DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

LECTURE NOTES

LECTURE NOTES

I. Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Nature v. Nurture Argument.3

History: Wilhelm Wundt 1974 Principles of Psychology.

Structuralism: held that even our most complex conscious experiences

could be broken down into elemental structures or component parts of sensations
and feelings. Used introspection as the method to study.

Functionalism: Stressed the importance of how behavior functions to allow

people and animals to adapt to their environments. Was not limited to
introspection. but instead included direct observational methods.

Types of Psychology:

Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud, developed personality theory and form of

psychotherapy that emphasized the role of unconscious factors in personality and
behavior. Use introspection.

Behaviorism: B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson. School of psychology

and theoretical viewpoint that emphasize the study of observable behaviors,
especially as they pertain to the process of learning.

Humanistic Psychology: Carl Rogers. Emphasizes self-determination, free

will, and the importance of choice in human behavior.

Cognitive Psychology: Looks into what people think and how they think.
Includes how language is processed and learned. Therapy includes changes in the
way people think, such as, negative thoughts in depressed individuals.

Prospectives in Psychology:

Biological Prospective: Emphasizes studying the physical basis of human

and animal behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune
system, and genetics.
 Psychodynamic Perspective: Emphasizes importance of unconscious
influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relationships.

Behavioral Perspective: Study how behavior is acquired or modified by

environmental causes.

Humanistic Perspective: Focuses on the motivation of people to grow

psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a person’s self-
concept, and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one’s
potential.

Cognitive Perspective: Focuses once again on the importanct role of mental

processes in how people process and remember information, develop language,
solve problems and think.

Cross Cultural Perspective: Well established psychological findings were not as

universal as they had thought. Social loafing is people’s tendency to do less
when there are others around who may do the job. Not so in Chinese cultures.

Evolutionary Perspective: Applying principles of evolution to explain

psychological processes. Includes principles of motivation and the nature-
nurture theory.

Social Perspective: Explores how people are affected by their social

environment, including how people think about and influence others. Schools,
work environments, and gangs and families.

Psychologist: PhD from accredited college or university with over 2000 hours of clinical
work in mental hospitals. Cannot prescribe medication.

Psychiatrist: M.D. Medical doctor who specializes in mental health and psychological
disorders. Can prescribe medication.

II. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD.

Definition: A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide

researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in
drawing conclusions.

Hypothesis: A tentative sttement about the relationship between two or

more variables.

Variables: A factor that can vary, or change in ways that can be

observed, measured, and verified. Independent variable is that which
 can be manipulated by the experimenter to see if there is a reaction.
Dependant variable is that which is measured.

Operational definition is a precise description of how the variables in a

study will manipulated or measured, or a definition of the terms to tell
how the terms are used in an experiment.

Longitudinal Study: A study of the same subjects across time.

Statistics: A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize,

summarize, and interpret data.

Statistical significance: A mathematical indication that research

results are not likely to have occurred by chance.

Survey: A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the

opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group.

Random selection: Process in which subjects are selected randomly

from a larger group such that every member has an equal chance of being
included in the study.

Control group or condition:The group that is not exposed to the

independent variable and which is then compared to the experimental
group. Placebo is an inert substance or a treatment that has no known
effects. i.e. salt pills

Sample: A selected segment of the population used to represent the

group that is being studied.

Reliable: The characteristic of an experiment that it can be replicated

and produces the same results.

Confounding variables:
Practice effects: Any change in performance that results from mere
repetition of the task.

Expectancy effects: Changes in behavior that result from the subjects

belief as to what should happen.

Demand characteristics: subtle cues or signals expressed by the

researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is
expected from the participant.
 Theory: A tentative explanation that tries to account for the
relationship of various findings and observations.
Generalization: the fact that the findings in a study done on a
sample can generalize to the population as a whole.

Correlation studies: A research strategy that allows the precise

calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other.
1 zero or -1 Positive correlation is when two factors vary
systematically in the same direction. Negative correlation is when two
variables correlate but in different directions. i.e. when one goes up, the
other one goes down.

Descriptive research methods: Scientific procedures that involve

systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship
among behavior and events.

Naturalistic observation: The systematic observation and recording

of behavior as they occur in their natural setting. Social loafing.

Case Study: An intensive study of a single individual or event.

Pseudoscience: A fake or false science that makes claims based on little or

no scientific evidence.

Illusory correlation: The mistaken belief that two factors or events are
related when they are not. “Every time that I wear my lucky charm, we
win.”

Neuroscience and Behavior

Biological psychology: The scientific study of the biological basis of behavior and
mental processes.

Neuroscience: The scientific study of the nervous system.

I. The Neuron.
A nerve cell. A highly specialized cell that communicates
information in electrical and chemical form.

Types of Neurons:

Sensory neuron: Type of neuron that conveys information to the

brain from specialized receptor cells in sense organs and internal organs.
 Motor neuron: Type of neuron that signals muscles to relax or
contract.

Glial cells; Support cells that assist neurons by providing structural

support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes. Also produce myelin.

Parts of the Neuron:

Cell body: Also called the “soma”

Dendrites: Short fibers that extend from the soma and receive
information from other neurons.

Axon: The long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron’s messages

to other body areas.

Axon terminals: End of the axon that contains tiny pouches called
synaptic vesicles.

Myelin sheath: A white fatty covering wrapped around the axons of

some neurons that increase their communication speed.

Synaptic vesicle: Tiny pouches or sacs in the axon terminals that

contain chemicals called neurotransmitters.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Psychoanalytic theory:

Interprets human development in terms of inner drives and motives, many of

which are irrational and unconscious.

Birth to 1 year Oral Stage Mouth tongue and gums are the focus of
pleasurable sensations in the baby’s body.

1-3 years Anal Stage Anus is the focus of attention and toilet
Training

3-6 years Phallic Stage Phallus or penis is the most important

Part and pleasure derived from genital
stimulation. Boys are proud and girls
are jealous.
 6-11 years Latency An interlude in which sexual needs are
Silent

Adolescence Genital Stage The genitals are the focus of pleasurable

sensations.

Adulthood Freud believed that sexual satisfaction lasted throughout

life.

Erikson’s Psychosocial theory (sub part of psychoanalysis)

Birth to 1 Year Trust v. Mistrust Babies learn that others will take care of
their basic needs, provide warmth, and physical contact.

1- 3 years Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt Children learn to be self

sufficient, including toilet training, or doubt their own abilities.

3-6 years Initiative v. Guilt Undertake many adult like activities or feel
guilty that they cannot do this.

6-11 years Industry v. Inferiority Learn and master new skills or feel
inferior to other who can.
Behaviorism:

Began the study of human behavior that was observable, not thoughts and hidden urges.

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov Association

Unconditioned stimulus – Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned stimulus – Conditioned Response

Operant Conditioning Watson and B.F. Skinner (Skinner Box)

Reinforcement, the process in which a behavior is followed by a
result that makes it more likely that the behavior will be repeated.
This is operant conditioning.

Example of the monkeys: Went contrary to psychoanalytic theory,

because the monkey should go to whatever feeds its oral needs, but
the baby monkeys went to the furry “mother.”
Also, went contrary to behaviorism because both the wire mother
and the furry one, reinforced the baby monkeys. Proves that there
is a cognitive factor.
Social Learning: Evidence arose that creatures appreciate the touch, warmth,
reassurance, and example of other similar beings.

Social Learning theory: Behaviorism but emphasizes that

many behaviors are learned through observation and imitation of
others.
Modeling: The process in which one observes and then
learns to copy the behavior of others.
Self Efficacy: Belief that one is effective and efficient.
Motivates one to change and become better.

Cognitive Theory: Theory of human development that focuses on the structure and
development of thinking, which shapes people’s attitudes, beliefs,
and behaviors.
i.e. Piaget believed that children pass through stages and that
cognition required adjustment as one passes through the stages.

Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development:

Birth to 2 years Sensorimotor
Infants use senses and motor abilities to
Understand the world.
Object Permanence: when a child finally
learns that an object still exits even if he
cannot see it. Peek-a-boo games. Mental
impressions of objects.

2-6 years Preoperational

Children use symbolic thinking including
language. Thinking is egocentric, me first,
second and last. Understanding of the
world is from their view.
Imagination flourishes, language becomes
a means of expression.
6-11 years Concrete Operational
Children understand and apply logical
operations or principles and objectively
and rationally understand the world.
Logical thinking helps them understand
math and scientific concepts and ideas.
12 years/adulthood Formal Operation
Adolescents and adults think about
abstract things and hypothetical concepts
and reason analytically.
Ethics, politics, and social and moral
issues become fascinating.
The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as:

1. Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2. Children experience the world through
movement and senses (use five senses to explore the world). During the
sensorimotor stage children are extremely egocentric, meaning they cannot
perceive the world from others' viewpoints. The sensorimotor stage is divided into
six substages: "(1) simple reflexes; (2) first habits and primary circular reactions;
(3) secondary circular reactions; (4) coordination of secondary circular reactions;
(5) tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity; and (6) internalization of
schemes." [5] Simple reflexes is from birth to 1 month old. At this time infants use
reflexes such as rooting and sucking. First habits and primary circular reactions is
from 1 month to 4 months old. During this time infants learn to coordinate
sensation and two types of scheme (habit and circular reactions). A primary
circular reaction is when the infant tries to reproduce an event that happened by
accident (ex: sucking thumb). The third stage, secondary circular reactions, occurs
when the infant is 4 to 8 months old. At this time they become aware of things
beyond their own body; they are more object oriented. At this time they might
accidentally shake a rattle and continue to do it for sake of satisfaction.
Coordination of secondary circular reactions is from 8 months to 12 months old.
During this stage they can do things intentionally. They can now combine and
recombine schemes and try to reach a goal (ex: use a stick to reach something).
They also understand object permanence during this stage. That is, they
understand that objects continue to exist even when they can't see them. The fifth
stage occurs from 12 months old to 18 months old. During this stage infants
explore new possibilities of objects; they try different things to get different
results. During the last stage they are 18 to 24 months old. During this stage they
shift to symbolic thinking. [5] Some followers of Piaget's studies of infancy, such
as Kenneth Kaye[6] argue that his contribution was as an observer of countless
phenomena not previously described, but that he didn't offer explanation of the
processes in real time that cause those developments, beyond analogizing them to
broad concepts about biological adaptation generally.
2. Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (magical thinking predominates.
Acquisition of motor skills). Egocentrism begins strongly and then weakens.
Children cannot conserve or use logical thinking.
3. Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 12 (children begin to think logically
but are very concrete in their thinking). Children can now conserve and think
logically but only with practical aids. They are no longer egocentric.
4. Formal operational stage: from age 12 onwards (development of abstract
reasoning). Children develop abstract thought and can easily conserve and think
logically in their mind.
Sociocultural Theory:

Theory that holds that human development results from the dynamic interaction between
each person and the surrounding social and cultural forces.

Apprenticeship in thinking and guided participation. Teaching how to ride a

bicycle.

Epigenetic theory:

The theory that emphasizes the interaction of genes, origins of behavior and the direct
systematic influence that environment forces have over time on genes.

Epigenetic theory avoids both extremes. The genetic in epigenetic acknowledges the
powerful instincts and abilities that arise from our biological heritage, however, the prefix
“epi” means ‘with’, ‘around,’ ‘before’ and ‘after.’
i.e. Fertilized alligator eggs kept at 32 degrees become male alligators and those
kept at below 32 degrees become female.

Selective adaptation, is the process that genetic traits that increase the ability of
members of a species to survive and reproduce become common, while those that
are destructive become rare.
i.e. Infants come into the world with social predispositions such as being able to
distinguish sounds, recognize facial expressions of fear and pleasure and
distinguish one person from another.
Nature v. Nurture

Nature: A general term for the traits, capacities, and limitation that each
individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of
conception.
Nurture: A general term for all the environmental influences that affect
development after an individual is conceived.

ADHD Nature: Usually boys, close male relatives that have had it, calm down after
taking stimulants. Nurture: Jumped from 1 to 5% in 50 years, ADHD have a higher
incidents in certain classrooms, No biological test to confirm it, either blood chemistry or
brain structure.

CHAPTER 3: Genetic contributions to developmental psychology:

Prenatal development: Has three distinct phases:

Germinal period, first two weeks of prenatal growth, also called
the zygotic period, represents the first two weeks of prenatal
development. Organism has over 100 cells.
 Embryonic period begins at 3 weeks and extends to the 8th week.
Heart begins to beat. Eyes ears and nose begin to form. This when
the embryo is most susceptible to teratogens which are most
harmful to the embryo. These include exposure to radiation,
diseases such rubella, syphilis and AIDS, or alcohol, and drug
addiction. These also come in the form of behavioral teratogens.
Harm to embryo or fetus depends on timing, amount of exposure,
and genetic vulnerability.
Fetal period starts at the third month. Fetus can move its arms
legs and head. By 4th month you have quickenings where the mom
can feel the baby move. By 5th month fetus has sleep cycles. Fetus
can live after the brain can operate and regulate bodily functions at
about 22 week. Average weight of fetus at birth is between 3 and
7 ½ pounds.

Teratogens: Substances that are harmful to the growing embryo/fetus. Most

harmful from 0-3 months.
Types:
Rubella (German Measles) Causes blindness, deafness, or brain
damage.
Radiation: Causes small head, retardation.
Alcohol: Fetal alcohol syndrome, slanted eyes, and thin upper lip.
Marijuana: Central nervous system damage.
Cocaine: Slow fetal growth, premature labor, learning disabilities.
AIDS/HIV: Use to be believed that placenta would filter all harms.
25% inherit AIDS. ZDV and AZT help.

The birthing process:

The Apgar scale. A means of quickly assessing a newborn’s body
functioning. Includes:
1. The baby’s color, 2. heart rate, 3. reflexes (rooting reflex and
toes curl up), 4. muscle tone, and
5. respiratory rate: at one minute and five minutes after birth. 7 is
normal, below 7, needs help, and below 4, needs immediate
attention.
Anoxia: Lack of oxygen causes brain damage.
Kangaroo Care: Cuddling baby especially good for premature
babies.
Postpartum Blues (Depression). Mother’s feelings of sadness,
inadequacy, and hopelessness. Part physiological (hormones) and
part cultural (lack of father to support baby and mom.)

Development during infancy.

Infant has rooting reflex where he turns in the direction of being
touched on the cheek and opens his mouth, and the grasping reflex
in which he will grasp hard with both hands if you put touch his
 palms. Vision is least developed and baby can see only 6-12
inches in front of him. Faces are followed more than any other
object.
Physical development: 1-5 months rolling over: 3-8 months
sitting up: 10-15 months walking well.

Dichotomy of behavior.

When an expectant mother is exposed to Extreme Financial and/or Relational

stress, then the baby may develop a dichotomy of behavior.
Dichotomy means one of two possibilities.

Extreme Financial/Relational Stress

] ]
] ]
] ]
Hypersensitive Baby Lack of Affect
Hyperactive Baby Affect is lack of emotions or emotional
response.
(Baby wakes up and cries) Baby doesn’t smile back at people.
For almost any noise

Solution: Social Support, i.e. Significant other, or parents, or siblings, or B.F.F.

gives her support and understanding while she experiences the extreme financial or
relational stress and this helps her.

END PART 1
CHAPTER 5: 0-2 Years: Biosocial Development.

Birth: Average weight 7 lbs. At 4 months, 14 lbs. At 1 year 21 lbs.

