CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Printed Circuit Board
A letter box, letterbox, letter plate, letter hole, deed, mail slot, or mailbox is a receptacle
for receiving incoming mail at a private residence or business. For the opposite purpose
of collating outgoing mail, a post box is generally used instead.
Letterboxes or mailboxes consist of four primary designs:

 A slot in a wall or door through which mail is delivered (through-door delivery)

 A box attached directly to the house (door-to-door delivery)
 A box mounted at or near the street (curbside delivery)
 A centralized mail delivery station consisting of individual mailboxes for an
entire building
 A centralized mail delivery station consisting of individual mailboxes for multiple
recipients at multiple addresses in a particular neighborhood or community

This electronic letter box is a very useful gadget for homes and offices the circuit uses
single .Electronic letter box is basically a circuit which let us know easily with help of a
LED whether a letter is present in the letter box or not. If the letter is present in the box
then the LED will glow and if the letter is not present in the letter box then the LED will
not glow. This is the basic idea of electronic letter box. Thus electronic letter box is very
efficient and a very easy circuitry to get the letters. This circuit uses a popular timer I.C
which is 555. I.C 555 is connected as comparator with pin 6 connected with positive
supply, the output goes high-1 when the trigger pin 2 is at lower than 1/3 level of the
supply voltage. Conversely the output goes low-0, when it is above 1/3 level. So small
change in the voltage of pin 2 is enough to change the output of pin 3 from 1 to 0 and 0 to
1. letter is put inside, a LED glows which indicates the presence.
 To detect the present of letter we have used LDR and a source of light. LDR is a special
type of resistance whose value depends on the brightness of light falling on it. It has a
resistance of about 1 mega ohms when in total darkness, but a resistance of only about 2-
5 k ohms when brightly illuminated. It responds to a large part of the light spectrum.

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The source of light and LDR is so adjusted in the letter box that light will directly fall on
the LDR but when letter is kept inside then it will block the beam of light and LDR will
be under darkness.

This is the basic idea of electronic letter box. Thus electronic letter box is very efficient
and a very easy circuitry to get the letters. This circuit uses a popular timer I.C which is
555. I.C 555 is connected as comparator with pin 6 connected with positive supply, the
output goes high-1 when the trigger pin 2 is at lower than 1/3 level of the supply voltage.
Conversely the output goes low-0, when it is above 1/3 level. So small change in the
voltage of pin 2 is enough to change the output of pin 3 from 1 to 0 and 0 to 1.The circuit
basically consists of an IC 555. This is an 8 pin IC. The output of this IC is obtained from
pin 6.This circuit also has LED’S, LDR, Resistors, Battery as the main components. This
is the basic idea of electronic letter box. Thus electronic letter box is very efficient and a
very easy circuitry to get the letters.

The electronic letter box is very efficient and easy to use circuit which has its application
in daily life. If one wants to know whether there is a letter present or not inside the letter
box, Electronic letter box project can be of help. The Electronic letter box is a very useful
gadget for homes and offices. The circuit uses single Monolithic -555 in dual in line
plastic package and a few external components. The main advantage of the letter box is
we can find out the presence and absence of letter inside the box without opening the
box. Here light depending resistor (LDR) is used as a sensor to detect the presence of
letter.

1.2 Soldering
Soldering is the process of fixing one or more components as one by one by dissolving
and running a solder in the joint is called soldering. The solder metal has a lower melting
temperature than the working piece. The soldering process can be applied in electrical
and electronic projects, plumbing, etc.
The soldering process is done in various electrical and electronics projects to combine the
components with the roots of the printed circuit board. The circuit performance and
working depend on the perfect soldering, It needs talent and working on the
good soldering techniques will help you to make an excellent working circuit..

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For most electronic work miniature mains powered soldering irons are used. These
consist of a handle onto which is mounted the heating element.

On the end of the heating element is what is known as the "bit", so called because it is the
bit that heats the joint up. Solder melts at around 190 degrees Centigrade, and the bit
reaches a temperature of over 250 degrees Centigrade. This temperature is plenty hot
enough to inflict a nasty burn, consequently care should be taken.

Fig.1.1 Soldering Process

1.2.1 Methods of Soldering

The methods of the soldering process can be classified into two, namely soft soldering
and hard soldering.

Fig.1.2 Soldering Methods

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a) Soft Soldering

Soft soldering is a process for fitting very minute compound parts possessing low
liquefying temperature, which have been broken during the procedure of soldering is
performed at high temperature. In this process, a tin-lead alloy is used as space filler
metal. The liquefying temperature of the space filler alloy must not be less than 400oC /
752oF.

