SURFACE RESISTANCE

BOUNDARY LAYER
Second Lecture (Chapter 9)
Contents

■ Qualitative description of boundary layer

■ Laminar boundary layer
■ Transition boundary layer
■ Turbulent boundary layer

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 Qualitative description of boundary layer
■ Boundary layer δ is the region adjacent to a surface
over which the velocity changes from the freestream
value (with respect to the object) to zero at the
surface.
■ It is a very thin layer occurred due to fluid viscosity
while the velocity gradient is due to shear stress.
■ The thickness of boundary layer is the distance from
the surface to location where the velocity is 99% of
the free-stream velocity, Uo.
■ The boundary layer development occurs due to the
“no-slip” condition at the surface; fluid velocity at
surface is zero. Thus the boundary layer becomes
thicker, or “grows,” in the downstream direction.
■ The initial section of the boundary layer is the
laminar boundary layer that growth steadily until
critical point where small disturbances in the flow
will grow and spread leading to turbulence.
■ The boundary becomes fully turbulent at transition
point. The region between the critical point and the
transition point is called the transition region
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 Surface Resistance with Uniform Laminar Flow
■ In most problems of practical interest, the extent of the laminar boundary layer is small and
contributes little to the total drag force on a body.
■ The turbulent boundary layer is characterized by intense cross-stream mixing as turbulent eddies
transport high-velocity fluid from the boundary layer edge to the region close to the wall.
■ This disturbance (cross-stream mixing) makes the flow effective viscosity many times (typically 3)
greater than the actual fluid viscosity. This effective viscosity is a flow property not a fluid property
leading to an increased velocity gradient at the surface and a larger shear stress.
■ The shear-stress distribution along the plate is relatively large near the leading edge of the plate
where the velocity gradient is steep, and that it becomes progressively smaller as the boundary
layer thickens in the downstream direction. When boundary becomes turbulent, the shear stress at
the boundary increases due to the steep in the velocity profile at the surface.

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 Laminar boundary layer
■ Target is to calculate shear stress and shear forces on a surface.
■ In 1904 Prandtl first stated the essence of the boundary-layer
hypothesis; viscous effects are concentrated in a thin layer of
fluid (boundary layer) next to solid boundaries..
■ Then in 1908, Blasius assumed for laminar flow that a plot of the
relative velocity (u/Uo), versus the relative distance from the
boundary (y/δ), would be the same at each section. Thus the
Reynolds number (Rex) is based on the free stream velocity (Uo)
and the length (x) along the plate from its leading edge (𝑅𝑒𝑥
= 𝑈𝑜 𝑥Τ𝜈). From this work as shown, it is observed at y=δ that
5𝑥
y 𝑅𝑒𝑥 /𝑥 = 5 or 𝛿 =
𝑅𝑒𝑥

■ The Blasius solution also found that:

■ Thus the velocity gradient at the boundary is: f or

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 Laminar boundary layer, Cont.
■ The velocity gradient (and shear stress) decreases with increasing distance x along the plate.
■ Correspondingly, the local shear stress at any section of the boundary is obtained from

■ The surface resistance Fs due to shear stress at the boundary for one side of the flat plate
having width B and length L can be determined by integrating this shear stress over the entire
surface:
■ Example: crude oil at 21°C (ν=9.3 mm2/s, s=0.86) with free-stream velocity of 0.3 m/s flows
past a thin flat plate of 1.2 m wide and 1.8 m long in a direction parallel to the flow. The flow
is laminar. Determine and plot the boundary-layer thickness, the shear stress distribution
along the plate, the surface resistance against the flow, and shear stress coefficient.
■ Sketch of the problem us shown.

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 Example
■ Assumptions: (1) Plate is smooth, flat with sharp leading edge, and (2) the boundary layer is
laminar.
■ Plan of solution is to apply the following equations:

■ Solution:
■ Variation of Reynolds number with x: 𝑅𝑒𝑥 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑥Τ𝜈 = 3.22 ∗ 104 𝑥 thus the boundary layer
relation will be 𝛿 = 27.9 𝑥 mm. thus 𝑅𝑒𝐿 = 3.22 ∗ 104 ∗ 1.8 = 5.8 ∗ 104
0.3 0.143
■ Variation of shear stress will be: 𝜏𝑜 = 0.332 ∗ 9.3 ∗ 10−6 ∗ 860 ∗ 32200𝑥 ∗ =
𝑥 𝑥
40.00 0.30

35.00
0.25 X, m 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.20 1.50 1.80
30.00
Δ, mm 15.28 21.61 26.47 30.56 34.17 37.43
25.00 0.20

20.00
Τo, Pa 0.26 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11
0.15
15.00