Head Sparing: Body fat in babies essential for brain growth in case of teething
or colds, the baby fat is used by the body to keep the brain growing.

Sleep: Baby’s sleep cycles are different. Most sleep is REM (deep) sleep. 16
hours of sleep initially. Eventually develop sleep patterns similar to adults.

Early Brain Development:

Frontal Cortex. Immature at birth. Dendritic growth accounts for most
of growth and weight in the early months/years. At 6 months, 250,000
neurons per minute (called transient exuberance). 100 billion at birth.
Inactivation of Dendritic growth called “pruning.”
Temporal lobes. Well developed at birth. Baby listens in womb. Knows
lullabies as soon as a few days and weeks after birth.
Occipital lobes. Least developed.

Excessive Stress: Stress hormones in an infant result in hyper vigilance or

dull affect.

Plasticity. Rats in toy cages v. no toys. Effect is that rats have dull affect
and less Dendritic connections (autopsies of rats). Romanian abandoned
babies.

Senses and Motor Skills.

Paiget – Sensorimotor Stage. Everything that the baby knows is

discovered through his senses. Touch, taste, auditory, sight, and smell.
Sight. Newborns focus on objects 4-30 inches away. At 6 weeks they can
see and recognize things like people. Binocular vision at 14 weeks.
Before that they appear cross eyed because they want to see everything but
eyes do not have the coordination.

Motor Skills.
Reflexes at birth include those that relate to survival. 1. Oxygen: Includes
hiccups, sneezing, and thrashing if covered. 2. Body temperature:
maintain body temperature by curling up. 3. Feeding: Sucking reflex
(Rooting Reflex) where baby turns face if rubbed on cheek and tries to
suck.
 Gross Motor Skills. Physical abilities that involve the large body
movements such as walking and jumping.
-5 months. Inch forward on stomach.
-8-10 months. Crawl
-9 months. Stand with hand.
-10 months stand alone.
-12 months walk. (But, there is a cultural component. In France babies
walk at 15 months, and in Nigeria they walk at 10 months.)

Fine Motor Skills. Deal with hand and fingers. 6 months reach and grab.

Immunization. Inoculations for small pox, polio, measles. No

conclusive/objective proof that inoculations cause Autism.

SIDS (Sudden Death Syndrom). Usually occurs before 2 months.

Chances are very good after that. Ethnicity component, touching and
noisy places seem to greatly reduce incidence of SIDS as in Chinese
cultures but not in English cultures. DO NOT let them sleep on their
stomachs.

Breast Feeding. Very good for baby. 1. Body temperature so you don’t
burn baby. 2. Sterile and more digestible than formulas. 3. Irons and
vitamins C & A.4. Contracts uterus, giving Mom her girly figure again. 5.
Digetive acids of Mother and less diarrhea and colic.

The First Two Years: Cognitive Development.

Paiget: Called it the Sensorimotor Stage.

Stage 1: Rooting reflex 0-4 months
Stage 2: First acquired adaptation. 1-4 months.
4-8 months, aware of significant others. Baby holds Mom’s face to see it.

Adaptation: The cognitive process by which new information is taken in and responded
to.
Assimilation: Means taking new information into the mind by incorporation it inot
previously developed mental categories or actions.
Accommodation: Means taking new information into the mind in such a way as to
readjust, refine, or expand previous schemas.

Stage 4 8-12 months: Goal Directed Behavior. Purposeful behavior.

Object Permanence. The realization that objects, and people, still exist even after
they cannot be seen, touched or heard.
Stages 5 & 6: 12- 18 months and 18-24 months. Instead of responding to their own
bodies, they tend to explore with the outside world. Little scientists.

Deferred Imitation. An infant sees what someone does and then a few hours or days
later, imitates these actions.

Habituation: The process of getting used to an event through repeated exposure to

it.

0-3 “The Critical Period” 0 is too late and 3 is too soon, to end the critical period.

Information Processing: Human processing of information begins with the input of

information by sensory messages, proceeds to the brain and connects with stored
memories, and concludes with some form of output or action.

Affordances: Information and observances upon which a child may act upon.
Depend of four factors:
Sensory awareness
Immediate motivation
Current development, and
Past experience.

Sudden Drops: aka the Visual Cliff. Babies as early as 3 months realize it, but most
see it at 6 months.

Movement and People:

Dynamic Perception: Perception that is primed to see moving objects or people.
But, babies, are also primed to be fascinated with people. Face recognition.

Memory: Very young infants can remember if three things are in play:
Situation is similar to real life
Motivation is high.
Special measures assists retrieval.
Memory for infants younger than 6 months is about a week.

Reminder Session: A perceptual experience that helps a person recollect an idea.

Children over 6 months can recollect for a longer period of time. Deferred
imitation becomes more elaborate.

Language:
Newborn: Reflexive communication. Cries
2 Months: Cooing, laughing
3-6 months: Vowel sounds growls. Baby talk. Babies prefer to listen to baby talk.
High pitched, simplified and repetitive.
 6-10 months: Babbling, consonant and vowels.
10-12 months: Comprehends simple words. Deaf babies use some sign language
similar to babbling.
12 months: First spoken words understand in the language of the baby. 2 syllable
words, baba. Mama, Dada. Later use holophrase: Dada!
13-18 months: vocabulary growth. Up to 50-100 words a month. Naming explosion.
Nouns.
18 months: Vocabulary spurt. Three or more words per day.
21 months: First two word sentences.
24 months: Multiword sentences. Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Innate
ability to put together sentence structure and grammar.

CHAPTER 7: The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development. (Includes

emotional development.)

Psychoanalytic theory:

Freud and the oral stage. Frustration at the oral stage, by weaning him too early, may
lead to an oral fixation, resulting in a constant urge to eat, drink, or chew.

Freud and the anal stage. Frustration in the anal stage, such as forced toilet training at
too early in age, results in an anal personality where he/she may seek control of self or
others and a need for regularity in all aspects of life. OCD’s.

Behaviorist’s theory:

The child’s emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish the
child’s spontaneous behavior. Children later in life learn through social learning.

Cognitive theory:

Cognitive psychologists believe that early experiences are important because they
influence our thoughts, perceptions and memories. Working model is a useful set of
assumptions that can be used as a frame of reference for the future.

Enigmatic theory: Both genetic and environmental.

Concept of temperament. Consistently based individual differences in emotion, motor

and attentional reactivity and self regulation. Based on one’s constitution, or genetic
structure, but also environmentally influenced.
Based on the following factors:
Activity level. Constantly moving in bassinets
Approach./withdrawal. Delight in new things
 Adaptability. Quickly adjust to new situations.
Intensity of reaction. Laugh loud or just smile
Distractibility.
Attention span. Not distracted by other toys.

Temperament may change, especially if the life situation changes. i.e. primary caregiver,
or formalized day care. Longitudinal study proved that changing caregivers makes a
difference. Explain a longitudinal study.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

First Year:

Newborns only have two emotions: Distress and Contentment.

Social smiles at 3 months

Laughter at 6 months.
Fear develops by 9 months. Stranger wariness and Separation anxiety.

Second Year:

One year olds who learn to run and fall, often hesitate whether to cry for falling or
laugh because running was so much fun.

Self Awareness, which a persons realization that he/she is a distinct person, whose
mind body and actions are different from others.

At 15-18 months the Me-self awareness develops. Under 12 months a mark on the
bay’s nose meant nothing.

Development of social bonds.

Synchrony. Is a coordinated interaction between caregiver and infant, who respond

to each other with split-second timing.

Attachment. Attachment is an emotional bond that one person forms with a specific
other person. Attachments formed in infancy usually last a lifetime.
-Infants show attachment through proximity-seeking behaviors, such as approaching
and following the caregiver and climbing onto the caregiver’s lap, and through
contact-maintaining behaviors, such as clinging, resisting being put down, and
looking back at their caregiver as they explore.
Secure and Insecure attachments. (Ainsworth)

Secure Attachment. Provides comfort and confidence, by first being close to the
caregiver and then willingness to explore. The caregiver provides a base for
exploration, from which the infant can feel safe to go out and explore the world.