A gas torch is used as a heat source, for the procedure. Some of the examples of this kind
of soldering metals include tin-zinc for bonding aluminum, tin-lead for general usage;
zinc-aluminum for aluminum, cadmium-silver for power at high temperature; lead-silver
for strength higher than room temperature, weakening confrontation, tin-silver & tin-
bismuth for electrical products.

b) Hard Soldering

In this type of soldering a solid solder unites two elements of metals by spreading out into
the holes of the component that are unlocked due to high temperature. The space filler
metal grips a higher temperature of more than 450oC/840oF. It comprises of two
elements: Silver soldering and Brazing.

ℹ) Silver Soldering

It is an unsoiled method supportive to fabricate small components, carrying out abnormal

maintenance and built-up tools. It makes use of an alloy containing silver as a space-filler
metal. Though silver provides a free-running individuality, yet silver soldering is not
suggested for space-filling, and thus, different flux is recommended for accurate silver
soldering.

ℹℹ) Braze Soldering

This type of soldering is a procedure for connecting two terminals of the base metals by
forming liquid metallic space filler, which runs by the attraction of a vessel through the
joints and cools down to give a solid union through diffusion and atomic magnetism. It
produces a very strong joint. It makes use of a brass metal as a space-filler agent.
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1.2.2 Procedure of Soldering

1. Take one PCB , Solder Iron, Solder Wire and electronic components and give supply
to solder iron.
2. Place the Iron at the angle of 45⸰ with the tip touching as many elements of the joints
as possible.
3. Place the solder wire near the iron and let it flow. Pass it around the joints.
4. Remove the iron and let the solder flow in the area from where the iron has been
removed.
5. When the solder has successfully flowed in the lead and track, take the solder away
and then remove the iron.

1.3 De- Soldering

The reverse process of soldering is de-soldering. This process is the removal of solder
and components from a circuit board for troubleshooting, repair, replacement, and
salvage. The soldered joint is removed by the process of de-soldering. For this purpose a
small vacuum pump is used to remove solder from the plated through holes. The lead over
which the de-soldering tip was placed is moved in a circular motion for rounded leads and
back and forth for flat leads. It is a process of removal of solder and components mounted
on circuit boards.

Fig.1.3 De- Soldering Process

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1.3.1 Procedure of De-Soldering

There are two ways to remove the solder:-
1. With De-soldering pump:
a) Set the pump by pushing the spring loaded plunger down until it locks.
b) Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
c) Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
d) Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck molten solder into
the tool.
e) Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.
f) The pump will need empting occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.

2. With Solder remover wick:

a) Apply both the end of the wick and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
b) As the solder melts most of it will flow onto the wick, away from the joint.
c) Remove the wick first then the soldering iron.

1.4 Power Supply Design and Description

In most of our electronic products or projects we need a power supply for converting
mains AC voltage to a regulated DC voltage. For making a power supply designing of
each and every component is essential. 
Most digital logic circuits and processors need a 5 volt power supply. To use these parts
we need to build a regulated 5 volt source. Usually you start with an unregulated power
supply ranging from 5 volts to 24 volts DC. To make a 5 volt power supply, we use a
LM7805 voltage regulator IC. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the
positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to
the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on
the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the Output pin [11].
1.4.1 Basic Power Supply Circuit
Below is the circuit of a basic unregulated dc power supply. A bridge rectifier D1 to D4
rectifies the ac from the transformer secondary, which may also be a block rectifier such
as WO4 or even four individual diodes such as 1N4004 types. (See later re rectifier
ratings).
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The principal advantage of a bridge rectifier is it does not need a centre tap on the
secondary of the transformer. A further but significant advantage is that the ripple
frequency at the output is twice the line frequency (i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz) and makes
filtering somewhat easier.

Fig.1.4 Block Diagram Power Supply

Fig.1.5 Circuit Diagram Power Supply

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas,
D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

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The circuit diagram of 5 V regulators using popular 7805 IC is shown in Fig.3.10. The
7805 is a 5 Volt voltage regulator IC with features such as internal current limit, safe area
protection, thermal protection etc. A 16 V transformer brings down the 230V mains, 1A
bridge rectifier rectifies it and capacitor C1 filters it and 7805 regulates it to produce a
steady5V DC output [11].
1) Filter
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and gives smooth D.C.

Fig.1.6 Ripple Filter

Fig.1.7 Block Diagram of DC Power Supply

Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained
constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point
changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage. This unit provides the
constant DC 5v for circuit operation
2) Transformer
We have used 0-12 transformer which step down the AC220 V into 12 v ac.
3) Rectifier
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
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The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms,

including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide
rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and
motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker"
of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact
rectifier or "crystal detector". Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as
components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission
systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a
source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers.
In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame. Because of
the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current which, although unidirectional, consists of pulses of current.
Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer
equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would by produced by a battery). In
these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic to produce a
steady current [11].
4) Full-wave Rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output.

