The Drill-String!

03
An Overview!

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-String 1

Contents

1. Introduction 3
2. Drill-Pipe 5
2.1 Drill-pipe Stress & Failure 7
2.2 Drill-pipe Inspection 9
3. Tool-Joints 11
4. Heavy Wall Drill-pipe (HWDP) 13
5. Drill-Collars 15
5.1 Special Types of Collar 18
6. Other Drill-String Components 19
6.1 Stabilisers 19
6.2 Subs (Substitutes) 21
6.3 Drilling Jars 21
6.4 Roller Reamer 21
6.5 Shock Sub (Vibration Dampener) 22
7. Drill-String Design 23
7.1 Design of a Stabilised String 23
7.2 Bending Moments in String Design 25
7.3 Length of Drill-Collars 27
7.4 Drill-pipe Selection 27
7.5 Collapse Load 28
7.6 Tension Load 28

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1. Introduction

The term drill-string is used to describe the tubulars and accessories on which the drill-bit is
run to the bottom of the borehole. The drill-string consists of drill-pipe, drill-collars, the Kelly
and various other pieces of equipment such as stabilisers and reamers, which are included in the
drill-string just above the drill-bit (Figure 1). All of these components will be described in
detail below. The drill-collars and the other equipment which is made up just above the bit are
collectively called the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA). The dimensions of a typical 10,000 ft
drill-string would be:

Component Outside Diameter (in.) Length ()

Drill-bit 12¼″
Drill-Collars 9½″ 600
Drill-Pipe 5″ 9400

The functions of the drill-string are:

To suspend the bit.

To transmit rotary torque from the Kelly to the bit.

To provide a conduit for circulating drilling fluid to the bit.

It must be remembered that in deep wells the drill-string may be 5-6 miles long.

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 Figure 1 - Components of the drill-string

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2. Drill-Pipe

Drill-pipe is the major component of the drill-string. It generally constitutes 90-95% of the
entire length of the drill-string. Drill-Pipe is a seamless pipe with threaded connections, known
as tool-joints (Figure 2). At one end of the pipe there is the box, which has the female end of the
connection. At the other end of each length of drill-pipe is the male end of the connection,
known as the pin. The wall thickness, and therefore the outer diameter of the tool-joint, must
be larger than the wall thickness of the main body of the drill-pipe in order to accommodate the
threads of the connection. Hence the tool-joints are clearly visible in the drill-string. Tool-joints
will be discussed in more detail in section 3.

Figure 2 - Tool-joint

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Each length of drill-pipe is known as a joint, or a single. The standard dimensions for drill-pipe
are specified by the American Petroleum Institute (API). Singles are available in three API
length ‘ranges’ (see Table 1) with range 2 being the most common. The exact length of each
single must be measured on the rig-site, since the process used to manufacture the drill-pipe
means that singles are not of uniform length. Since the only way in which the driller knows the
depth of the drill-bit is by knowing the length of the drill-string, the length of each length of
drill-pipe (and all other drill-string components), made up into the drill-string, must be
measured and recorded on a drill-pipe ‘tally’. The drill-pipe is also manufactured in a variety of
outside diameters, and weights (Table 2) which assuming a specific gravity for steel of 490 lb/
cuft, is a reflection of the wall thickness of the drill-pipe. The drill-pipe is also manufactured in
a variety of material grades (Table 3). The specification for a particular string of drill-pipe could
therefore appear as:

5″ 19.5 lb/ft Grade S Range 2

API Range Length ()

1 18-22
2 27-30
3 38-45

Table 1 - Drill-Pipe lengths

Size OD (in.) Weight (lb/) ID (in.)

2⅜ 6.65 1.815
2⅞ 10.40 2.151
3½ 9.50 2.992
3½ 13.30 2.764
5 15.50 4.602
5 16.25 4.408
5 19.50 4.276
5½ 25.60 4.000
5½ 21.90 4.776
5½ 24.70 4.670

Table 2 - Dimensions of drill-pipe

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 Minimum Yield Stress Minimum Tensile Yield Stress Ratio
API Grade
(psi) Stress (psi) Tensile Stress
D 55,000 95,000 0.58
E 75,000 100,000 0.75
X 95,000 105,000 0.70
G 105,000 115,000 0.91
S 135,000 145,000 0.93

Table 3 - Drill-pipe material grades

All of these specifications will influence the burst, collapse, tensile and torsional strength of the
drill-pipe, and this allows the drilling engineer to select the pipe which will meet the specific
requirements of the particular drilling operation.

Care must be taken when using the specifications given in Table 2 since although these are
normally the quoted specifications for drill-pipe, the weights and dimensions are ‘nominal’
values, and do not reflect the true weight of the drill-pipe, or the minimum internal diameter of
the pipe.

The weight per foot of the pipe is a function of the connection type and the grade of the drill-
pipe. The weight per foot that should be used when calculating the true weight of a string of
pipe is given in Table 13.