Insecure attachment. This is characterized by an infant’s fear, anxiety, anger, or

seeming indifference toward a caregiver. The insecure child has much less confidence,
plays without trying to maintain contact with the caregiver, or unwilling to leave the
caregiver even for a moment. Insecure attachment usually develops when the caregiver is
depressed or under anxiety, not because infant has problems. Children are very resilient
and emotiuons can change as when a caregiver changes.

Strange Situation Test. Playroom, eight three minute sessions. Examine 1. exploration
of toys, secure, plays with toys, 2. reaction to caregiver’s departure, secure, shows some
signs of missing caregiver, and 3. reaction to caregiver’s return welcomes return of
caregiver.

Children raised in orphanages may develop three insecure attachment disorders:

1. deemphasizing the importance of attachment, 2. becoming hyper-tuned to
attachment experiences, and 3. developing an unusually high level of fear (p. 372).

Referencing Mom: Provide comfort, caring, and support and protection.

Referencing Dad: More encouraging, fun, emotional, boisterous, and physical. Kids
tend to laugh more and cry more with Dad.

PART III
CHAPTER 8 THE PLAY YEARS AGES 2-6

Between the ages of 2-6 significant changes occur. The most obvious changes are in size
and shape. Chubby toddlers seem to stretch, and become taller and thinner.

By age 6 the average child weighs 46 pounds and measures 47 inches. 3ft. 11 inches.

Eating Habits:

Appetites decrease between ages 2 and 6. If you see them thinner, the problem is not that
they aren’t eating enough, it is what they eat. Need Iron, and calcium, because the
cookies and milk are now cookies and juice. Tooth decay because of the sugar intake is a
problem.
Brain Development:

By 2 years, the child’s brain weighs 75% of its adult weight. By 5 years it weighs 90%.
Main cause of weight gain is myelination. Myelination is essential for fast and
complex communication. Experience affects myelination.

Connecting the brain’s Hemispheres. The corpus callosum grows and myelinates
extensively during the play years. Has 250-800 million fibers, that connect the two
hemispheres for coordinating the two halves of the brain. Because they do not have a
fully developed corpus callosum, the hemispheres of young children are more
functionally disconnected and are therefore more clumsy.
Laterization, the two sides of the brain and body specialize so that one side is
dominant for a certain function. Baby’s who sleep on their right side usually become
right handed. They do things like look at and work their right hand as they fall asleep.

Dendritic Growth and Myelinization: During these “play years” Imaginary Play is
very important for Dendritic growth which later helps in analytic thinking.
Myelinazation helps in speed of processing. Almost all of awake hours is spent in play
during these years.

The left half of the brain controls the right side of the body and contains the
areas dedicated to specific logic, detailed analysis, and the basics of language.
Notices details
The right half of the brain controls the left side of the body and generalized
emotional and creative impulses, including appreciation of most music, art and
poetry. Grasps the big picture.

Planning and Analyzing. The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the human brain
to reach maturity. (Sometimes referred to as the frontal lobe or frontal cortex.) It is
developed in humans, undeveloped in primates, and missing in rats and lower
animals. Maturation is gradual and not complete until mid-adolescence. Sleep
becomes more regular, emotions become more attune to the environment, and temper
tantrums subside by age 5. “Temper tantrums” are a result of lose of control and
being too impulsive before full development of the frontal cortex.

Educational Implications of Brain Development.

Most 6 year olds (and a few 4 and 5 year olds) are ready to do the following:
- Sit in one place for an hour
- Scan a page, from right to left, or up and down, or left to right..
- Balance the body.
- Draw with one hand.
- Listen and think before talking.
- Control emotions. (All usually caused by brain maturation.)
Motor Skills.

Body grows taller and slimmer, frontal cortex matures, and corpus callosum permits more
coordination in arms and legs.
Gross motor skills. Generally children learn motor skills from other children more
than they do their parents. High incidence of accidents due to building of corpus
callosum.
Fine motor skills. Develop as they get older because of connection in the corpus
callosum.

Artistic Expression.
During play years children are imaginative, creative, and not yet very self critical.
Love to express themselves. (Balloons v. lollipop) Ask, what is it? Don’t guess.
Human tadpoles.

CHAPTER 9 2-6 Cognitive Development.

3 year olds think that dreams come from somewhere outside your head. (God, the clouds,
your pillow), but 5 year olds know that they come from inside your head.

Piaget: The preoperational stage. ***********

At his age according to Paiget children cannot think operationally. That is they
cannot figure out logical ideas because their thinking is limited by what they see at the
moment. (Their mother is their mother but they cannot see that their mother was their
grandmother’s baby girl.)

Paiget had four reasons for this type of thought:

-Centration, is where the child focuses on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion
of all the rest. Their father is their father but he is not his uncle’s brother because they
focus on the one thing they are to them. Also a form of egocentrism. **** The
egocentrist child perceives the world only form the prospective of what they see and
know. They would comfort their mother but with a teddy bear because that is what they
know comforts.
-Focus on appearance, they focus on what they see. The taller boy is necessarily the
older boy.
-Static reasoning, is when they see the world as unchanging. It is and always will be
the way they see it now. A teacher is always a teacher and it would surprise the child to
see the teacher buying groceries because he knows hr only as a teacher and teachers don’t
need groceries.
*********-Irreversibility, means that they, at this age, fail to see that reversing a
process can sometimes restore whatever existed before the process occurred. A child will
cry because his mother put lettuce on his hamburger. (Take it away, take off the lettuce
and then return it as a “new” hamburger.)
Conservation and logic.The principle that the amount of a substance is unaffected by
changes in its appearance. The short glass v. the tall glass.

Problem with Paiget was that he would design his experiments to see what children could
not do, rather than what they could do. It has since been found out that children could in
fact do more things than Paiget thought possible.

Vygotsky: Theory theory. The idea that children that age tend to construct a theory for
everything they see and hear.

Adults should instruct and direct their children so that they grow and learn.
Concept of private speech, which is the term for internal dialogue that occurs when
people talk to themselves and through wchich new ideas are developed and reinforced.

Theory of mind: an understanding of human mental processes. Not universally accepted

but developmental psychologist agree that preschoolers develop a theory of mind. It is
something that occurs between ages 3-6 when children come to realize that mental
phenomena may not reflect reality. Theory of mind is the concept that individuals can
believe untrue things and, therefore, that people can be deliberately deceived or fooled.

“Candy” box full of pencils. A 3 year old will believe that it has candy, but when the box
is opened, it is full of pencils. Then when he is told that his friend will see the box, the
child believes that his friend will know that there are pencils in the box, because he
knows that there are.
Even at age 4 they play hide and seek by hiding in the same place over and over.
Is theory of Mind nature or nurture? Studies seem to indicate that prefrontal cortex is
underdeveloped at age 3 and 4, but then develops by age 5 and 6.
(Note) Greater language development seems to add to theory of Mind understanding.

Lnaguage. Emergent Literacy is the skills necessary to learn to read. By talking to

their young children and reading to them, parents can give them emergent literacy.

Was believed that 2-6 years was a critical period for language acquisition, this is not so,
those years are a sensitive period in which language should be learned but not a critical
period in which it must be learned. Sensitive period because 2-6 is when vocabulary,
grammar, and pronunciation can be rapidly and easily learned mostly because young
children have a powerful social motivation and an absence of sel-criticism.

Vocabulary
Fast Mapping: A fast, but not yet proved way, to acquire new vocabulary by mentally
charting new words into interconnected categories. Called fast mapping because rather
than stopping to figure out an exact definition and waiting until a word has been
understood in several contexts, the child simply hears a word once or twice and sticks it
on a mental language map of existing words. i.e. Nepal, people can figure out its general
location but not the exact place it is located. For children, “big” means tall, oldest, or
great.
Grammar Even at 3 children put the subject before the verb and the adjective before the
noun.

