religious tolerance, which lasted through the reign of Darius I (522–486BC). Genghis Khan of
Mongolia (1162–1227 BC) tolerated Buddhists, Christians, Confucians, Daoists, and Muslims. In China,
the Qing dynasty (1644–1911/12) implemented the policy of religious tolerance toward Jews, Muslims,
and Christian missionaries until 1720. 25 “Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise
as false, and by rulers as useful.” Seneca the Younger (4 BCE–65 CE) 26
Belief systems are generally rooted in an accepted and agreed upon sets of values. Even the non-
traditional, non-faith belief systems are held by people who adhere to a basic set of shared human values.
It is through these basic human values that we can see that similar or same morals and values are common
across the vast majority of world cultures. Mankind is born of the same DNA and therefore fundamentally
holds the same basic needs beyond food and shelter, regardless of culture or belief system.
Subscribing to the belief that there are far too many common values to enumerate, those
seemingly most core to humanity are listed here. Love is universal, as are respect, integrity, equality and
purpose. All man looks for or strives to create inspiration within his world, as well as working together to
23
Ibid
24
Ibid
25
26
7
make a change. All man holds hope in his heart. Trust is essential to man’s socialization within the world,
even if it is the most violated and most withheld value we hold. Honor is also universal, if only to honor
yourself and your own existence; all belief systems and philosophies value the honoring of something.
Devotion and commitment is also universal. Learning about our world, our God, how to survive, some
aspect of learning is vital to our existence. All societies recognize and value courage, determination,
sacrifice, perseverance in the face of any obstacle and also they all seek justice in some form. Leadership
is universally valued, either to lead or to be led. Strength in all its forms is recognized, valued and
appreciated in any culture. And I believe generosity and gratitude are also universal values. All of these
virtues and values are universal, crossing all faiths and cultures. “Few realize there is a basic pledge
within the scriptures of all ten leading religions. The pledge states:-”We should not do to others which we
would not wish done to ourselves”27 Recognized common values are increasingly emerging in our pop
and social culture.
Challenges to cross-cultural understanding are frequently addressed against the backdrop of
Hollywood motion pictures with end of the world themes. Under the guise of serving as an action or
thriller movie for sheer entertainment value, American blockbuster movies have in recent decades
addressed multi-cultural understanding and cooperation within the framework of world threats. Such
notable recent movies include: ‘Independence Day’, ‘The Day After Tomorrow’, ‘2012’, ‘Children of
Men’, ‘Armageddon’, ‘Deep Impact’ and ‘Sum of All Fears’. 28 Through catastrophic natural disasters,
looming human extinction, unexplained pandemic outbreaks, nation state conflicts and even space alien
invasions, mankind has been forced to look more closely at our petty and relatively insignificant
27
Global Caring Ethics, http://www.global-caring-ethics.com pdf (accessed May 21, 2012)
28
Independence Day, DVD, directed by Roland Emmerich (1996: Burbank, CA: 20th Century Fox, 1996), The Day
After Tomorrow, DVD, directed by Roland Emmerich (2004: Burbank, CA: 20th Century Fox, 2004), 2012, DVD,
directed by Roland Emmerich (2009: Burbank, CA: Columbia Pictures, 2009), Children of Men, DVD, directed by
Alfonso Cuaron (2006: Burbank, CA: Universal Pictures, 2007), Armageddon, DVD, directed by Michael Bay (1998:
Burbank, CA: Touchstone Pictures, 1998), Deep Impact, DVD, directed by Mimi Leder (1998: Burbank, CA:
Paramount Pictures,1998) and Sum of All Fears, DVD, directed by Phil Alden Robinson (2002: Burbank, CA,
Paramount Pictures, 2002)
8
differences and recognize that our species’ survival depends upon embracing our deep-rooted, shared
values. The take-away from each of these movies is the lessons learned out of facing the certain
destruction of mankind and understanding that our shared fundamental core values make us stronger
when united. They have essentially directed us, as a species, to grow up. Conversely, not embracing
cross-cultural understanding can be disastrous, as seen in several other recent Hollywood depictions, such
as ‘Babel’ and ‘Crash’.29 In either of these movies, our divisions and our prejudices regarding them
emerge from our subconscious, or not-so subconscious, leaving disastrous effects on our behaviors and
our relations to one another; I believe them to be a mirror of one trend in society today, which cannot be