Fig.1.8 Full-wave Rectifier

Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to pulsating DC
(direct current), and yields a higher average output voltage. Two diodes and a centre-
tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any AC source
(including a transformer without centre-tap), are needed. Single semiconductor diodes,

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double diodes with common cathode or common anode, and four-diode bridges, are
manufactured as single components.
For single-phase AC, if the transformer is centre-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back
(cathode-to-cathode or anode-to-anode, depending upon output polarity required) can
form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many turns are required on the transformer secondary
to obtain the same output voltage than for a bridge rectifier, but the power rating is
unchanged.

Fig.1.9 Rectifier output smoothing

The AC input (yellow) and DC output (green) of a half-wave rectifier with a smoothing
capacitor.

Fig.1.10 Rectification & Filter

Note the ripple in the DC signal. While half-wave and full-wave rectification can deliver
unidirectional current, neither produces a constant voltage. In order to produce steady DC
from a rectified AC supply, a smoothing circuit or filter is required. In its simplest form
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this can be just a reservoir capacitor or smoothing capacitor, placed at the DC output of
the rectifier. There will still be an AC ripple voltage component at the power supply
frequency for a half-wave rectifier, twice that for full-wave, where the voltage is not
completely smoothed.
5) RC-Filter Rectifier
This circuit was designed and simulated using multiuse software. Sizing of the capacitor
represents a trade-off. For a given load, a larger capacitor will reduce ripple but will cost
more and will create higher peak currents in the transformer secondary and in the supply
feeding it. The peak current is set in principle by the rate of rise of the supply voltage on
the rising edge of the incoming sine-wave, but in practice it is reduced by the resistance
of the transformer windings. In extreme cases where many rectifiers are loaded onto a
power distribution circuit, peak currents may cause difficulty in maintaining a correctly
shaped sinusoidal voltage on the ac supply.
To limit ripple to a specified value the required capacitor size is proportional to the load
current and inversely proportional to the supply frequency and the number of output
peaks of the rectifier per input cycle. The load current and the supply frequency are
generally outside the control of the designer of the rectifier system but the number of
peaks per input cycle can be affected by the choice of rectifier design.
A half-wave rectifier will only give one peak per cycle and for this and other reasons is
only used in very small power supplies. A full wave rectifier achieves two peaks per
cycle, the best possible with a single-phase input. For three-phase inputs a three-phase
bridge will give six peaks per cycle; higher numbers of peaks can be achieved by using
transformer networks placed before the rectifier to convert to a higher phase order. To
further reduce ripple, a capacitor-input filter can be used. This complements the reservoir
capacitor with a choke (inductor) and a second filter capacitor, so that a steadier DC
output can be obtained across the terminals of the filter capacitor. The choke presents
high impedance to the ripple current. For use at power-line frequencies inductors
require cores of iron or other magnetic materials, and add weight and size. Their use in
power supplies for electronic equipment has therefore dwindled in favour of
semiconductor circuits such as voltage regulators.
A more usual alternative to a filter, and essential if the DC load requires very low ripple
voltage, is to follow the reservoir capacitor with an active voltage regulator circuit. The
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reservoir capacitor needs to be large enough to prevent the troughs of the ripple dropping
below the minimum voltage required by the regulator to produce the required output
voltage. The regulator serves both to significantly reduce the ripple and to deal with
variations in supply and load characteristics. It would be possible to use a smaller
reservoir capacitor (these can be large on high-current power supplies) and then apply
some filtering as well as the regulator, but this is not a common strategy. The extreme of
this approach is to dispense with the reservoir capacitor altogether and put the rectified
waveform straight into a choke-input filter.
The advantage of this circuit is that the current waveform is smoother and consequently
the rectifier no longer has to deal with the current as a large current pulse, but instead the
current delivery is spread over the entire cycle. The disadvantage, apart from extra size
and weight, is that the voltage output is much lower – approximately the average of an
AC half-cycle rather than the peak [11].
6) Regulator
A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A
voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or
more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power
supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.
In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators
control the output of the plant.
In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a
substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage
independent of how much power is drawn from the line.
As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC. 7805 IC Rating :

 Input voltage range 7V- 35V

 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range   VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8V 

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Fig.1.11 Voltage Regulator 7805

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would
not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at
a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to
provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be
connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels [12].

Fig.1.12 Power-Supply Circuit Diagram

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