Two languages. Most experts agree that children can and should learn two languages
and that early childhood is the best time to do so. There is sometimes some confusion
with grammar but children are again able to master it. Children with two languages are
less egocentric and have a more advanced Theory of Mind. Some countries even
require two languages, i.e. Canada, Switzerland, and Netherland.

Early Education. Developmental early schools tend to develop the skills necessary for
the 1st grade. I.e. reading, playing with others, colors shapes, sitting and listening.
Child centered early schools tend to allow children to learn at their own pace, where the
child is given materials and space that encourages play but as the child wants it.
 * * Early school programs do in fact prepare the child for school, but by six, there
is usually gap between the fast learners and the ones that will take more time.
Child Maltreatment (Child Abuse or Child Neglect)
Hypervigilance. Excessive watchfulness is the inability to concentrate and nervously
looking around.
Failure to thrive. Doesn’t gain weight despite having a natural appetite.

Injuries and Abuse

-Among children, those between ages 1-4 are most vulnerable to accidental death or
injury. Immature prefrontal cortex so they plunge into dangerous situations.

-For the very young, falls are the most often cause for injuries. In the pre-schoolers
fatal accidents are most often caused by poisons, drowning, fire or choking’s.

Injury control and not Accident Prevention because this implies that injuries can be
controlled or minimized.
Less than half of the injuries are due to falls. Now, most injuries are due to
drowning.
Damage is reduced because of safety surfaces (McDonalds), new laws, such as seat
belts and safety helmets, and aspirins come in smaller bottles.

Three levels of prevention;

Primary prevention, changing the overall background of the situation so as to make
it safer. Seat belt laws speed bumps, pedestrian overpasses.

Secondary prevention, Actions that avert harm to individuals, such as stopping a car
before it hits someone. Flashing lights for school buses. Child proof caps. Ipecac not
used for poisons anymore. Now they recommend that you not give them anything to eat
or drink and call poison control. If your child swallowed poison

If you find your child with an open or empty container of a nonfood item, your child may
have been poisoned. Stay calm and act quickly.
First, get the item away from your child. If there is still some in your child's mouth, make
him spit it out or remove it with your fingers. Keep this material along with anything else
that might help determine what your child swallowed.

Take the poison container with you to help the doctor determine what was swallowed.
Do not make your child vomit because it may cause more damage.

If a child is unconscious, not breathing, having convulsions or having seizures,

call 911 or your local emergency number right away.

If your child does not have these symptoms, call the poison center at 1-800-222-1222.
You may be asked for the following information:

 Your name and phone number.

 Your child's name, age, and weight.
 Any medical conditions your child has.
 Any medicine your child is taking.
 The name of the item your child swallowed. Read it off the container and
spell it.
 The time your child swallowed the poison (or when you found your child),
and the amount you think was swallowed.

Tertiary prevention, is limiting the damage done after the accident. Such as
emergency rooms specializing in the injured. The “golden hour.”

Child Maltreatment. Defined as intentional harm or injury to anyone under the age of
18.
Child abuse. Deliberate action that is harmful to a child’s physical, emotional, or sexual
well-being.
Child neglect. Failure to meet a child’s basic physical, educational, or emotional needs.
Waning signs, neglected children, by school age they tend to be witdrawn and self-
critical. Abuse children tend to be aggressive; At all ages maltreated children have less
friends.
Also,
-Unexplained accidents or inconsistent injuries.
-Repeated injuries.
-Fantasy play that is dominated by violence.
-Ongoing physical complaints such as stomach aches, headaches, or genital pain.
-No close friendships, hostility towards others, bullying small children.
-Frequent absences from school
-Expressions of fear, rather than joy, upon seeing the caregiver.
Standard of Care for CPS involvement: Child must be abused or neglected.
Not the “Best Interest of the Child” Custody cases.

Shaken Baby Syndrome; This is when you hold ghe baby by its shoulders and shake
the baby back and forth until you “accidentally break the baby’s neck.
 Capitol murder in Texas to intentionally kill a child under the age of 6 which in Texas
includes anything after conception. Life in prison without parole or the Death
Penalty.

Cognitive skill of private speech develops at this age.

Emotional development:
Externalizing problems, this is when a child externalizes his problems, or blames
others for his frustrations. He tends to lash out at others and is often aggressive.
Internalizing problems, means that a child internalizes his problems and inhibits the
expression of his emotions, including feeling sad, happy, or concerned. Is often
fearful and withdrawn.

Emotional Intelligence, begins to develop at this age and includes being aware of
ones own emotions, such as frustration, and the child learns to control this. Also,
includes being aware of other’s emotional state and develops empathy. Very important
that hey develop this in order to be aware of and feel for other’s emotions.
-Learns to control other emotions such as rushes of fear, anger, and other passionate
emotions that come from the amygdale.

Sharing. Comes from empathy which is a true understanding of the emotions of another
including what may make another feel better.

Aggression. Me First! Children with less emotional control of aggression at ages 3 and
4, were seen later by teachers to be more hostile and hyperactive by age 5. Emotions
need to be regulated, not repressed.

Learning social skill through play. Children play mostly with other children, even
though they play alone and with adults.
Rough and tumble play, is when kids play, in apparent violent ways, look at their
faces and if they are all smiling, then it is ok. Being active is better with other
children than alone because they develop muscle control and collateralization.
Sociodramatic play, is when children act out roles and characters from movies or
adults they see. Remember that this also includes bad adult behavior.

CAVEAT: Be aware of cultural differences in rearing children. i.e. leaving the child
outside of the café in France.

END OF PART II
CHAPTER 11: 6-11 Middle Childhood.

“The Healthy Years” Generally marked by less illnesses. *********

Growing still occurs but slows down, allowing for coordination caused by further
development of the corpus callosum, allowing for further lateralization.

Age 10, average weight is 70 lbs and height is at 4 ½ feet.

Kids this age notice their similarities rather than their differences.

Childhood Obesity. 20% above the norm is considered obese.

-Environmental factors include that fact that children used to stay out playing until it
got dark. Now they stay inside watching television or playing games.
-Hispanics have the highest rate of childhood obesity. Immigrant parents not ready
for junk food, videos and inactivity.

Asthma. (Inflammation of the airways) Most common cause for missing school.
-Alergants trigger asthma but do not cause it (pet hair, dust, mites, cockroaches, and
air pollution.) ***********
-Atlanta Olympics Study. With decrease of air pollutants, 40% fewer reports of
asthma attacks or problems. Proper school and home ventilation will help.

Brain Development.
-Emotional regulation, theory of mind, left-right coordination, and pre-frontal cortex
develops.
-Automation. A process by which thoughts and action are repeated in sequence until
they become automatic or routine and no longer need much conscious thought.
Neurons firing together become automatic. **********
-Reaction time increases due to myelination of the axons in neurons.

Intelligence.

Aptitude: Potential to learn or master a particular skill.

I.Q. Tests:

Stanford Binet Intelligence Test: First devised by Binet to determine if children

were at the same “grade” level as other children in the same age and grade level.
He devised a test for third graders (age 8) and normed it for third graders, and so
on. Then he could test a child to see if he was in the same grade level as others
his age. If not, he could tell what grade level the child was and could adjust his
education. Stanford University later made it an IQ test by norming it to the
population. *********
 WAIS (C) Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children. Questions are read out
loud. (Reading the question just tests the person’s comprehension rather than true
intelligence.) The WAIS takes into account cultural differences, or other types of
intelligence other than scholastic.

Criticisms of IQ Tests.
Other types of Intelligence:

Academic. (IQ tests)

Creative. (Imaginative)
Practical. (Everyday, common sense)
Also
Linguistic, Logical (mathematical), Musical, Spatial (putting the missing
pieces together), Kinesthetic (body movement), and Naturalistic (nature and
farming).

