Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Machining and Cutting Tools

Lecture –: Cutting temperature – causes,

effects, assessment and control.

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Specific Instructional objectives :

To enable the students, at the end of this lecture,
(i) Identify the causes of development of heat and
temperature in machining
(ii) State the effects of cutting temperature on
cutting tool and job
ii) Determine the value of cutting temperature by
    analytical methods
    experimental methods
v) Evaluate the roles of variation of the different
machining parameters on cutting temperature.
v) Point out the general methods of controlling
cutting temperature. 2
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(i) Sources of heat and causes of development of

cutting temperature

• Primary shear zone:

1
3 2

Vf • Secondary deformation
zone:
VC

• Work tool(flanks)
interfaces:
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Apportionment of heat in chip, tool and job

100

share of heat %
blank

job chip tool

tool chip
Vc

0
Cutting velocity,
cutting VCV
velocity, C

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(ii) Effects of high cutting temperature

Detrimental effects

• On cutting tool (edge)

— rapid tool wear that reduces tool life
— plastic deformation of the cutting tip, if
the tool material is not enough hot hard
and hot strong
— thermal flaking and fracture
— built-up-edge formation
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• Detrimental effects of high cutting temperature

on job

— dimensional inaccuracy
for thermal distortion &
expansion-contraction
— poor surface finish for
BUE and damage of
the cutting edge
— oxidation, burning, rapid corrosion etc.
— induction of tensile residual stresses and
surface and sub-surface micro-cracks
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Possible favourable effect of high cutting temp.

PZ = tsosf
Reduction in cutting
Softening or
forces & power
reduction of S
consumption
Specially when work material is hard & hardenable
Hot Machining
Work surface ahead the tool
is deliberately heated externally.

Applications: Machining of High Manganese steel,

Hadfield steel,Ni-Hard, Nimonic etc.
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(iii) Determination of cutting temperature

Purposes of knowing / determination of

Cutting temperature
• for assessment of machinability
• for design and selection of cutting tools
• to evaluate the role of variation of the different
machining parameters on cutting temperature
• for proper selection and application of cutting
fluid
• for analysis of temperature distribution in tool,
chip and job
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Basic two methods of measurement of cutting
temperatures
• Analytical method – easy, quick but inaccurate
• Experimental methods – accurate and precise
but may be difficult and expensive
1
Cutting temperatures of 3 2
interest
Vf

S, I, f and avg

VC

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(a) Analytical estimation using / developing eqns.

• Estimation of average value of S
One simple relation (equation)

A.q1(Ps.Vs)
 c v a1b1VC ( S   a )
J

where, PZVC = PSVS + F.Vf

J = Mechanical equivalent of heat
cv = volume sp. Heat of work material
A, q are fractions; A  0.95 ~ 1.0; q  0.7 ~ 0.9
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Analytical estimation of average value of i

Using Buckingham’s theorem (A.Bhattacharya)
Q1 = C1Q2n
Where, Q1 = cv i / EC and Q2 = {(cvVCa1) / }0.5
EC = specific cutting energy
 = thermal conductivity of chip
n = an index close to 0.25
c1 = a constant, value depends upon the
machining condition
Therefore,   C E ( V a ) / c
i 1 C C 1 v

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Measurement (experimental) of cutting temperature

Feasible experimental methods
• calorimetric method
• using decolourising agent (also chip colour)
• tool-work thermocouple technique
• moving thermocouple technique
• embedded thermocouple technique
• using compound tool
• indirectly from microhardness distribution
• photo-cell technique
• infra-ray detection method

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Measurement of cutting temperature by tool-work

Thermocouple technique

brush

mV
Contd.
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Tool-work thermocouple Oxy acetylene

Calibration torch

Carbide rod Copper plate

mica
Work material strip

millivoltmeter Eurotherm Chromel–alumel

thermocouple
Temp.
controller 14
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Moving thermocouple technique for
Measurement of cutting temperature

Standard thermocouple
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Embedded thermocouple technique

m hi

Thermocouple
log m
bead
m

0
0 hi hi log hi
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Measurement of I along the rake surface by
compound rake tool method

Li
conductor

VC
non-conductor

mV
brush
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Photo-cell technique of measuring temperature
along the shear plane and tool flank
Vf

VC

r mV
PbS cell
R
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Measurement of temperature distribution at
the tool tip by Infra ray detection.
Rake surface 8 – lowest temp.
8

6
1 5
1 – highest temp.
Auxiliary flank
4
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(iv) Role of variation of the machining parameters

on cutting temperature.
Machining parameters that more or less govern or
Influence cutting temperature

• work material : • specific energy

• thermal properties (cv, )
• ductility
• Process parameters : VC, so and t
• Tool material : • wear resistance
• thermal properties
• chemical stability
Contd.
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• tool geometry : • rake, cutting angle,

nose radius
• chip breaker

• cutting fluid : • type

• properties
• method of application

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Role of machining parameters on C - contd.