10.00 0.10
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00

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 Example
■ Using the general equation for shear stress to evaluate surface resistance considering 𝑅𝑒𝑥
= 𝑈𝑜 𝑥Τ𝜈 as:

■ To get equation of surface resistance:

■ Thus 𝐹𝑠 = 0.286 ∗ 1.2 ∗ 1.8 = 0.46 𝑁

■ shear stress coefficient is ratio of shear stress at boundary to the free-stream kinetic energy:
𝜏 0.664 𝐹𝑠
𝑐𝑓 = 2𝑜 = = 2
𝜌𝑈𝑜 /2 𝑅𝑒𝑥 𝜌𝑈𝑜 /2 𝐴
1.33 1.33 1.33
■ Thus the average shear stress is 𝑐𝑓 = or 𝑐𝑓 = = = 0.0055
𝑅𝑒𝐿 𝑅𝑒𝐿 5.8∗104

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 Boundary layer transition
■ Transition is the zone through which the laminar boundary layer is changed into a turbulent
boundary layer.
■ The growth of laminar boundary layer continues until critical point where the viscous
stresses fails to damp disturbances in the flow, and disturbances in the flow are amplified
leading to turbulence. This critical point exists at Re=105 based on distance from leading
edge while fully turbulent boundary layer exists at about Re=3*106
■ It is assumed that boundary layer is changed from laminar to turbulent at Re=5*105
■ Transition to a turbulent boundary layer is influenced by several other flow conditions, such
as free-stream turbulence, pressure gradient, wall roughness, wall heating, and wall
cooling.
■ Understanding the mechanics of the turbulent boundary is very important where most of
practical engineering systems have turbulent boundary layer responsible for surface shear
force, or surface resistance.

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Turbulent boundary layer
■ Velocity distribution in turbulent boundary layer is more complicated than laminar boundary
layer as there are three flow zones each required different equation for velocity distribution.
■ The three zones of flow include
– viscous sublayer - zone adjacent to the wall where the fluid is laminar and behaves as
𝑑𝑢
Couette flow (i.e. = 𝜏𝑜 Τ𝜇),
𝑑𝑦
– logarithmic region – zone immediately above the viscous sublayer is turbulent so small mass
is reversed where apparent shear stresses or Reynolds stresses are occurred, and
– velocity defect region –region beyond the logarithmic region where velocity defects following
the velocity defect law, which for a flat plate with zero pressure gradient.

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 Velocity distribution in regions of TBL
■ The velocity distribution in viscous sublayer can be related to the shear (friction) velocity term
(𝑢∗ = 𝜏𝑜 Τ𝜌) as 𝑢 = 𝑦 𝜏𝑜 Τ𝜇 as follows:

■ Or
𝑦𝑢∗
■ Experimental results show that the limit of viscous sublayer occurs when ≃ 5 thus the
5𝜈 𝜈
thickness of viscous sublayer is given by 𝛿ҧ =
𝑢∗
■ The thickness of viscous sublayer is very small.
■ In the logarithmic zone, there are flow fluctuations with time.
■ Turbulent velocity is composed of two parts: a mean value 𝑢ത , plus a fluctuating part 𝑢ƴ which is
responsible for the mixing action and the momentum exchange.
■ The apparent shear stress is expressed in terms of the fluctuating velocity part by:
where 𝑢ƴ and 𝑣ƴ are the x and y components of the fluctuated velocity, respectively, while the upper
bar indicates the averaged product of 𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ over period of time.

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■ The fluctuating velocity components are associated with small masses of fluid through
turbulent eddies moving across the boundary layer, as shown.
■ For the mass shown in that Figure, fluctuated velocity would be negative and can be
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
approximated by: 𝑢ƴ ≈ ℓ where is the mean velocity gradient and ℓ is mixing length
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
defines as the distance where the small fluid mass travels in the transverse direction.
■ The physics of this equation indicates that the magnitude of the transverse fluctuating velocity
component is proportional to the magnitude of the fluctuating component in the principal flow
direction: 𝑢ƴ ≈ 𝑣ƴ which is reasonable assumption as both components arise from the same
set of eddies. Thus the positive value of 𝑣ƴ will be associated with negative value of 𝑢ƴ thus the
product 𝑢ƴ 𝑣ƴ will be negative.
■ The apparent shear stress is expressed by
■ Prandtl considered the mixing length to be proportional to the distance from the wall (ℓ = 𝜅𝑦)
for the region close to the wall, thus
■ Taking the square root of each side and rearrange this Equation:

By integrating and use 𝑢∗ = 𝜏𝑜 Τ𝜌 to get

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■ Experiments on smooth boundaries indicate that the
constant of integration C can be given in terms of 𝑢∗ and 𝜈 ,
1 𝜈
and a pure number as 𝐶 = 5.56 − 𝑙𝑛 using this relation
𝜅 𝑢∗
𝑢 1 𝑦𝑢
to get: = 𝑙𝑛 ∗ + 5.56
𝑢∗ 𝜅 𝜈
■ For turbulent layer next to viscous sublayer, value of κ
(called the universal turbulence constant, or Karman’s
𝑢 𝑦𝑢
constant) is approximately 0.41, thus = 2.44 𝑙𝑛 ∗ + 5.56
𝑢∗ 𝜈
𝑦𝑢∗
■ This distribution is valid for values of ranging from
𝜈
approximately 30 to 500.
■ The intersection between velocity distribution through
𝑦𝑢
viscous sublayer zone occurs at ∗ = 11.84. This provides
𝜈 𝜈
the Nominal thickness of viscous sublayer: 𝛿ሖ𝑁 = 11.84
𝑢∗
■ The combination of the viscous and logarithmic velocity
𝑦𝑢
profiles for the range of ∗ from 0 to approximately 500 is
𝜈
called the law of the wall.

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■ When a linear graph rather than exponential one is used, it is
noticed that the laminar sublayer and buffer zone are a very
small part of the thickness of the turbulent boundary layer.
𝑦 𝑦𝑢
■ Velocity in defect region > 0.15 or ∗ > 500 is represented
𝛿 𝜈
by the velocity defect law, which for a flat plate with zero
𝑈 −𝑢 𝑦
pressure gradient is simply expressed as: 𝑜 = 𝑓 .
𝑢∗ 𝛿
𝑈𝑜 −𝑢
■ At 𝑦 = 𝛿, = 0 as u=Uo. This defect law is valid for rough
𝑢∗
and smooth surfaces, but may be modified for flow with free-
stream pressure gradient.

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 Power-Law Formula for Velocity Distribution
■ Analyses have shown that for a wide range of Reynolds numbers 105 < 𝑅𝑒 < 107 , the velocity
𝑢
profile in the turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate is expressed by the power-law equation:
𝑈 𝑜
𝑦 1/7 𝑦
= 𝛿
which is valid for 90% of the turbulent boundary (0.1 < 𝛿
< 1). For the inner 10% of the
boundary layer, Law equation of the wall is used.
■ Example: Water (15°C) flows with a velocity of 6.1 m/s past a flat plate. The plate is oriented
parallel to the flow. At a particular section downstream of the leading edge of the plate, the
boundary layer is turbulent, the shear stress on the plate is 43 N/m2, and the boundary-layer
thickness is 0.027 m. Find the velocity of the water at a distance of 0.0027 m from the plate as
determined by: (a) The logarithmic velocity distribution, (b) The velocity defect law, (c) The power-law
formula, also, what is the nominal thickness of the viscous sublayer?
■ Situation: Water flows past a flat plate oriented parallel to the flow. At a point downstream of the
leading edge of the plate, shear stress on the plate is 43 N/m2 and boundary layer thickness is
0.027 m.
■ Find:
– the Velocity at 0.0027 m from plate using (a) Logarithmic velocity distribution, (b) Velocity
defect law, (c) Power-law formula
– Nominal thickness of viscous sublayer
■ Water properties at 15°C from A-5; ρ=999, µ=1.14*10-3 N.s/m2 and ν= 1.14*10-6 m2 /s
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Solution
■ Calculate the friction velocity: 𝑢∗ = 𝜏𝑜 Τ𝜌 = 0.207 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢 𝑦𝑢∗ 𝑦𝑢∗ 0.0027∗0.207
■ The logarithmic velocity distribution: = 2.44𝑙𝑛 + 5.56 where = = 491 or
𝑢∗ 𝜈 𝜈 1.14∗10−6
𝑢
= 2.44𝑙𝑛491 + 5.56 = 20.7 or u=4.28 m/s
𝑢∗
𝑦 0.0027 𝑈𝑜 −𝑢
■ The non-dimensional distance: = = 0.1 from defect law analysis, then =≃ 8.2,
𝛿 0.027 𝑢∗
thus the velocity will be𝑢 = 𝑈𝑜 − 8 ∗ 𝑢∗ = 6.1 − 8.2 ∗ 0.207 = 4.403 𝑚/𝑠
𝑢 𝑦 1/7 1/7
■ From power law, = then𝑢 = 6.1 0.1 = 4.39 𝑚/𝑠
𝑈𝑜 𝛿
𝜈 1.14∗10−6
■ Nominal sublayer thickness: 𝛿ሖ𝑁 = 11.84 = 11.8 ∗ = 0.065 𝑚𝑚
𝑢∗ 0.207
■ It is noticed that, velocity obtained by logarithmic distribution and defect law are
approximately the same. Thus the mentioned point is located in the overlap region.

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THANK YOU
Now Your Questions, please.