Indonesian child dancer.

Children with Special Needs. Is a child who, because of a physical or mental disability,
requires extra help in order to learn.

In 2000, 13% of children required special attention and statistics have been increasing
yearly.

-Echolalia: the tendency to repeat words, phrases, or t.v. jungles.

-Repetitive movements.
-Evidence to date does not support the idea that inoculations cause it. Denmark
longitudinal study.

Asperger syndrome. Less severe autism, normal speech, impaired social interaction.
Seem normal until 2-3 years. Low IQ scores but high in some areas.

ADD and AD/HD Attention Deficit Disorder and Attention Deficit/Hyperactive

Disorder.

ADD: Difficulty concentrating but not impulsive or overactive. Prone to anxiety

and depression. Lost thought, spaced out or distracted.

AD/HD: 1. Inattention. 2. Impulsive. 3. Overactive.

Types:
ADHD Combined Type 6 symptoms of hyper and 6 of
inattention for 6 months.
ADHD Predominately Inattentive Type. 6 Inattention
 ADHD Predominately Hyperactive-Impulsive Type. 6 of
Hyper-Impulsive.

Repeatedly look up, ask irrelevant questions, get water, fidget, tap tables,
etc. Origin is partly neurological, i.e. Dopamine, and it occurs 4x more
often in boys than in girls.
TREATMENT
Classroom intervention, which is form of behavioral therapy, but
includes the teacher and the parents.
Behavioral Therapy, reward good behavior, BUT have to be precise and
not reward bad behavior
Ritalin (amphetamine), but some believe that this is additive, and in the
U.S. we prescribe this 5x more than any other country.
Not Aderrall. (banned in Canada)

AAP American Association of Pediatricians, recommends child specific,

individualized treatment with a goal of maximizing function to improve
relationships and performance at school and decrease disruptive behavior,
promote safety and increase independence and self esteem.

There is much disagreement over the most effective methods of treatment of

ADHD especially regarding the use of drugs to calm the hyperactive child, and yet the
use of medications has wide appeal to the medical community, including school nurses,
(Butcher, 2010), and the most commonly used medication is Ritalin. Unfortunately,
Ritalin has several harmful side effects including decreased blood flow to the brain,
disruption of the growth hormone, insomnia, and psychotic symptoms. In fact, Ritalin is
pharmacologically similar to cocaine.
Nonetheless, Ritalin works as an amphetamine, but it has the reverse effect on
children, as opposed to the effects of amphetamines on adults. Ritalin has a quieting
effect on children, and decreases over activity and distractibility, while at the same time
increasing alertness. A recent NIMH study, (Jensen, 2007), concluded that medication
treatment of ADHD can make a long-term difference for some children if it is
appropriately continued and initiated early in the child’s clinical course. (Butcher, 2010).
There are now also behavioral techniques used to treat hyperactive children in lieu
of, or in conjunction with, pharmaceutical treatment. These behavioral treatments
include selective reinforcement in the classroom, and other behavioral treatments that
involve positive reinforcement and the structuring of learning materials and tasks in a
way that minimizes error and maximizes immediate feedback and success. (Butcher,
2010). It appears that the most successful programs for long term success, involve a
combination of medication along with behavioral therapy, but it should be noted that
often the symptoms of ADHD diminish on their own over time.

New Study: 1/22/13 Statistical analysis indicates that specialist have diagnosed more
ADHD in children from parents who make $90,000.00 per year.
 Learning Disabilities. Having a marked delay in a particular area of learning,
not associated with a physical handicap, retardation, or stressful
environment at home.

Dyslexia. Unusual difficulty reading. Difficulty is usually matching

sounds to letters. Early detection = Early treatment. **********

--Specific developmental dyslexia is a disorder manifested by difficulty

learning to read despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence,
and adequate sociocultural opportunity. It is dependent upon fundamental
cognitive disabilities that are frequently of constitutional origin.

Pre-school age children

It is difficult to obtain a certain diagnosis of dyslexia before a child begins school, but
many dyslexic individuals have a history of difficulties that began well before
kindergarten. Children who exhibit these symptoms have a higher risk of being
diagnosed as dyslexic than other children. Some of these symptoms are:

 Delays in speech
 Learns new words slowly
 Has difficulty rhyming words, as in nursery rhymes
 Low letter knowledge
 Letter reversal, ex: e b f p (normal)

 Early primary school-age children

 Difficulty learning the alphabet or in order

 Difficulty with associating sounds with the letters that represent them (sound-
symbol correspondence)
 Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in
words (phonological awareness)
 Difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds, or blending sounds to make
words (phonemic awareness)
 Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems
 Difficulty learning to decode words
 Difficulty distinguishing between similar sounds in words; mixing up sounds in
multisyllable words (auditory discrimination) (for example, "aminal" for animal,
"bisghetti" for spaghetti)
 Education techniques.
IEP: Individual Education Plan.

*********Mainstreaming. A policy mandated by (Educating of All

Handicapped Children Act of 1975). Handicapped children must be
taught in “least restrictive environment.” Taught with others. Gives as
much freedom as possible, and lends to same instruction as other children.
Resource Room. Children of special needs. Teachers trained and
equipped to take care of needs.
Inclusion. Policies under which learning – disabled children are included
in regular class, but are supervised by trained teacher. The hope is that
other children will learn more from inclusion than miss the teacher’s
attention.

CHAPTER 12 Middle Childhood Cognitive Development.

Paiget:

Concrete Operational Thought

Identity Objects remain the same even if you change their appearance. Tall
glass, fat glass.

Reversibility Change back to original form

Good time to teach them morals, authority figures, and rules.

Information processing:
Memory, Sensory memory, Short term Memory, and Long Term Memory.
Speed of processing, comes with Myelinization of the axons.
Knowledge Base, that body of knowledge that has come with education and
experience that forms the base of what we know about particular things.
Selective attention. I sthe ability to screen distracters and focus on what we are
concentrating on.
Automatic thoughts, are things we do and can do due without paying specific
attention, due to experience and practice that
Metacognition. “Thinking about thinking.” It is the ability to evaluate a cognitive
task te determine how best to accomplish it, and then monitor and adjust one’s
performance on that task.

Language, recognize tone versus content.

Reading Phonics is best for learning reading.

Math skills. Rote (memorizing times tables) learning v. Concepts and wrong
answers.
Bilingualism. Total immersion

CHAPTER 13 Middle Childhood Psychosocial Development

Latency. Freud’s term, during which children’s emotional drives are quieter, their
psychosexual needs are repressed and their unconscious conflicts are submerged.

Seek to learn and develop any skills valued by culture:

Dance, Dress up like Batman, Little grown up ladies.

Shed dependence on parents.

Child understands that they can be nice and mean. Good in math and bad in English.

Social Comparison. Tendency to assess one’s abilities, achievements, and social

status by measuring them with others.

**********Peer Group. A group of individuals roughly the same age and social
status who play together, works and learns together. Younger children play together
but are egocentric and unaffected by rejections or acceptance. In this age, it matters.
Friends become important and not just play things.

Friends and Friendship. *********Friendship becomes very important.

-Children from violent and non-violent homes have the same number of
acquaintances, but those from violent homes have fewer friends.
-Friendships become more intense and intimate.
- Demand more from their friends, change friends less often, and find it harder to
make new friends.
-By age 10 they have one “best friend.” ****** Especially amongst girls.
-Rules of bonding at this age include, but also, exclude some.
-First years of elementary school are the time of greatest shift as some children learn
to act in pro-social rather than antisocial ways and thus attain more social acceptance.
-Friends and friendships buffer against loneliness and depression.

Families and Children.

Children absolutely need families. ********

-Provide food, clothing, and shelter.

