Introduction

Heat and Mass Transfer • One-dimensional heat conduction is described by a

single space coordinate and thus heat transfer in other
directions are negligible or zero.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
Chapter 2 Rectangular T(x, y, z)
Cylindrical T(r, φ, z)
Spherical T(r, φ, θ)
One-dimensional Steady State Conduction • Steady state heat conduction is described by the
temperature or heat flux remains unchanged with time at
any fixed point in a conductor medium.
By: Yacob Gebreyohannes
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Chapter Objectives Chapter Outline

The objectives of this chapter are:
• To develop understanding of Fourier’s law. What are its
origins? What form does it take for different geometries?
• To develop, from basic principles, the general equation,
termed the heat equation, which governs the temperature
distribution in a medium that may then be used with Fourier’s
law to determine the heat flux.
• To develop, from basic principles, the thermal resistance,
overall heat transfer coefficient, and thermal insulation.
• To develop understanding of how does proportionality constant
(the thermal conductivity) depend on the physical nature of
the medium.
• The Heat Diffusion Equations
• Boundary and Initial conditions
• Steady state conduction with out thermal energy generation
• Thermal resistance and the over all heat transfer coefficient
• The effect of variable thermal conductivity
• Thermal insulation
• Steady state conduction with thermal energy generation
• Heat transfer from extended surfaces

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 The General Heat Diffusion Equation
Rectangular Coordinate
• Consider the following control volume in space defined by dxdydz
• The conduction heat rates
perpendicular to each of the control
surface at the x,y,z coordinates are
indicated by the terms
• The conduction heat rates at the
opposite surfaces can then be
expressed as
• With in the medium there may also be energy source term associated
with the rate of thermal energy generation. Heat generation is a
volumetric phenomenon. That is, it occurs throughout the body of a
medium. Therefore, the rate of heat generation in a medium is
specified per unit volume (denoted by )( unit is W/m3).
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The General Heat Diffusion Equation
• On a rate basis, the general form of the conservation of energy is:
• Using Taylor series expansion and neglecting the higher order
derivatives
• From Fourier’s law of conduction, We have
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The General Heat Diffusion Equation
• In the special case of uniform heat generation, as in the case of
electric resistance heating throughout a homogeneous material, this
is represented by
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well
as position within the medium. When the variation of heat
generation with position is known, the total rate of heat generation
in a medium of volume V can be determined from
• In addition there may occur changes with time in the internal
energy stored with in the system, and this is represented as:
• Here the latent heat is neglected only the time rate of change of
the sensible energy of the medium per unit volume.
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The General Heat Diffusion Equation
• Substituting and arranging the previous equations we can reach at the
general heat diffusion equation:
• If the thermal conductivity (k) is constant the above equation can be
simplified as:
Where is the thermal diffusivity
• Defining the Laplacian or del operator as:
• Hence the general equation reduces:
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 The General Heat Diffusion Equation
• Case 1: No heat generation
Fourier’s equation
• Case 2: Steady state conduction
Poisson’s equation
• Case 3: No heat generation and steady state conduction
Laplace equation
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One-dimensional Heat Conduction in a wall
Wall model
• Consider a rectangular element
of thickness L in a wall, as shown
in Figure. Assume the density of
the wall is r, the specific heat is
C, and the area of the element
normal to the direction of heat
transfer is A.
For constant K
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The General Heat Diffusion Equation
Cylindrical coordinate
Spherical coordinate
Assignment: Show that the above equations can be
solved from the previous equation
for rectangular coordinates.
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One-dimensional Heat Conduction in a Cylinder
Cylinder model
• Consider a thin cylindrical shell
element of thickness r in a long
cylinder, as shown in Figure. Assume
the density of the cylinder is r, the
specific heat is C, and the length is L,
the area of the cylinder normal to
the direction of heat transfer at any
location is A=2rL where r is the
value of the radius at that location.
Heat transfer area A depends on r in
this case, and thus it varies with
location.
• An energy balance on this thin
cylindrical shell element during a
small time interval ∆t can be
expressed as:
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 One-dimensional Heat Conduction in a Sphere
Sphere model
• Consider a sphere with density r,
specific heat C, and outer radius R.
• The area of the sphere normal to the
direction of heat transfer at any
location is A=4pr2, where r is the
value of the radius at that location.
Note that the heat transfer area A
depends on r in this case also, and
thus it varies with location.
• By considering a thin spherical shell
element of thickness ∆r and
repeating the approach described
before for the cylinder by using
A=4pr2 instead of A=2rL, the one-
dimensional heat conduction
equation for a sphere is determined.
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Boundary and Initial Conditions
• To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is
necessary to solve the appropriate form of the heat equation.
• However, such a solution depends on the physical conditions
existing at the boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is
time dependent, on conditions existing in the medium at some
initial time.
• With regard to the boundary conditions, there are several
common possibilities that are simply expressed in mathematical
form.
• A condition, which is usually specified at time t=0, is called the
initial condition, which is a mathematical expression for the
temperature distribution of the medium initially.
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Boundary and Initial Conditions Boundary and Initial Conditions