The weight of the pipe, calculated in the manner described above, will reflect the weight of the
drill-pipe when suspended in air (‘Weight in air’). When the pipe is suspended in the borehole
it will be immersed in drilling fluid of a particular density, and will therefore be subjected to a
buoyant force. This buoyant force will be directly proportional to the density of the drilling
fluid. The weight of drill-pipe when suspended in a fluid (‘Wet Weight’) can be calculated from
the following:

Buoyant Weight (‘Wet Weight’) of Drill pipe = Weight of Pipe

Drill - Pipe pipe in Air x Buoyancy Factor

The buoyancy factor for a particular density of drilling fluid can be found from Table 15.

2.1 Drill-pipe Stress & Failure

It is not uncommon for the drill-pipe to undergo tensile failure (‘twist-off ’) whilst drilling.
When this happens, drilling has to stop and the drill-string must be pulled from the borehole.
The part of the string below the point of failure will of course be left in the borehole, when the
upper part of the string is retrieved. The retrieval of the lower part of the string can be a very
difficult and time consuming operation.

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The failure of a drill-string can be due to excessively high stresses, and/or corrosion. Drill-Pipe
is exposed to the following stresses:

Tension - the weight of the suspended drill-string exposes each joint of drill-pipe to several
thousand pounds of tensile load. Extra tension may be exerted due to ‘overpull’ (drag caused by
difficult hole conditions e.g. dog legs) when pulling out of hole.

Torque - during drilling, rotation is transmitted down the string. Again, poor hole conditions
can increase the amount of torque or twisting force on each joint.

Cyclic Stress Fatigue - in deviated holes, the wall of the pipe is exposed to compressive and
tensile forces at points of bending in the hole. As the string is rotated each joint sustains a cycle
of compressive and tensile forces (Figure 3). is can result in fatigue in the wall of the pipe.

Stresses are also induced by vibration, abrasive friction, and ‘bouncing the bit’ off the bottom.

Figure 3 - Cyclic loading

Corrosion of a drill-string in a water-based mud is primarily due to dissolved gases, dissolved

salts and acids in the well-bore, such as:

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 Oxygen - present in all drilling fluids. It causes rusting and pitting. is may lead to washouts
(small eroded holes in the pipe) and twist-offs (parting of the drill-string). Oxygen can be
removed from drilling fluids using a scavenger, such as Sodium Sulphate. Even small
concentrations of Oxygen (<1ppm) can be very damaging.

Carbon Dioxide - can be introduced into the well-bore with the drilling fluid (e.g. in the make
up water, from organic drilling fluid additives or through bacterial action on additives) or from
the formation. It forms carbonic acid which corrodes steel.

Dissolved Salts - increases the rate of corrosion due to increased conductivity through the
presence of dissolved salts. Dissolved salts in drilling fluids may come from the makeup water,
formation fluid inflow, drilled formations, or drilling fluid additives.

Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) - may be present in the formations being drilled. It causes
‘Hydrogen Embrittlement’ or ‘Sulphide Stress Cracking’. Hydrogen is absorbed onto the surface
of a steel in the presence of Sulphide. If the local concentration of Hydrogen is sufficient, cracks
can be formed, leading rapidly to a brittle failure. Hydrogen embrittlement in itself does not
cause a failure, but will accelerate failure of the pipe if it is already under stress, or ‘notched’.
Only small amounts of H2S need be present to induce fatigue (<13ppm). Special scavengers can
be circulated in the mud to remove the H2S.

Organic Acids - ese produce corrosion by lowering the pH, removing protective films, and
providing Hydrogen to increase the chances of Hydrogen embrittlement occurring.

Although added chemicals can build up a layer of protection against corrosion, the fatigue
stresses can easily break this layer down, allowing corrosion to re-occur. It is this interaction of
fatigue and corrosion which is difficult to combat.

2.2 Drill-pipe Inspection

When manufactured, new pipe will be subjected by the manufacturer to a series of mechanical,
tensile and hydrostatic pressure tests in accordance with API Specification 5A and 5AX. This
will ensure that the pipe can withstand specified loads. A joint of drill-pipe will however be
used in a number of wells. When it has been used it will undergo some degree of wear, and will
not be able to withstand the same loads as when it is new.

It is extremely difficult to predict the service life of a drill-string since no two boreholes
experience the same drilling conditions. However, as a rough guide, the length of hole drilled by
a piece of drill-pipe, when part of a drill-string, will be:

So Drilling Areas: 220000 - 250000 

Hard or Deviated Drilling Areas: 180000 - 210000 

This means that a piece of drill-pipe may be used on up to 25 wells (in soft drilling areas) which
are 10,000 ft deep.

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During the working life of the drill-pipe it will therefore be necessary to determine the degree
of damage or wear that the pipe has already been subjected to, and therefore its capacity to
withstand the loads to which it will be exposed in the future. Various non-destructive tests are
periodically applied to used drill-pipe, to assess the wear and therefore strength of the pipe, and
to inspect for any defects, e.g. cracks. The strength of the pipe is gauged on the basis of the
remaining wall thickness, or if worn eccentrically, the average minimum wall thickness of the
pipe. The methods used to inspect drill-pipe are summarised in Table 4.