-Encourage learning.
-Develop self esteem. Make them feel competent, loved, and appreciated.
-Nurture friendships. Provide time space, opportunity, and social skills to have
friendships.
-Provide harmony and stability. Feel safe and secure, with protective and predictable
family routines. “Traditions.”

Family Structures.

Nuclear Family. Husband wife and biological children. ******

Stepparent Family. One step parent in family with biological children of the
other parent.

Blended Family. Household includes children born in previous marriages as

well as to the current family.

Adoptive Family. Adoptive parents.

Single Mother never married. Usually under age 22, but eventually marries, mostly
to father of child.

Single mother divorced.

Single father divorced or never married.

Grandparent family. Grandparents raise child or children without parents, usually

because parents are dead, imprisoned, or on drugs.

Extended family. At least one parent and children live with grandparents. Very
common among Latino and Asian families.

Homosexual families. Usually a result of children being in a home where the parents
divorce and one of the parents is homosexual and
sometimes takes on a partner, sometimes does not.

Foster family. Kinship care (being put in a home with your uncles or aunts because
of abuse or neglect.), or stranger care.

Coping with stress:

Although most experience some stresses, school-age children tend to be resilient.

Many cope well with major problems-learning disabilities,
immigration, social rejection, families that are not
supportive, poverty, violence.

Children benefit from:

Social support (perhaps a best friend, or grandparent.)

Natural Assets. Intelligence winning personality, a special skill.

 Personal strengths. Religious beliefs can be psychologically protective. Religion
provides the idea that there is a place better than where we
*******live and that there is Being that is all accepting,
always there, never turns His back on one, and always
lends support, and love.

Adolescence

Definition includes the biological, psychological, and cognitive development and

transition from childhood to adulthood.

Puberty: Period of rapid growth and sexual maturation that occurs in early adolescence
and produces adult size, shape and sexual potential.

Girls: Breast growth, pubic hair, growth spurt, widening of hips and 1st
menstruation.
Boys: Growth of testes, penis, pubic hair, 1st ejaculation and growth.

Hormones: Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands. Estrogen and

Testosterone

Emotions: Rapid arousal, extremes in emotional expression (Happy->Angry).

Mood changes a day or two before menstruation. Not really hormones.

Factors for onset of Puberty: Average onset is between 9-15 years, average is 12.
Factors include sex, genes, body fat (lack thereof delays puberty), and
Stress: 1. Conflicted relationships within family, 2. Unrelated man at home. Longer at
home earlier menstruation.

Growth Spurts: Extremities first, toes, fingers, feet, hands arms then body.
Girls ¼ of body fat for growth and babies.
Boys Strength increases 150% more between ages 13-18.
Health hazards: Bad eating habits, too much fat, salt and sugar in diets. Not
enough calcium and iron.

Sex: ¼ by age 14. ½ by age 17. 90% by age 21. STD’s. By senior year, 22%
have had 4 partners. Lots of problems if having a baby 1-2 years after start of
menstruation.
Child Sex Abuse: Erotic activity that arouses the adult, but shames, confuses the
child. Includes photos. Dissociative Disorder. (Multiple Personality)
Sex in high school. The early bird is later careless. But teaching contraceptives does
not increase sexual activity, it does increase use among those already active in sex. Teen
pregnancy declines and contraceptive use increases.

Gateway drugs. Lead to drug abuse and addiction. Tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana.
95% of those that started with this said they thought they would quit by age 21.

CHAPTER 15 Cognitive Development

Thinking Develops: Hypothetical thought. (Imagined situations) Do not have to

actually experience everything to know it’s true.
Deductive reasoning. Start with various options and eliminate
wrong choices until you have the one answer.
Inductive reasoning. Start with one answer and deduce various
other options or answers without having to eliminate the other
possibilities.
Introspection: Freud’s methodology of psychology because just
observing did not always answer everything.
Analytical Thought: Rational analysis of many factors whose
interaction must be separately calculated.

Invincibility Fable. Because of egocentrism, they believe they are invincible. Risk
taking, including unprotected sex, and experimentation with drugs.

Personal Fable: He/She is destined to have a unique, heroic life.

Imaginary audience. Everyone watching him/her. Because of egocentrism, believe that

others are interested in him and watching him. Pimples.

CHAPTER 16 Adolescent Psychosocial Development.

Identity: A consistent definition of one’s self as unique individual, roles, attitudes,

beliefs, and aspirations.

Possible Self: Try outs. Visions both positive and negative of what we might become.

False self: Acting in ways they know are contrary to core beliefs. (Anorexics,
“socials”)

Identity diffusion: situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care
what his identity is. (Tend to sleep, be lazy and watch t.v.)

In order to interact with others, one must first know oneself.

The Self Concept:

Functions of the Self Concept. Overall the self concept serves as an organizer of
information about one self.
Self Verification is the tendency to seek out and retain information that confirms
our self concept. We want our self concept to remain consistent over time to give
us a sense of stability. This need for consistency can lead us to reject new ideas
even if they are good for us.
Self Enhancement is the basic human need for feel good about ourselves. The
need to maintain a positive self image of ousrselves.

Exercise: I am, ________. 10x

Self Esteem The degree to which we are satisfied with our self concept. It is the
emotional component of the self, in contrast to the self concept, which is the cognitive
component. It is the difference between what we think of our self and what we would
like ourselves to be, the ideal self. If you don’t like your self, such that it lowers your
self esteem, then you should change your behavior or your environment.

Exercise: I wish I was, _________. 5x

Functions of Self Esteem. It provides two important aspect of life: a sense of

belonging and a sense of meaningfulness. A level of acceptance that one feels
from his/her environment. If the feed back is positive then one thrives in that
environment, because if the feedback is negative, then we feel a low self esteem
and we are not happy with ourselves.

Exercise: My relationship with my boyfriend/husband is ___________.

My relationship with my sister/brother is, _______________.

My relationship with my parents is, ____________________.

My relationship with my friends is, ____________________.

Development of Self Esteem. First, it is influenced by feedback from others.

Positive regard, is positive feedback, good feelings and acceptance.

Unconditional positive regard, giving and receiving positive regard in all

situations. Good for children.

Conditional positive regard, is when positive regard is given only in

certain situations. This gives children a sense of hopelessness and lowers
self esteem. This is the one where power struggles occur. Those who you
 love and respect have power over your self esteem and you have power
over the self esteem of those who love and respect you.

Stability of Self Esteem. Does self esteem remain stable over time, over
does it fluctuate up and down as a result of positive and negative events.
Answer: it fluctuates during childhood, but tends to stabilize in
adolescence and into adulthood.
Trait self esteem remains stable over time. The way you think of
yourself as a mother, a nurse, etc.
State self esteem is the type of self esteem that is vulnerable to
momentary fluctuations. Whether, at the moment, you are being a
good lover, or friend.

Self Efficacy. The extent to which we believe we are capable fo achieving our
goals. Self efficacy reflects what we think about ourselves and self esteem reflects
how we feel about ourselves. Self efficacy is influenced by both our thoughts and our
emotions. Self efficacy is the knowledge of what we need to do to get to where we
want to be.
It begins to develop in childhood and continues to be influenced by our
experiences. In children, it is best developed by setting high but
achievable goals. *** This is hurt by setting goals that are too high and
cannot be achieved. This is the same for adults.

Identity Achievement: Reaching one’s goals dreams or at least preparing for the
future. A child can achieve this if he knows where he is going and what his goals are.
Gives him a sense of purpose (like old people who feel needed and wanted, not just
“in the way.”)

Gender Identity: The acceptance of roles and behaviors that society associates with
biological category.
Psychosocial Problems:

Risk taking behavior includes

1. Experimentation with drugs
2. Sex without contraception
3. Delinquent behavior
4. Risky driving

Social control factors;

1. Lack of strong bonds to societal institutions, such as schools, churches and work.
2. Membership with unconventional peer groups such as gangs.