• Because the heat equation is second order in the spatial
coordinates, two boundary conditions must be expressed
for each coordinate needed to describe the system.
• Because the equation is first order in time, however, only one
condition, termed the initial condition, must be specified. Three kinds of
boundary conditions
commonly encountered
in heat transfer are:

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 The Plane Wall: Steady state with no energy generation The Plane Wall: Steady state with no energy generation
• Consider a slab of thickness ∆x with one-dimensional heat conduction in the x- Now, substituting in to the general solution equation
direction.
• The air temperatures inside and outside the wall remain constant, then heat
transfer through the wall is modeled as steady.
• Noting that heat transfer is the only energy interaction and there is no heat • Thus, we can say that for one-dimensional steady state with no
generation.
heat generation conduction in a plane wall and constant thermal
conductivity, the temperature varies linearly with x.
Boundary conditions at x=0, T=Ts,1 and x=L, T=Ts,2 Now, the heat transfer rate is determined from the Fourier’s law as:
Now, the equation can be integrated twice to get the
solution
Applying the boundary conditions at x = 0 Where A is the area of the wall normal to the heat flow and it is
constant independent of x. The heat flux is given by:
Applying the boundary conditions at x = L

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Example The effect of variable thermal conductivity

Calculate the rate of heat loss for a redbrick wall of length 5m, height

In practice, the thermal conductivity of most materials is
4m and thickness 0.25m. The temperature of the inner surface is
temperature dependent. Under normal circumstances, for limited
1100C and that of the outer surface 400C. The thermal conductivity
range of temperature it is sufficiently accurate to use the linear
of red brick is K=0.7w/mk. Calculate also the temperature at the
expression for K as:
interior point of the wall 20cm distant from the inner wall.

Where K0 is the thermal conductivity at T=0 and B is the

temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity

Assignment: Show that the temperature gradient between two surfaces Consider a plane wall with length L
for cylinder and sphere are given as shown below: having boundary at x = 0, T = T1 and at
x = L, T = T2.

Cylinder Sphere
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 The effect of variable thermal conductivity The effect of variable thermal conductivity
For one-dimensional, steady-state with out heat generation From
and
But

Now, integrating Again integrating

Applying the boundary conditions

The quantity in the bracket is the thermal conductivity evaluated at
the mean or average temperature Tm of the wall, hence
Now, substituting all
Thus, the thermal conductivity evaluated at Tm and the heat transfer
rate are:
Check!
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The effect of variable thermal conductivity
If a hollow cylinder or sphere consists of a material for which the
thermal conductivity varies linearly with temperature, a similar
procedure will allow us to determine the temperature profile and heat
flux through these materials.
For a hollow Cylinder For a hollow Sphere
Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• The thermal resistance for heat conduction is defined as the
conduction resistance of a medium and depends on the geometry
and thermal properties of the medium.
• It is given by the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate.
• The thermal resistance concept for heat conduction through a
plane wall is similar to the electrical current resistance.