Following inspection, the drill-pipe is classified in terms of the degree of wear or damage which
is measured on the pipe. The criteria used for classifying the drill-pipe on the basis of the
degree of wear or damage, is shown in Table 6. The ‘Grade 1 or Premium’ drill-pipe
classification applies to new pipe, or used pipe with at least 80% of the original wall thickness
still remaining. A classification of Grade 2 and above indicates that the pipe has sustained
significant wear or damage and that its strength has been significantly reduced. The strength of
some typical drill-pipe sizes when new, and when worn, is shown in Tables 11 and 12.

Drill-pipe will generally be inspected and classified before a new drilling contract is started.
The operating company would require that the drilling contractor provide proof of inspection,
and classification of the drill-string as part of the drilling contract. In general, only new or
premium drill-pipe would be acceptable for drilling in the North Sea.

Method Description Comments

Slow and can be in error if
Optical Visual Inspection pipe internals not
properly cleaned.
Magnetize pip ends &
Simple & efficient.
observe attraction of
Magnetic Particle No information on well
ferrous particles to cracks
thickness.
detected by UV light
No information on well
Detect disturbances in thickness.
Magnetic Induction magnetic flux yield by Internal cracks have to be
pits, notches & cracks verified using magnetic
particle technique.
No information on cracks.
Very effective on
Ultra Sonic Pulse echo technique
determination of well
thickness.
Gamma Ray Radiography

Table 4 - Summary of inspection techniques

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3. Tool-Joints

Tool-joints are located at each end of a length of drill-pipe, and provide the screw thread for
connecting the joints of pipe together (Figure 4). Notice that the only seal in the connection is
the shoulder/shoulder connection between the box and pin. Initially tool-joints were screwed
on to the end of drill-pipe, and then reinforced by welding. A later development was to have
shrunk-on tool-joints. This process involved heating the tool-joint, then screwing it onto the
pipe. As the joint cooled it contracted and formed a very tight, close seal. One advantage of this
method was that a worn joint could be heated, removed and replaced by a new joint. The
modern method is to flash-weld the tool-joints onto the pipe. A hard material is often welded
onto the surface of the tool-joint to protect it from abrasive wear as the drill-string is rotated in
the borehole. This material can then be replaced at some stage if it becomes depleted due to
excessive wear. When two joints of pipe are being connected the rig tongs must be engaged
around the tool-joints (and not around the main body of the drill-pipe), whose greater wall
thickness can sustain the torque required to make-up the connection. The strength of a tool-
joint depends on the cross sectional area of the box and pin. With continual use the threads of
the pin and box become worn, and there is a decrease in the tensile strength. The size of the
tool-joint depends on the size of the drill-pipe but various sizes of tool-joint are available. The
tool-joints that are commonly used for 4½″ drill-pipe are listed in Table 5. It should be noted
that the I.D. of the tool-joint is less than the I.D. of the main body of the pipe.

Figure 4 - Tool-joint

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 read
Size Type OD ID TPI Tape
Form
4½″ API REG 5½″ 2¼″ 5 3 V..040
4½″ Full Hole 5¾″ 3″ 5 3 V..040
4½″ NC 46 (4″ IF) 6″ 3¼″ 4 2 V..038R
4½″ NC 50 (4½″ IF) 6⅛″ 3¾″ 4 2 V..038R
4½″ H.90 6″ 3¼″ 3½ 2 90° V..050

Table 5 - API Tool-joints

Tool-joint boxes usually have an 18° tapered shoulder, and pins have 35° tapered shoulders.
Tool-joints are subjected to the same stresses as drill-pipe, but also have to face additional
problems:

When pipe is being tripped out the hole the elevator supports the string weight underneath the
shoulder of the tool-joint.

Frequent engagement of pins and boxes, if done harshly, can damage threads.

e threaded pin end of the pipe is oen le exposed.

Tool-joint life can be substantially extended if connections are greased properly when the
connection is made-up, and a ‘steady’ torque applied.

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4. Heavy Wall Drill-pipe (HWDP)

Heavy wall drill-pipe (or ‘heavy-weight’ drill-pipe) has a greater wall thickness than ordinary
drill-pipe, and is often used at the base of the drill-pipe where stress concentration is greatest.
The stress concentration is due to:

e difference in cross section and therefore stiffness between the drill-pipe and drill-collars.

e rotation and cutting action of the bit can frequently result in a vertical bouncing effect.

HWDP is used to absorb the stresses being transferred from the stiff drill-collars to the
relatively flexible drill-pipe. The major benefits of HWDP are:

Increased wall thickness.

Longer tool-joints.

Uses more hard facing.

May have a long central upset section (Figure 5).

HWDP should always be operated in compression. More lengths of HWDP are required to
maintain compression in highly deviated holes.