allowed to become the prevailing perspective.
The Foundation for a Better Life is a group that was created in order to inspire people around the
world to reflect on and practice their fundamental universal values. The messages hold no other agenda
other than to encourage people to ‘Pass It On’, through creative, entertaining and poignant TV public
service commercials and billboard advertisements. They are currently viewed in 200 countries around the
world, exemplifying that all mankind lives by the same foundational values. 30
Of the world’s belief systems, the best example of universal religious tolerance and acceptance is
the Baha’i faith. The Baha’i believe in “… the oneness of God, the oneness of humanity, and the common
foundation of all religion.”31 They further believe that the various religions are merely variations of the
same beliefs from the same God, developed to fit their own culture and time in history. Each culture is
sent a messenger or prophet, which they refer to as ‘Manifestations of God’, who is the basis for a new
religion. Each time God manifests, God reveals increasing degrees of wisdom “as humanity matures and
29
Babel, DVD, directed by Michael Bay (2006: Burbank, CA: Touchstone Pictures, 2006), Crash, DVD, directed by
Paul Haggis (2004: Burbank, CA: Bob Yari Productions, 2005)
30
The Foundation for a Better Life, http://www.values.com (accessed May 21, 2012)
31
Religion-Religions, “Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”, http://www.religion-
9
its capacity to understand also grows.”32 The basis for the differences in religions is in the cultural
differences, the differences in evolution of man in society and his varying capacities at that time in
history. As man evolves to greater unification, greater degrees of revelation with emerge and bridge the
differences in teachings, which are not reflective of the Manifestation of God but reflective of individual
societies. 33
Another emergence of successful religious acceptance is ecumenisms. “Generally, ecumenism is
associated with the Christian tendency to promote religious unity, but the term more loosely refers to a
desire for global cooperation among all religions. Mystics within the world religions have often believed
that ultimate spiritual truth, being higher than any doctrine or practice, cuts across the world religions.” 34
Ecumenical groups in history include the Gnostics and the Sufis. Medieval Catholics recognized that
other religions adhered to natural law and sought the divine. Islam saw other religions as manifestations
of earlier revelations. Hindus believed that all religions were simply alternative routes to the same end.3 35
The best example of a nation state in the world that exemplifies cross-cultural understanding and
tolerance is the United States. The demographic of this nation demonstrates representation of every
nation, culture, religion, philosophy, political inclination and race of people on the planet. And yet, we
coexist with relatively no conflict as a direct result. New York City, Los Angeles and Chicago in that
order rank the most religiously diverse cities in the nation. 36 And disputes within those communities are
largely not over religion or cultural background. These many examples of successful religious tolerance
and acceptance demonstrate that the phenomenon has the potential to spread worldwide and transcend
economic, political and ethnic divisions to find solutions to the common challenges of mankind on earth.
32
Ibid
33
Ibid
34
Ibid
35
Ibid
36
City-Data, http://www.city-data.com/forum/general-u-s/540096-what-top-ten-most-religiously-diverse.html
10
Through millennia of human civilizations, unique cultures have evolved indigenously, that is,
localized from other cultures, often at great geographic distances from their own. Left to evolve with little
to no outside influence each developed their language, customs, diet, dress and belief system. One can
choose not to differentiate between a culture’s individual interpretation of language and dress from that of
their belief system, which is their interpretation of our place in the universe, the existence or absence of a
higher power or the unseen influences upon life. It stands to reason that if there is a different word in
varying languages for something, then there would just as logically be different interpretations about God.
Yet beliefs are historically the most fought over issue between humans. Most of the conflicts between
cultures throughout history have been fought over one of four issues: territorial disputes, available
resources, political dominance or religious differences. Few cultures have remained isolationists, so that
territorial, resource or political disputes have been a non-issue. Because world belief systems have