• For electrical conduction Ohm’s law provides

• Similarly, consider the Fourier’s law for one-
Where i- inside dimensional conduction
o-outside
Where R is defined as the thermal
resistance to conduction of heat across
Reading Assignment!
the material.
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 Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

• A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by • A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by
convection at a surface. radiation at a surface.
From Newton’s law of cooling

• When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ∞),

the convection resistance becomes zero and Ts ≈ T.
• That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it
does not slow down the heat transfer process.
• This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling
and condensation occur.
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Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

• A thermal resistance may also be associated with heat transfer by The value of thermal contact resistance depends on:
thermal contact at a surface. • Surface roughness
• When two such surfaces
are pressed against each • Material properties
other, the peaks form • Temperature and pressure at the interface
good material contact but
the valleys form voids
• Type of fluid trapped at the interface
filled with air.
• These numerous air gaps
of varying sizes act as
insulation because of the hc thermal contact conductance
low thermal conductivity
of air.
• Thus, an interface offers
some resistance to heat
transfer, and this
resistance per unit
interface area is called the
thermal contact resistance,
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Rc.
 Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

• The over all heat transfer coefficient for heat conduction

through a plane wall is defined as the ratio of the overall
temperature difference to the sum of the thermal resistance.
• Now consider a plane wall with convective surfaces as shown
below:

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Thermal Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient The overall resistance of two layers
• The overall heat transfer coefficient U for combined conduction Consider a plane wall that consists of two layers (such as a brick wall
and convection is defined by the relation with a layer of insulation). The rate of steady heat transfer through this
two-layer composite wall can be expressed as:

• The overall heat transfer coefficient U is then defined as:

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 The overall resistance of two layers Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks
• Two assumptions in solving complex multidimensional heat
transfer problems by treating them as one-dimensional using the
thermal resistance network are:
(1)Any plane wall normal to the x-axis is isothermal (i.e., to
assume the temperature to vary in the x-direction only)
(2)Any plane parallel to the x-axis is adiabatic (i.e., to assume
heat transfer to occur in the x-direction only)
• The thermal resistance network, which consists of two parallel
resistances, can be represented as shown in the figure next. Noting
that the total heat transfer is the sum of the heat transfers through
each layer we have.

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Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks Thermal Resistance of Cylinder and Sphere

Thermal resistance network Thermal resistance network
for two parallel layers. for combined series-parallel
arrangement.
Cylindrical and Spherical systems often experience temperature
gradient in the radial direction only.
Consider a common hollow tube, whose inner and
outer surfaces are exposed to fluids at different
temperatures for steady state, one-dimensional
with no heat generation, the conduction equation
is:
Boundary Conditions T(r1)=T1 and T(r2)=T2
Assuming the thermal conductivity K is constant
and integrating the above equation twice

Applying the boundary conditions at r = r1

Applying the boundary conditions at r = r2

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 Thermal Resistance of Cylinder and Sphere Thermal Resistance of Cylinder and Sphere

Up on substitution

Applying the Fourier’s equation A spherical shell with specified

inner and outer surface
For cylinder temperatures T1 and T2.

Now

Where is the thermal resistance to conduction in the radial direction

For Convection

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Thermal Resistance of Cylinder and Sphere Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Cylinder

The thermal resistance network for a cylindrical (or spherical) shell For a multi layer cylinder a pipe covered with insulation is a perfect
subjected to convection from both the inner and the outer sides is given example
by: Consider the thermal
For Cylinder resistance network for
heat transfer through a
three-layered composite
cylinder subjected to
convection on both
For a sphere sides.