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 Classification Of Used Drill-pipe & Used Tubing Work Strings
(All Sizes, Weights & Grades. Nominal dimension is basis for all calculations)

1 2 3 4
Premium Class Class 2 Class 3
Pipe Condition
Two White Bands Yellow Band Orange Band
1. Exterior Condition
Any
Remaining wall not less than Remaining wall not less than imperfections or
A: OD Wear Wall
80% 70% damages
exceeding Class 2
B: Dents & Mashes Not over 3% of OD Not over 4% of OD
Slip Area
Diameter Variations 1, Not over 3% of OD 1, Not over 4% of OD
C:
1, Crushing 2, Not over of 3% OD 2, Not over 4% of OD
2, Necking
Stress Induced 1, Not over 3% of OD
1, Not over 4% of OD
Diameter Variations reduction
D: reduction
1, Stretched 2, Not over 3% of OD
2, Not over 4% of OD increase
2, String Shot increase
Cuts, Gouges & 1, Remaining wall not less 1, Remaining wall not less
Corrosion than 80% than 70%
2a, Remaining wall not less 2a, Remaining wall not less
E: 1, Round Bottom than 80% than 70%
2, Sharp Bottom 2b, Remaining wall not less 2b, Remaining wall not less
2a, Longitudinal than 80% & length not over than 80% & length not over
2b, Transverse 10% of circumference 10% of circumference
F: Fatigue Cracks None None None
2. Interior Condition
Remaining wall not less than Remaining wall not less than
Corrosion Picking
A: 80% measured from base of 70% measured from base of
Wall
deepest pit deepest pit
Erosion & Wear Remaining wall not less than Remaining wall not less than
B:
Wall 80% 70%
C: Fatigue Cracks None None None

Table 6 - Classification of used drill-pipe & used tubing work strings

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5. Drill-Collars

Drill-Collars are tubulars which have a much larger outer diameter and generally smaller inner
diameter than drill-pipe. A typical drill-string would consist of 9″ O.D. x 213/16″ I.D. drill-collars
and 5″ O.D. x 4.276″ I.D. drill-pipe. The drill-collars therefore have a significantly thicker wall
than drill-pipe. The function of drill-collars are:

To provide enough weight on bit (WOB) for efficient drilling.

To keep the drill-string in tension, thereby reducing bending stresses and failures due to fatigue.

To provide stiffness in the Bottom Hole Assemblies (BHA) for directional control.

Figure 5 - ‘Heavyweight’ drill-pipe

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Since the drill-collars have such a large wall thickness tool-joints are not necessary and the
connection threads can be machined directly onto the body of the collar. The weakest point in
the drill-collars is the connection, and therefore the correct make up torque must be applied to
prevent failure. The external surface of a regular collar is round (slick), although other profiles
are available.

Drill-collars are normally supplied in Range 2 lengths (27-30 ft). The collars are manufactured
from chrome-molybdenum alloy, which is fully heat treated over the entire length. The bore of
the collar is accurately machined to ensure a smooth, balanced rotation. Drill-collars are
produced in a large range of sizes with various types of joint connection. The sizes and weight
per foot of a range of drill-collar sizes are shown in Table 14. The weights that are quoted in
Table 14 are the ‘weight in air’ of the drill-collars.

It is very important that proper care is taken when handling drill-collars. The shoulders and
threads must be lubricated with the correct lubricant (containing 40-60% powdered metallic-
zinc or lead).

Like drill-pipe, collars are subjected to stresses due to:

Buckling and bending forces.

Tension.

Vibrations.

Alternate compression and tension.

However, if properly made up, the shoulder/shoulder connection will be sufficient to resist
these stresses. Figure 6 shows how numbered connections should be selected to provide an
efficient seal, and adequate strength.

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 Figure 6 - Numbered connections

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5.1 Special Types of Collar

Anti-wall stick
When drilling through certain formations the large diameter drill-collars can become stuck
against the borehole (differential sticking). This is likely to happen when the formation is
highly porous, a large overbalance of mud pressure is being used, and/or the well is highly
deviated. One method of preventing this problem is to reduce the contact area of the collar
against the well-bore. Spiral grooves can be cut into the surface of the collar to reduce its
surface area (Figure 7).

Figure 7 - Spiral drill-collar

Square collars
These collars are usually 1/16″ less than bit size, and are run to provide maximum stabilisation of
the bottom hole assembly.

Monel collars
These collars are made of a special non-magnetic steel alloy. Their purpose is to isolate
directional survey instruments from magnetic distortion due to the steel drill-string.

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-String 18

6. Other Drill-String Components

6.1 Stabilisers
Stabilisers consist of a length of pipe with blades on the external surface. These blades may be
either straight or spiral and there are numerous designs of stabilisers (Figure 8). The blades can
either be fixed onto the body of the pipe, or mounted on a rubber sleeve (sleeve stabiliser),
which allows the drill-string to rotate within it.

Figure 8 - Stabilizers

The function of the stabiliser depends on the type of hole being drilled. In this section we are
concerned only with drilling vertical holes. Drilling deviated holes will be dealt with later. In
vertical holes the functions of stabilisers may be summarised as follows:

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 Reduce buckling and bending stresses on drill-collars.

Allow higher WOB since the string remains concentric even in compression.

Increase bit life by reducing wobble.

Help to prevent wall sticking.

Act as a key seat wiper when placed at top of collars.

Generally, for a straight hole, the stabilisers are positioned as shown in Figure 9. Normally the
stabilisers used will have 3 blades, each having a contact angle of 140° (open design). When
stabilisers begin to wear they become undergauge and are less efficient. Stabilisers are usually
replaced if they become ½″ undergauge (3/16″ undergauge may be enough in some instances).

Figure 9 - Stabiliser positions for straight hole drilling

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6.2 Subs (Substitutes)
Subs are short joints of pipe which act as crossovers (i.e. connect components which cannot
otherwise be screwed together because of differences in thread type or size).