developed to be so different, people have allowed the differences to distance them rather than just define
them, making cross-cultural understanding very difficult if not impossible. Cross-cultural understanding
is the key to the success of peaceful globalization not assimilating and driving to extinction individual
cultures. Understanding stems from acknowledgement of the basic rights to individual cultural survival
and of equality and diversity. Understanding begins with identifying values in another’s culture that is
common between the two.
If cross-cultural understanding isn’t made a priority in globalization, conflict and further division
will emerge in greater force. Following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the internationalization that
ensued, conflicts were between monarchs over territory and power. But with the French Revolution,
conflicts between peoples instead of nations began and continued until the Russian Revolution, when
conflicts of ideologies took the foreground. This continued through the 20th century until after the Cold
War ended. Conflict is in recent decades mostly cultural and primarily between Western and Non-
Western civilizations. There are subcultures within a nation, such as regions or communities, and nations
can be a small part of a greater civilization. An example of this cultural chain would be a person from
11
Southern California, who has a different culture than that of a Northern Californian. However, they both
would identify themselves as Californian, a West Coaster, an American, to a lesser degree North
American and finally a Westerner. They share cultural features such as language, history, customs,
institutions and religion that distinguish them from another culture or community. 37 In conflicts, people
choose which side of the argument they side with regarding nation, politics, economics, even territory.
But cultural divides are more enduring, less changeable, such as ethnicity, history, customs, language and
even religion to some degree. The argument has been made that in the future, conflicts between
civilizations will be over culture rather than politics, for several reasons. First, globalization leading to
intensified interaction between civilizations will lead to people identifying less with their nation state and
instead, returning to their cultural roots for identification, such as fundamentalism and non-
Westernization. This carries with it the complexity of enhancing rather than dismissing or minimizing our
cultural differences, leading to further conflict in the way of nation states, economics, politics and
territory.
“In sum, religion is a central aspect of cultural globalization, as traditions spread, transnational
networks expand, national cultures become more mixed, and new ways of experiencing the world emerge.
In many countries, religion mediates the pluralizing effect of world culture. It plays an important role in
the intense contest concerning global values and world order. Yet the construction of world culture has
become a mainly secular process; it has no transcendent content in the conventional sense. Cultural
heterogeneity and conflict themselves take many forms, only some of them religious. While world
religion is intimately connected with globalization and involved in the latter's dynamics, it is by no means
a dominant force. Whether it can, or should, take on a greater role in defining the desirable world order is
likely to be a central issue in future global cultural contestation.” 38 Globalization will only increase as
37
Samuel P. Huntington, “The clash of civilizations?”, Foreign Affairs; Summer 1993; 72, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg.
22
38
12
technology advances and the world becomes ever smaller. Cultural conflict is inevitable if the cultural
differences are put in a less relevant perspective and our commonalities are brought to the forefront of the
global conversation. This necessity for cultures to overcome their differences, for both our shared survival
and our global problem-solving makes cross-cultural understanding imperative. The pressing issues of
today such as environmental crises, political upheaval, economic collapse and social deterioration will be
resolved through mutual acceptance and understanding of our various beliefs and of our common values.
13
References
1. Batltes, Paul B.(Editor), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 1st ed.,
Elsevier Science Publishing, 2001, “Globalization and World Culture”, 2. Globalization and
Cultural Differentiation, 6262. http://www.sociology.emory.edu/jboli/isb408026.pdf (accessed
May 21, 2012)
2. Movius, Lauren, “Cultural Globalization and Challenges to Traditional Communication