Show!
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 Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Cylinder Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Cylinder
The heat transfer rate is given by: If U is defined in terms of the heat transfer area A1 = 2pr1L

The heat transfer rate can also be written in terms of the overall
heat transfer coefficient U as:

Where
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Thermal Resistance of Multilayer Cylinder Thermal Insulation

• Thermal Insulation is primarily required to provide resistance to
Let heat flow and thereby reduce heat transfer through surfaces.
• We can slow down the heat flow between two mediums at different
temperatures by putting “barriers” on the path of heat flow.
Thermal insulations materials serve as such barriers.
• There are a wide variety of insulation materials available in the
market, but most are primarily made of fiberglass, mineral wool,
polyethylene, foam, or calcium silicate.
• Thermal Insulation is required mainly for:
Assignment: • Energy Conservation
• Personnel Protection and Comfort
Drive the heat transfer rate with respect to the outside over all heat • Maintaining Process Temperature
transfer coefficient (U2) and outside area (A2) • Reducing Temperature Variation and Fluctuations
• Condensation and Corrosion Prevention
• Fire Protection
• Freezing Protection
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• Reducing Noise and Vibration
 Critical radius of insulation

Contrary to the common belief that the addition of insulating
materials on a surface always reduce the amount of heat flow to the
ambient, there are instances in which the addition to the outside
surface of cylindrical or spherical walls does not reduce the heat
loss. Hence determining the optimum thickness of insulation is
desired to have an economical insulation.

Now consider a hollow cylinder of radius r1 kept at temperature T1.
The insulation layer which covers the cylinder is of radius r2 at T2.
The cylinder is exposed to convection from outside.
From the thermal network
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Critical radius of insulation
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Critical radius of insulation

An increase in r2 increases conduction resistance of insulation
but decreases surface convective resistance due to higher surface
area. Depending on the change of the total resistance with r2 the
addition of insulation can either decrease or increase the rate of
heat transfer.

The critical insulation thickness could be associated with the value
of r2 which minimize heat transfer rate or maximize the total
resistance.

Performing the differentiation and solving for r2 yields the
critical radius of insulation.
Check!
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Example
The door of a cold storage plant is made from two 6 mm tick glass
sheets separated by a uniform air gap of 2 mm. The temperature
of the air inside the room is -200C and the ambient air temperature
is 300C. Assuming the transfer coefficient between glass and air to
be 23.26 w/m2K, determine the rate of heat leaking in to the room
per unit area of the door. Neglecting convective effects in the air
gap, Kglass = 0.75 w/mK, Kair = 0.02 w/mK.
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 Example Summary
A typical domestic central heating installation utilizes approximately One-dimensional steady state solutions to the heat equation with no generation
50 m long, 15 mm outside diameter and 1 mm wall thickness copper
pipe to convey water at 700C. Calculate the heat loss from this length
of pipe, with a 15 mm radial thickness of insulation and compare
this to the value with out insulation. Take the ambient air
temperature as 150C and the respective values of internal and
external heat transfer coefficient as 100 w/m2K and 8 w/m2K. The
thermal conductivity of copper is 400 w/mK and the thermal
conductivity of the insulation is 0.05 w/mK.

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Conduction with thermal energy generation Conduction with thermal energy generation
• Heat transfer systems involving internal energy sources include • Boundary Conditions
chemical and nuclear reactors in which energy generated by
chemical reaction or by interaction of nuclear particles. • Solving for the constants
The Plane Wall
• Consider the plane wall of the figure below, in which there is
uniform energy generation per unit volume (q is const) and the • For which the general equation becomes
surfaces are maintained at Ts,1 and Ts,2. For constant thermal
conductivity K, the appropriate equation is

• If the temperatures Ts,1 and Ts,2 (i.e Ts,1 = Ts,2 =Ts ) are equal then the
Integrating the equation twice, the temperature distribution is symmetrical about the mid point as
general solution becomes shown below and is given by

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 Conduction with thermal energy generation Conduction with thermal energy generation
• The maximum temperature exists at the mid plane and is given by Cylindrical Systems
• For constant thermal conductivity the conduction equation with
heat generation in a cylindrical system is:
• Note: it is important to note that at the plane of symmetry shown
in the previous figure, the temperature gradient is zero
• Separating variables and assuming constant heat generation per
• Accordingly, there is no heat transfer across this plane and it may be unit volume, the equation may be integrated as:
represented by the adiabatic surface shown below. One implication
of this result is that the above equation is also applied to plane walls
that are perfectly insulated on side x=0 and maintained at a fixed
temperature Ts on the other side x=L. • Repeating the integration