6.3 Drilling Jars

The purpose of these tools is to deliver a sharp blow to free the pipe if it becomes stuck in the
hole. Hydraulic jars are activated by a straight pull and give an upward blow. Mechanical jars
are preset at surface to operate when a given compression load is applied and give a downward
blow. Jars are usually positioned at the top of the drill-collars.

6.4 Roller Reamer

A roller reamer consists of stabiliser blades with rollers embedded into surface of the blade. The
rollers may be made from high grade carburised steel or have tungsten carbide inserts (Figure
10). The roller reamer acts as a stabiliser and is especially useful in maintaining gauge hole. It
will also ream out any potential hole problems (e.g. dog legs, key seats, ledges).

Figure 10 - Roller reamers

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6.5 Shock Sub (Vibration Dampener)
A shock sub is normally located above the bit to reduce the stress due to bouncing when the bit
is drilling through hard rock. The shock sub absorbs the vertical vibration either by using a
strong steel spring, or a resilient rubber element (Figure 11).

Figure 11 - Shock sub

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7. Drill-String Design

There are four basic requirements which must be met when designing a drill-string:

e burst, collapse and tensile strength of the drill-string components must not be exceeded.

e bending stresses within the drill-string must be minimised.

e drill-collars must be able to provide all of the weight required for drilling.

e BHA must be stabilised to control the direction of the well.

7.1 Design of a Stabilised String

A drilling bit does not normally drill a vertical hole. This is partly due to the forces acting on
the string by sloping laminar formations. When the slope (or ‘dip’) of the beds is less than 45°
the bit tends to drill up-dip (perpendicular to the layers). If the dip is greater than 45° it tends
to drill parallel to the layers (see Figure 12). In hard rock, where greater WOB is applied, the
resulting compression and bending of the drill-string may cause further deviation.

Figure 12 - Drilling through dipping strata

There are two techniques for controlling deviation:

Packed hole assembly (Figure 13) - is is a ‘stiff’ assembly, consisting of reamers, drill-collars
and stabilisers. e purpose of this design is to align the bit with the hole already drilled and
minimise the rate of change in deviation.

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 Pendulum assembly (Figure 13) - e first stabiliser of a pendulum assembly is placed some
distance behind the bit. e unsupported section of drill-collar swings to the low side of the
hole. A pendulum assembly will therefore tend to decrease the angle of deviation of the hole
and tend to produce a vertical hole. is will tend to reduce deviation. e distance ‘L’ from the
bit up to the point of wall contact is important, since this determines the pendulum force. To
increase this distance, a stabiliser can be positioned some distance above the bit. If placed too
high the collars will sag against the hole, and reduce the pendulum force. e optimum position
for the stabiliser is usually based on experience, although theoretical calculations can be done.
When changing the hole angle it must be done smoothly to avoid dog legs (abrupt changes in
hole angle). e method of calculating dog leg severity will be given later. Some typical Bottom
Hole Assemblies (BHA’s), for different drilling conditions, are given in Figure 14.

Figure 13 - Pendulum effect

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 Figure 14 - Typical BHA’s

7.2 Bending Moments in String Design

A useful parameter when considering bending of the drill-string is the:

I Moment of Inertia
section modulus =
C Extenal radius of tube

Field results have shown that if the ratio of section modulus between various string components
is kept below 5.5, the failure rate is reduced. The section modulus ratio for a variety of drill-pipe
sizes is given in Table 8. In larger holes, or more severe drilling conditions, the ratio should be
kept below 3.5 (Table 10). Essentially these guidelines will eliminate abrupt changes in cross
sectional area throughout the drill-string. The selection of suitable HWDP’s to run above
collars is simplified in Figure 15, which gives guidelines based on the extent of deviation in the
hole.

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 Figure 15 - Typical BHA’s for straight hole drilling

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 26

 Section Modulus Values
Nominal pipe weight
Pipe O.D. inches I/C
(lb./)
4.85 0.66
2⅜
6.65 0.87
6.85 1.12
2⅞
10.40 0.87
9.50 1.96
3½ 13.30 2.57
15.50 2.92
11.85 2.70
4 14.00 3.22
15.70 3.58
13.75 3.59
4½ 216.60 4.27
20.00 5.17
19.50 5.71
5
25.60 7.25

Table 8 - I/C Data for drill-string components

7.3 Length of Drill-Collars

The length of drill-collars, (L) that are required for a particular drilling situation depends on
the Weight on Bit (WOB), that is required to optimise the rate of penetration of the bit, and the
buoyant weight per foot (w), of the drill-collars to be used, and can be calculated from the
following:

If the drill-pipe is to remain in tension throughout the drilling process, drill-collars will have to
be added to the bottom of the drill-string. The buoyant weight of these additional drill-collars
must exceed the buoyant force on the drill-pipe.

This will be sufficient to ensure that when the entire weight of the drill-collars is allowed to rest
on the bit, then the optimum weight on bit will be applied. The WOB will however vary as the
formation below the bit is drilled away, and therefore the length of the drill-collars is generally
increased by an additional 15%. Hence the length of drill-collars will be 1.15L.