Theories”, PLATFORM: Journal of Media and Communication 2(1) (January): 6-18.
http://journals.culture-
communication.unimelb.edu.au/platform/resources/includes/vol2_1/PlatformVol2Issue1_Movius.
pdf (accessed May 21, 2012)
3. Ibid
4. Ibid
5. Ibid
6. Strikwerda, Carl, From World-Systems to Globalization: Theories of Transnational Change and

the Place of the United States, American Studies, 41:2/3 (Summer/Fall 2000).
https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/amerstud/article/viewFile/3115/3074 (accessed May 21, 2012)
7. Religion-Religions, “Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”,

http://www.religion-religions.com/html/sub_chapter.php?select=general0003&religion=General
8. Ibid
9. “Belief Systems”, http://www.historyhaven.com/BELIEF%20SYSTEMS.html (accessed May 21,

2012)
10. “Top Ten Organized Religions of the World”,

http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0904108.html#ixzz1vR52SkZh (accessed May 21, 2012)
11. “Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents”,

http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html (accessed May 21, 2012)
May 21, 2012)

14
14. Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd Ed., Berkshire Publishing Group, 2011, ‘Religious
Freedom’, http://0-
www.credoreference.com.bianca.penlib.du.edu/entry/berkwhist/religious_freedom (accessed May
21, 2012)
May 21, 2012)
16. Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History, 2nd Ed., Berkshire Publishing Group, 2011, ‘Religious
Freedom’, http://0-
www.credoreference.com.bianca.penlib.du.edu/entry/berkwhist/religious_freedom (accessed May
21, 2012)
17. Ibid
18. Ibid
19. Ibid
20. Ibid
21. Ibid
22. Ibid
23. Ibid
24. Ibid
May 21, 2012)
May 21, 2012)
27. Global Caring Ethics, http://www.global-caring-ethics.com pdf (accessed May 21, 2012)
28. Independence Day, DVD, directed by Roland Emmerich (1996: Burbank, CA: 20th Century Fox,
1996), The Day After Tomorrow, DVD, directed by Roland Emmerich (2004: Burbank, CA: 20th
Century Fox, 2004), 2012, DVD, directed by Roland Emmerich (2009: Burbank, CA: Columbia
Pictures, 2009), Children of Men, DVD, directed by Alfonso Cuaron (2006: Burbank, CA:
Universal Pictures, 2007), Armageddon, DVD, directed by Michael Bay (1998: Burbank, CA:
15
Touchstone Pictures, 1998), Deep Impact, DVD, directed by Mimi Leder (1998: Burbank, CA:
Paramount Pictures,1998) and Sum of All Fears, DVD, directed by Phil Alden Robinson (2002:
Burbank, CA, Paramount Pictures, 2002)
29. Babel, DVD, directed by Michael Bay (2006: Burbank, CA: Touchstone Pictures, 2006), Crash,
DVD, directed by Paul Haggis (2004: Burbank, CA: Bob Yari Productions, 2005)
30. The Foundation for a Better Life, http://www.values.com (accessed May 21, 2012)

32. Ibid
33. Ibid
34. Ibid
35. Ibid
36. City-Data, http://www.city-data.com/forum/general-u-s/540096-what-top-ten-most-religiously-

diverse.html (accessed May 21, 2012)
37. Huntington, Samuel P, “The clash of civilizations?”, Foreign Affairs; Summer 1993; 72, 3;
ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 22
May 21, 2012)
16

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GS 3300 “Nations, Cultures and Peoples”

systems, thereby embracing our common values and transcending differences.

and imperative today than at any other time in history.

the Foundations Era (8000 BCE to 600 CE).”9

philosophies. This reflects approximately 16% of the world’s population. 11

between faiths, acknowledging each as valid to its particular culture. 13

handle a multiethnic, multi-religious empire.”15

church-state separation in their constitutions.” 19

as false, and by rulers as useful.” Seneca the Younger (4 BCE–65 CE) 26

and social culture.

Challenges to cross-cultural understanding are frequently addressed against the backdrop of

allowed to become the prevailing perspective.

Another emergence of successful religious acceptance is ecumenisms. “Generally, ecumenism is

common between the two.

2. Movius, Lauren, “Cultural Globalization and Challenges to Traditional Communication

6. Strikwerda, Carl, From World-Systems to Globalization: Theories of Transnational Change and

7. Religion-Religions, “Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”,

9. “Belief Systems”, http://www.historyhaven.com/BELIEF%20SYSTEMS.html (accessed May 21,

10. “Top Ten Organized Religions of the World”,

11. “Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents”,

13. Religion-Religions, “Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”,

31. Religion-Religions, “Attitudes and Approaches toward the Beliefs of Others”,

36. City-Data, http://www.city-data.com/forum/general-u-s/540096-what-top-ten-most-religiously-

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