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Conduction with thermal energy generation
• Boundary Conditions at r=r1, T=T1 and r=r2, T=T2
Now applying the boundary conditions and
solving for C1 and C2.
• Now, the general equation becomes
Conduction with thermal energy generation
• If r1 = 0 or solid cylinder, we have, the boundary condition
• At r=r2, T=T2
• The first boundary condition is a result from symmetry of the
body. That is, for solid cylinder the center line is a line of
symmetry for the temperature distribution and the temperature
gradient must be zero.
• Hence, applying these boundary conditions, from
C1=0
• And from

• Up on substitution

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 Example Example
• Consider one-dimensional conduction in a plane composite wall.
• A plane wall of thickness 0.1 m and thermal conductivity 25
w/mk having uniform volumetric heat generation of 0.3 Mw/m3 The outer surfaces are exposed to a fluid at 25 0C and a
is insulated on one side, while the other side is exposed to a fluid convection heat transfer coefficient of 1000 w/m2K. The middle
at 92 0C. The convection heat transfer coefficient between the wall wall B experiences uniform heat generation qB while there is no
and the fluid is 500 w/m2K. Determine the maximum generation in walls A and C. The temperatures at the interfaces are
T1=26 10C and T2=2110C.
temperature in the wall.
a. Determine the volumetric heat generation qB and the
thermal conductivity KB.
b. Plot the temperature distribution showing its important
features.
KA=25 w/mK
KC=50 w/mK
LA=30 mm
LB=30 mm
LC=20 mm
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Example Heat transfer from extended surfaces

• A thin hollow tube with 6 mm outer diameter and 4 mm inner
diameter carries a current of 100 A. Water is circulated inside the
tube for cooling the tube. Taking the heat transfer coefficient of
the water inside as 35000 w/m2K and K for the tube material as 18
w/mK, estimate the surface temperature of the tube if its outer
W
surface is insulated. The electrical resistivity of the material is 0.1W
2
mm /m.
• The term extended surface is commonly used in reference to a
solid that experience energy transfer by conduction with in its
boundary, as well as energy transfer by convection between its
boundary and the surroundings.
• Such extended surface is used specifically to enhance the heat
transfer rate between a solid and adjoining fluid is termed as Fin.
• Fins are classified as:
• Straight fins: fins attached to plane wall
• Annular fins: fins attached to cylindrical surfaces
• Spine or Pin fins: fins of cylindrical shape

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 Heat transfer from extended surfaces Heat transfer from extended surfaces
A general conduction analysis
• For the heat transfer and temperature distribution analysis of fins,
the following are some of the assumptions to be made
1. One-dimensional condition in the longitudinal or x-direction
is assumed. This assumption is true if the Biot number (Bi)
given by Bi=hLc/K ≤ 0.1.
Where: h – convective heat transfer
LC- the characteristic length, Lc =V/As
V- volume of the fin
As- the surface area of the fin
K- the thermal conductivity of the fin
2. In this analysis, steady-state conduction, constant thermal
conductivity, negligible thermal radiation, no heat generation
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Heat transfer from extended surfaces Heat transfer from extended surfaces
• Consider the fin shown below with variable cross- sectional area • From the Fourier’s law AC is the cross-sectional
area which varies with X
• Taylor’s expansion

• Convective heat transfer rate T =T@X

• Substituting the forgoing rate equation in to the energy balance

Or
• Applying the conservation of energy principle to the differential
element

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 Heat transfer from extended surfaces Heat transfer from extended surfaces
• Consider the fin shown below with Uniform cross-sectional area • To simplify the form of this equation, we transform the dependent
variable by defining an excess temperature θ as:

• Since T∞ is constant
• Now the equation becomes
Where

Then the equation will be a linear, homogeneous, second-order

• For the prescribed fins shown above AC is a constant and AS=Px
Where P is perimeter of the fin.
Then by substituting to the previous equation
differential equation with constant coefficient, and the general
solution will be
To solve the constants C1 and C2 we apply the boundary conditions
1. At x=0, T=Tb

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Heat transfer from extended surfaces Heat transfer from extended surfaces
2. At the fin tip (X=L) may correspond to any one of the four different
Now, the heat transfer rate is given by the Fourier’s law
conditions:
Case1: the fin is infinitely long and the temperature at the end Where
of the fin is essentially the surrounding temperature
At x=0, T=Tb At x=L, T=T∞
Case 2: the fin is comparatively short and the convective heat
dissipation at the tip of the fin equals the rate at which energy
reaches the tip by conduction.