7.4 Drill-pipe Selection

The main factors considered in the selection of drill-pipe are the collapse load, and the tensile
load on the pipe. Burst pressures are not generally considered since these only occur when
pressuring up the string on a plugged bit nozzle, or during a DST, it is very unlikely that the
burst resistance of the pipe will be exceeded. Torsion need not be considered except in a highly
deviated well.

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 27

Once the collapse and tension load have been quantified, the appropriate weight and grade of
drill-pipe can be selected.

7.5 Collapse Load

The highest external pressure tending to collapse the string will occur at the bottom when the
string is run empty into the hole. (This only occurs when running a Drill-Stem Test - DST tool).
If a non-return valve is run (preventing upward flow of fluid into the drill-pipe) it is normally
standard practice to fill up the pipe at regular intervals when running in. The highest
anticipated external pressure on the pipe is given by

Pc = 0.052 x MW xxTVD
where;

Pc = Collapse pressure
MW = Mud weight ( ppg.)
TVD = True vertical depth( ft)at
at which
which PPcc acts
acts

This assumes that there is no fluid inside the pipe to resist the external pressure. The collapse
resistance of new and used drill-pipe are given in Tables 11(a) and 12. The collapse resistance of
the drill-pipe is generally de-rated by a design factor (i.e. divide the collapse rating by 1.125). A
suitable grade and weight of drill-pipe must be selected whose de-rated collapse resistance is
greater than Pc. This string must then be checked for tension.

7.6 Tension Load

The tensile resistance of drill-pipe, as given in Table 11(a) and 12, is also usually de-rated by a
design factor (i.e. divide the tension rating by 1.15). The tension loading can be calculated from
the known weights of the drill-collars, and drill-pipe, below the point of interest.

The effect of buoyancy on the drill-string weight, and therefore the tension, must also be
considered. Buoyancy forces are exerted on exposed horizontal surfaces and may act upwards or
downwards. These exposed surfaces occur where there is a change in cross-sectional area
between different sections (Figure 16). By starting at the bottom of the string and working up to
the top, the tension loading can be determined for each depth. This is represented graphically
by the tension loading line (Figure 16).

If the drill-pipe is to remain in tension throughout the drilling process, drill-collars will have to
be added to the bottom of the drill-string. The buoyant weight of the drill-collars must exceed
the buoyant force on the drill-pipe, and the neutral point shown in Figure 16 must be within the
length of the drill-collars. The drill-collars required to provide WOB discussed previously must
be added to the drill-collars required to maintain the drill-string in tension.

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 28

 Figure 16 - Axial load on the drill-string

When selecting the drill-pipe, the maximum tensile load that the string could be subjected to
will have to be considered. In addition to the design load calculated on the basis of the string
hanging freely in the well-bore, the following safety factors and margins are generally added:

Design Factor - a design factor is generally added to the loading line determined above
(multiply by 1.3). is allows for extra loads due to rapid acceleration of the pipe.

Margin of Overpull - a ‘Margin of OverPull’ (MOP) is generally added to the loading line
calculated above. is allows for the extra forces applied to the drill-string when pulling on
stuck pipe. e MOP is the tension in excess of the drill-string weight which is exerted. e
MOP may be 50,000 - 100,000 lbs.

Safety Factor - a safety factor for slip crushing is generally added to the loading line calculated
above. is allows for the interaction of hoopstress caused by the slips, and the tensile stress
caused by the weight of the string. is effect reduces the allowable tension load.

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 29

 Hole DC/DP (OD x ID) I/C Ratio of I/C Remarks
DC 9' " x 3" 83.8
1.5 Not
17½" DC 81/4 " x 213/16 " 55.9
9.8 recommended
DP 5 " x 4.276 " 5.7
DC 9' " x 3" 83.8 1.5
DC 81/4" x 213/16" 55.9 Not
17½" 7.1
DP 5" x 4.670" 7.8 recommended
1.4
DP 5" x 4.276" 5.7
DC 9' " x 3" 83.8 1.5
DC 81/4" x 213/16" 55.9 OK for so
17½" 5.2
HWDP 5" x 3" 10.9 formations
1.9
DP 5" x 4.276" 5.7
DC 9' " x3" 83.8
1.5
DC 81/4" x 213/16" 55.9 OK for hard
17½" 2.5
DC 61/4" x 213/16" 22.7 formations
3.9
DP 5" x 4.276" 5.7
DC 9' " x3" 83.8
1.5
DC 81/4" x 213/16" 55.9 OK for hard
12¼" 2.5
DC 61/4" x 213/16" 22.7 formations
3.9
DP 5" x 4.276" 5.7
DC 9' " x 3" 83.8 1.5
DC 81/4" x 213/16" 55.9 OK for so
12¼" 5.2
HWDP 5" x 3" 10.7 formations
1.9
DP 5" x 19.5" 5.7
DC 61/4" x 213/16" 22.7
8½" 3.9 OK
DP 5" x 4.276" 5.7
DC 61/4" x 213/16" 22.7
2.1
8½" HWDP 5" x 3" 10.7
1.9
DP 5" x 4.276" 5.7