Experimentally established,
C ( VC )0.4 (so sin  )0.24 ( t )0.105
i 
t 0.086 0.11
( ) (r ) ( tso )0.054
so
Other parameters and factors that affect C
• tool rake angle ( and )
• tool clearance angle ()
• cutting fluid application

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(v) Control of cutting temperature by

• Proper selection of cutting tool(s)

• Optimum selection of VC-so combination
• Proper selection and application of cutting
fluid
• Application of special technique
( hot Machining, Cryomachining,
dynamic machining etc )

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Machinability

Lecture – Concept of Machinability and its

Improvement

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Specific Instructional objectives :
To enable the students, at the end of this lecture,
(i) Conceptualise Machinability and state its
• Definition
• criteria of Judgement

(ii) Illustrate how machinability is governed by

several factors :
• chemical and physical properties of the
• work material
• Processing parameters
• Cutting tool : Material and Geometry

iii) Suggest methods of improvement of

machinability
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MACHINING
Purpose : • Dimensional accuracy
• Surface quality
for —  desired / improved performance
 longer service life of the product

Prime objectives :
• Less energy consumption
• long tool life
• good surface finish

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MACHINABILITY
Meaning : There is no clear meaning or unique
definition.
Machinability has been referred to;
• machining properties of a work material
• material response to machining
• ability of a material to be machined
• how easily & quickly a matl. can be machined

Apparently, “ Machinability” was introduced

for “Gradation of materials w.r.t. machining”
characteristics in terms of
• chip form
• cutting forces
• tool life
• surface finish

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Difficulties to define and quantify Machinability

Saying material ‘A’ is more machinable than ‘B’

may mean, compared to ‘B’ machining of ‘A’
provides,
• lesser cutting forces
• longer tool life
• better surface finish

or

In a group, the order of the material will be

different considering different criteria

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MACHINABILITY RATING (MR)

speedof machining the work giving 60 min tool life

MR  x100
speedof machining the s tandard metal giving 60 min tool life
Standard material – AISI 1112 steel (free cutting)
Cutting velocity, fpm

Standard
material
100
Specimen
60 material

30 60 100
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Tool life, min
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LIMITATIONS OF RATING MACHINABILITY
based on only tool life

• tool life should not be considered as only criteria

• under the same condition (VC, so, t, tool & CF) the
same material provides different tool life
depending upon that material’s
o exact composition
o microstructure
o treatment etc

• the tool life – speed relation of a material changes

with the variation of
o cutting tool – material and geometry
o so and t
o cutting fluid application
o machine tool condition

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MACHINABILITY – Definition & criteria of judgement

Definition – “Degree of ability of machining” and

more reasonably “ease of machining”
where this ‘ease’ is judged by :

• magnitude of cutting forces

• tool wear and tool life
• surface finish or surface roughness
• magnitude of cutting temperature
• chip form

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(ii) ROLE OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON
MACHINABILITY CHARACTERISTICS

Machinability are governed and influenced by

• properties of the work material
• material and geometry of cutting tools
• levels of the process parameters
• machining environment (CF application)

Other factors affecting machinability :

• machine tool condition
• type of machining operation
• characteristics of the special techniques,
if employed

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(a) ROLE OF THE VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF THE
WORK MATERIAL ON ITS MACHINABILITY

• Basic nature – brittle or ductile

• Microstructure (Free cutting steel)
• mechanical strength – yield or fracture
• hardness
• hot strength and hot hardness
• work hardenability
• thermal conductivity
• chemical reactivity
• stickiness / self lubricating

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(b) ROLE OF CUTTING TOOL; material & geometry

The tool material characteristics that

affect machinability
• composition &
microstructure
• strength (comp. & ten.)

Velocity, logVC, m/min

• hardness
• hot strength & hot Ceramic tool
hardness
• fracture toughness Sintered
• adhesion and diffusion HSS
resistance carbide
• chemical stability
• thermal conductivity

HSS WC ceramic
Tool life, log TL, min

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ROLE OF TOOL GEOMETRY ON MACHINABILITY

Tool geometrical parameters that play significant

roles
• rake angles ()
• cutting angles ( and 1)
• clearance angle ()
• nose radius (r)
• inclination angle ()
• edge rounding (r‘) or bevelling
• integrated chip breaker

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Role of Rake angle

PZ  tso s f
where,
f    tan   1
a2  ( / 2  )
  e

Cutting force, PZ
a1 chip load
0.6 
and  s  0.74 U
where     tan 

tool rake angle, 

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Role of cutting
angles of tool

PY  PXY cos 
where PXY  kPZ
 C  k1 VC so sin 

avg. cutting temp. C

transverse force, PY
C
so
and hmax 
cot   cot 1 PY

Cutting angle, , deg.

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Effect of clearance angle, 

tool life, min

0 30
tool clearance angle, deg.

Clearance angle should not be too small

or too large
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Role of tool nose radius (r)

Proper nose radiusing enables
• increase tool life by enhancing edge-strength
and reducing tool temperature
• improves surface finish or reduces SR by

hmax 
 so 
2

8r
Cutting edge radiusing also
influences machinability

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ROLE OF THE PROCESS PARAMETERS (VC, so, t)

• Increase in VC
o raises C and reduces TL
o reduces cutting forces
o prevents BUE formation
o improves surface finish
o increase MRR (ceramic tools)

• Increase in feed causes

o rise in cutting forces and temperature
o reduction in specific energy consumption
o impairs surface finish

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ROLE (PURPOSE) OF CUTTING FLUID
APPLICATION ON MACHINABILITY

• improving tool life by cooling and lubrication

• reduces cutting forces by lubrication and
retention of tool sharpness
• improves surface integrity by cooling,
lubricating and cleaning effects

Cutting fluid parameters :

• type
• method (rate) of application
• direction of application

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(iii) POSSIBLE METHODS OF IMPROVING
MACHINABILITY OF A MATERIAL

• favourable change in microstructure and

properties of the work material

• proper selection and application of

o cutting tool material and geometry
o levels of the process parameters
o cutting fluid

• application of special technique(s), if essential,

feasible, viable and eco-friendly

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THANK YOU

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