Solving the above equations C1=0 and C2=θb

Now At x=0, θ=θb

At x=L
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 Heat transfer from extended surfaces Heat transfer from extended surfaces
Solving the above equations for C1 and C2 and after some manipulation, Case 3: The heat lose from the tips is negligible this is a case of an
we get adiabatic fin
At x=0, θ=θb
Note the hyperbolic function are defined as:
At x=L

The heat transfer can be obtained by applying the Fourier’s law at the
fin base Solving the above equations for C1 and C2 and substituting these values

And after some analysis

The heat transfer rate from the fin is then

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Heat transfer from extended surfaces Summary

Case 4: If the temperature at the fin tip is known
At x=0, θ=θb

At x=L, T=TL, θ=θL

With similar procedure, the resulting expression will be

The heat transfer rate from the fin is then

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 Effectiveness of fins
Note that fins are used to increase the
heat transfer from a surface by
increasing the effective area. However,
the fin it self represents a conduction
resistance to heat transfer from the
original surface. For this reason, there
is no assurance that the heat transfer
rate will be increased. An assessment
of this matter may be made by
evaluating the fin effectiveness εf
defined as the ratio of the heat
actually transferred by fin to the heat
that would be transferred if the entire
fin were at the temperature equal to the
base temperature.
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Effectiveness of fins
• The overall fin effectiveness depends
on the fin density (number of fins per
unit length) as well as the effectiveness
of the individual fins.
• The overall effectiveness is a better
measure of the performance of a
finned surface than the effectiveness of
the individual fins.
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Effectiveness of fins
For example for Case 1:
Case 3:
Note that in any actual design the value εf should be as large as possible,
in general
• The thermal conductivity k of the fin should be as high as possible.
Use aluminum, copper, iron.
• The ratio of the perimeter to the cross-sectional area of the fin p/Ac
should be as high as possible. Use slender pin fins.
• Low convection heat transfer coefficient h. Place fins on gas (air) side.
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Fin efficiency
• Fin efficiency is considered to account the
reduced heat transfer as the distance
increase from the base. In the limiting case
of zero thermal resistance or infinite
thermal conductivity, the temperature of
the fin will be uniform at the base value of
Tb. The heat transfer from the fin will be
maximum in this case and can be expressed
as:
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 Fin efficiency Fin Performance
• For Example • Both the fin efficiency and fin effectiveness are related to the
performance of the fin, but they are different quantities. However,
they are related to each other by
Case 1:

Case 3:
• An effectiveness of fin εfin<1 indicates that the fin actually acts as
insulation, slowing down the heat transfer from the surface.
• An effectiveness of fin εfin >1 indicates that fins are enhancing heat
transfer from the surface, as they should.
• However, the use of fins cannot be justified unless fin effectiveness
is sufficiently larger than 1. Finned surfaces are designed on the
basis of maximizing effectiveness for a specified cost or
minimizing cost for a desired effectiveness.
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Proper Length of a Fin Example

Because of the gradual temperature drop along the fin, the region near
the fin tip makes little or no contribution to heat transfer.
A very long rod 5 mm in diameter has one end maintained at 1000C.
The surface of the rod is exposed to ambient air at 250C with a
convection heat transfer coefficient of 100 W/m2 K.
a. Determine the temperature distributions along rod constructed
from pure copper.
b. What is the corresponding heat loss from the rods?
c. Estimate how long the rod must be for the assumption of
infinite length to yield an accurate estimate of the heat loss.

Copper [T = (Tb +T∞)/2 62.50C 335 K]: k = 398 W/m K

mL = 5 → an
infinitely long fin
mL = 1 offer a good
compromise between
heat transfer
performance and the
fin size.
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 Thank you

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