Table 10 - Drill-Pipe / Drill-Collar combinations

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 30

 New Drill-Pipe Data
Nominal Wt.
Size O.D. in Grade E Grade 95 Grade 105 Grade 135
per . lbs.
TORSION: Torsional Yield Strength . -lbs
3½″ 13.30 18,520 23,460 25,930 33,330
15.50 21,050 26,660 29,470 37,890

4½″ 16.60 30,750 38,950 43,050 55,350

20.00 36,840 46,660 51,570 66,300

5″ 19.50 41,090 52,050 57,530 73,970

25.60 52,160 66,070 73,030 93,900
TENSION: Minimum Values Load at the Minimum Yield Strength, lbs
3½″ 13.30 271,570 343,990 380,190 488,820
15.50 322,780 408,850 451,890 581,000

4½″ 16.60 330,560 418,700 462,780 595,000

20.00 412,360 522,320 577,300 742,240

5″ 19.50 395,500 501,090 553,830 712,070

25.60 530,140 671,520 742,200 954,260
COLLAPSE: Based on Minimum Values, psi
3½″ 13.30 14,110 17,880 19,760 21,170
15.50 16,770 21,250 23,480 25,150

4½″ 16.60 10,390 12,750 13,820 15,590

20.00 12,960 16,420 18,150 19,440

5″ 19.50 10,000 12,010 12,990 15,110

25.60 13,500 17,100 18,900 20,250
BURST: Internal Pressure at Minimum Yield Strength, psi
3½″ 13.30 13,800 17,480 19,320 24,840
15.50 16,840 21,330 23,570 30,310

4½″ 16.60 9,830 12,450 13,760 17,690

20.00 12,540 15,890 17,560 22,580

5″ 19.50 9,500 12,040 13,300 17,110

25.60 13,120 16,620 18,380 23,620

Table 11(a) - Ratings for new drill-pipe

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 31

 Used Drill-Pipe Data, A.P.I “Premium” Class
Nominal Wt.
Size O.D. in Grade E Grade 95 Grade 105 Grade 135
per . lbs.
Torsional Yield Strength, based on 20% Uniform Wear, . -lbs
3½″ 13.30 14,340 18,160 20,070 25,800
15.50 16,120 20,420 22,560 29,010

4½″ 16.60 24,100 30,520 33,740 43,370

20.00 28,630 36,270 40,090 51,540

5″ 19.50 32,230 40,820 45,120 58,010

25.60 40,470 51,270 56,660 72,850
Minimum Yield Load, based on 20% Uniform Wear, lbs
3½″ 13.30 212,250 268,850 297,150 382,050
15.50 250,500 317,300 305,700 450,900

4½″ 16.60 260,100 329,460 364,140 468,180

20.00 322,950 409,070 452,130 581,310

Table 11(b) - Ratings for new drill-pipe (‘Premium’)

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 32

 Used Drill-Pipe Data, A.P.I Class 2
Nominal Wt.
Size O.D. in Grade E Grade 95 Grade 105 Grade 135
per . lbs.
TORSION: Torsional Yield Strength based on 35% eccentric wear, . -lbs
3½″ 13.30 11,170 14,830 16,390 21,070
15.50 13,160 16,670 18,430 23,690

4½″ 16.60 19,680 24,920 27,550 35,420

20.00 23,380 29,620 32,740 42,090

5″ 19.50 26,320 33,330 36,840 27,370

25.60 33,050 41,870 46,270 59,490
TENSION: Minimum Values Load based on 20% Uniform Wear, lbs
3½″ 13.30 212,250 268,850 297,150 382,050
15.50 250,500 317,300 305,700 450,900

4½″ 16.60 260,100 329,460 364,140 468,180

20.00 322,950 409,070 452,130 581,310

5″ 19.50 311,400 394,440 435,960 560,520

25.60 417,500 535,000 585,000 750,000
COLLAPSE: Minimum Collapse Pressure based on 65% Nominal Wall, psi
3½″ 13.30 9,180 11,660 12,950 16,190
15.50 11,000 13,970 15,520 19,400

4½″ 16.60 5,660 7,020 7,700 9,060

20.00 8,280 10,600 11,800 14,840

5″ 19.50 5,370 6,630 7,250 8,230

25.60 8,770 11,140 12,380 15,470
BURST: Minimum Burst Pressure based on 65% Nominal Wall, psi
3½″ 13.30 10,240 12,970 14,340 18,440
15.50 12,510 15,580 17,520 22,530

4½″ 16.60 7,300 9,250 10,220 13,140

20.00 9,330 11,820 13,070 16,800

5″ 19.50 7,080 8,970 9,910 12,740

25.60 9,750 12,350 13,650 17,550

Table 12 - Ratings for class 2 used drill-pipe

Note: The “Premium” - class pipe is recommended for service where it is anticipated that the torsional
limits for Class 2 pipe will be exceeded.
The data for Tension, Collapse and Burst are the same for “Premium” - class pipe as for class 2 pipe.
Only the data for Torque are differet.

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 33

 Capacity and Displacement of Drill-Pipe
Capacity Open End Closed End
Nominal
Size & Approx. Weight Displacement Displacement
Weight Grade
Conn. lb./
lb./
L/M Gall/FT L/M Gall/FT L/M Gall/FT

2⅜
E75 7.00 1.39 0.107 3.01 0.242
2⅜ IF 6.65 X95 7.08 1.68 0.135 1.34 0.108 3.02 0.243
G105 7.08 1.34 0.108 3.02 0.243
NC 26
2⅞
E74 10.82 2.05 0.165 4.41 0.355
X95 10.89 2.06 0.166 4.42 0.456
2⅞ IF 10.4 2.36 0.190
G105 10.89 2.06 0.166 4.42 0.356
S135 11.20 2.12 0.171 4.48 0.361
NC 31
9.5 E75 10.39 4.54 0.366 1.97 0.159 6.51 0.525

3½ 13.3 E75 13.86 3.88 0.312 2.63 0.212 6.51 0.542

X95 14.32 3.96 0.319 2.71 0.218 6.67 0.537
3½ IF G105 14.38 3.87 0.312 2.73 0.220 6.60 0.532

NC38 15.5 E75 16.42 3.11 0.250 6.57 0.529

X95 16.54 3.46 0.279 3.14 0.253 6.60 0.532
G105 16.61 3.15 0.254 6.61 0.533
E75 20.99 3.98 0.250 13.14 1.058
X95 21.09 4.00 0.322 13.16 1.070
5 19.5
G105 21.50 9.16 0.738 4.08 0.329 13.24 1.087
S135 22.09 4.19 0.337 13.35 1.075
4½ IF
E75 27.01 8.11 0.653 5.12 0.412 13.23 1.065
NC50 25.6
X95 28.30 8.10 0.652 5.36 0.432 13.46 1084
G105 28.11 8.09 0.651 5.33 0.429 13.42 1.080

Table 13 - Specifications of various sizes of drill-pipe

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 34

 lbs/ft = 2.67 (OD2 - ID2)

Table 14 - Drill-collar weights

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 35

 Gradient Buoyancy Gradient Buoyancy
Mud Density Mud Density
psi/ Factor psi/ Factor
kg/m3 lb./gall lb./3 kg/m3 lb./gall lb./3
1000 8.34 62.4 0.433 0.873 1800 15.0 112 0.779 0.771
1010 8.40 62.8 0.436 0.872 1820 15.2 114 0.790 0.768
1030 8.50 64.3 0.447 0.869 1850 15.4 115 0.800 0.765
1060 8.80 65.8 0.457 0.866 1870 15.6 117 0.810 0.762
1080 9.00 67.3 0.468 0.862 1890 15.8 118 0.821 0.759

1100 9.20 68.8 0.478 0.860 1920 16.0 120 0.831 0.755
1130 9.40 70.3 0.488 0.856 1940 16.2 121 0.842 0.753
1150 9.60 71.8 0.499 0.853 1970 16.4 123 0.852 0.749
1154 9.625 72.0 0.500 0.853 1990 16.6 124 0.862 0.746
1180 9.80 73.3 0.509 0.850 2010 16.8 126 0.873 0.743

1200 10.0 74.8 0.519 0.847 2040 17.0 127 0.883 0.740
1220 10.2 76.3 0.530 0.844 2060 17.2 129 0.894 0.737
1250 10.4 77.8 0.540 0.841 2090 17.4 130 0.904 0.734
1270 10.6 79.3 0.551 0.838 2110 17.6 132 0.914 0.731
1290 10.8 80.8 0.561 0.835 2130 17.8 133 0.925 0.728

1320 11.0 82.3 0.571 0.832 2160 18.0 135 0.935 0.725
1340 11.2 83.8 0.582 0.829 2180 18.2 136 0.945 0.722
1370 11.4 85.3 0.592 0.826 2210 18.4 138 0.956 0.719
1390 11.6 86.8 0.603 0.823 2230 18.6 139 0.966 0.716
1410 11.8 88.3 0.613 0.820 2250 18.8 141 0.977 0.713

1440 12.0 89.8 0.623 0.817 2280 19.0 142 0.987 0.710
1460 12.2 91.3 0.634 0.814 2300 19.2 144 0.997 0.707
1490 12.4 92.8 0.644 0.810 2330 19.4 145 1.01 0.704
1510 12.6 94.3 0.655 0.808 2350 19.6 147 1.02 0.701
1530 12.8 95.8 0.665 0.804 2370 19.8 148 1.03 0.698

1560 13.0 97.3 0.675 0.801 2400 20.0 150 1.04 0.694
1580 13.2 98.7 0.686 0.798 2420 20.2 151 1.05 0.692
1610 13.4 100 0.696 0.795 2450 20.4 153 1.06 0.688
1630 13.6 102 0.706 0.792 2470 20.6 154 1.07 0.685
1650 13.8 102 0.717 0.789 2490 20.8 156 1.08 0.682

1680 14.0 105 0.727 0.786 2520 21.0 157 1.09 0.679
1700 14.2 106 0.738 0.783 2540 21.2 159 1.10 0.676
1730 14.4 108 0.748 0.780 2570 21.4 160 1.11 0.673
1750 14.6 109 0.758 0.777 2590 21.6 162 1.12 0.670
1770 14.8 111 0.769 0.774 2610 21.8 163 1.13 0.667

Table 15 - Buoyancy factors

Introduction to Well Engineering - 03 - The Drill-string 36