Types of stressors;
1. Major life changes (divorce, deaths, changing schools).
2. Chronic stressful conditions (poverty, family conflicts).
3. Hassles (teasing, sibling problems)
Outcomes (results);
1. Internalized disorders (anxiety, depression, headaches.) Internalization is when
the adolescent takes in his problems rather than openly expressing himself.
Blames himself and thinks it’s all his fault, or he is defective.
2. Externalized disorders (behavior/conduct problems, drug use.) Blames others
for his problems and takes it out on others. Bullying behavior. Criminal
behavior. Drug abuse

Possible solutions
1. Good identity development. Competence in sports or social groups.
2. Problem focused coping. Taking steps to change stressors.
3. Emotion focused coping. Change one’s emotional response to stress. Avoidance
or distraction.

Drug or alcohol Use.

Prevalence. Most of the time experimentation and not addiction.

1. Almost all teens have used alcohol.

2. Cigarettes are next in use. Involvement in sports greatly decreases this.
3. Gateway drugs but is mostly temporary.
4. Experimentation: ¼ of 8th graders use alcohol regularly. 10% of 6th graders
use some alcohol. 20% of 8th graders use inhalants. 15% of 8th graders use
M.J., and smoking usually begins in 7th or 8th grades.

Causes and consequences.

Experimenters will usually stop on their own but best if they are rational
abstainers. Have a good reason to abstain rather than forced.

Protective (Positive) Factors.

1. Positive mental health, high self esteem (encourage and compliment).

2. Close family relationships. Traditions and outings.
3. Involvement in religious activities.

Antisocial Behavior.

1. There has been a steady increase in incidence of delinquent behavior.

2. Teens most likely to be victims as well as perpetrators.
3. Aggression and violence linked to poverty. Sometimes used a a means to obtain
status.
Causes.
1. The earlier the child commits offense the more problematic.
2. Familial factors.
a. Disorganized families
b. Hostile or neglectful
c. Mistreated children.
d. Failure to instill rules and norms
e. Aggressive parent(s).
f. Poor monitoring by parents.
3. Individual characteristics.
a. History of violence and aggression
b. Usually score low in standardized tests.
c. Poor peer relationships.
d. Interpret ambiguous situations with others as deliberate and hostile.
e. Tend to react aggressively and retaliate.

4. Prevention and treatment.

a. Best programs involve families and are not individualized treatment.

b. Early academic intervention.
c. Change aggression to acceptable means of expression.
d. Teach socially acceptable alternatives.
e. Family/parenting skills.

Runaways

1. Most runaway for a day or two only.

2. Most stay in the community and not go to LA.
3. Manifestations of problems:
Delinquency
Drop out of school
Liberal sexual activity
Drug use.

Suicide

Statistics 66% contemplate suicide but can be talked out of it. 30% are indecisive.
And only 3-5% will complete suicide.

Early warning signs.

1. Direct suicide threats or comments, ie “My family would be better off without
me.” “I have nothing to live for.”
2. Previous suicide attempt.
3. Preoccupation with death either in music, art or personal writings.
 4. Recent loss of family member, pet, boy/girlfriend, through death or
abandonment, or break-up.
5. Family disruptions such as relocation, divorce, or unemployment.
6. Disturbances in sleeping and eating habits personal hygene.
7. Declining interest in school or hobbies that were important to him before.
8. Extreme changes in behavior, shy to gregarious, or the opposite.
9. Pervasive sense of gloom, helplessness, and hopelessness.
10. Withdrawal from family members, friends and significant others.
11. Giving away prized possessions, or “getting affairs in order.”
12. Series of accidents or risk taking behavior.
What to do if you suspect suicidal behavior?

1. Do not ignore the warning signs. Do not refuse to talk to the person. Do not
react with horror, disapproval, or repulsion.
2. Ask direct straightforward questions, such as “are you thinking of committing
suicide, or hurting yourself?”
3. Assess seriousness of intent by asking questions about relatives, friends and
significant others and extent of suicidal thoughts. ***If the situation is serious,
such as if they have pills or knife, or gun, stay with then until help arrives.
4. Listen and be supportive without being judgmental and without giving false
assurances.
5. Encourage and assist the person in obtaining professional help.
6. Do not abandon the person after the crises have passed or help has been obtained,
there must have been a reason why you were approached in the first place.

END SECTION 3
EARLY ADULTHOOD:

Usually FROM AGE 20-35 Prime of their lives.

Maximum height girls at age 16 Boys at age 18/21

20’s Girls reach full breast and hip size Boys full shoulder and upper arm size

Senescence: Defined start when overall growth stops. Influenced by genes, environment
and personal choices.
Strength peaks at around age 25.
Collegen Begins to reduce at about 1% per year. Connective tissue for the body and
skin. Skin becomes less thinner, less flexible and wrinkles appear.
Hair: Graying hair can begin at age 30, as well as loss of hair.
Visual Acuity. For both far and near vision.
Hearing. Maximum acuity at age 10 but loss of hearing at age 60.
Sex differences. Both men and women experience aging the same but women seem to
think that they enter middle age sooner.
Real differences. Reproductive functions women. Men as risk takers. = less men at
older ages.

Sexual Responsiveness. At every age, all follow Arousal, Excitement, Orgasm, and
Refraction.
Arousal and Excitement take longer in older men. Women approaching middle
adulthood have more interest in arousal and orgasm. So men peak in 20’s and women in
30’s .

Fertility. Young adulthood is best time for having a baby. Maximum fertility in early
20’s. In 2000, 85% of babies had a mother younger than 35 and a father younger than 45.
Infertility defined as not being able to conceive after 1 year of trying. Age 19-26
unprotected sex 50%, 27-34- 40%, and 35-39- 30%.
-Those women who try after age 40, 50% fail, or end in miscarriages.
-Most doctors recommend that would be mother’s try before age 30 and would be
fathers before age 40 to increase probability.
-In vitro fertilization. A technique in which the egg is removed from the woman
and fertilized by the man’s sperm. After several divisions, then inserted into woman.
Surrogate mother. In vitro fertilization from both mother and father (married) then
inserted into surrogate mother for carrying and delivery.

Drugs and Drug Addiction. A condition of drug dependence in which the absence of a
given drug drives them to seek more. Endorphins the boy’s natural high, and increasing
the level.

Depression. Between ages 20-35 15% women and 8% of men experience a major
depression episode.
Schizophrenia. Less than 1 %. Onset is usually ages 35-45 but may occur sooner or
later.
Early Adulthood, Cognitive Development.

Subjective thought v. Objective thought v. Emotions.

Dialectical thought. Being able to see the thesis and antithesis of a situation at the same
time to arrive at a Synthesis.
Thesis. The situation at hand and a possible solution.
Antithesis. The opposite view of the thesis and the arguments that support it.
Synthesis. Being able to see through the emotional arguments of both sides and
selecting the one that objectively works best, or a combination of the two.

College. Objective thought. Delayed Gratification.

Psychosocial Development.

Adults tend to establish a career between ages 22-28, but change jobs an average of 9
times and sometimes even change vocations mid-stream.

Freud. States that adulthood consists of “love and work”

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs.

Physiological Needs Food and drink

Safety Needs shelter and house
Love and Belonging
Success and Esteem
Self Actualization

Other Social Factors:

20’s Married Finished education (Identity)
30’s Children Intimacy
Good provider.
Social Clock Social timetable for certain events. Socially acceptable “best times” for
events, i.e. driving, drinking, voting, getting married and mortgages.

Low SES High SES

Finish school 18 30
Marry 18 32
1st Baby 19 34
Last baby 30 (3-4) 40 2
Employed full time 20-50 30-60
Grandmother 40 65
Friendships.

Attractiveness, Availability, Not Excluded. Exclusionary rules, strong filters.

Gender differences.
Men friends share activities and interests. Sports work, politics, cars. Fix problem
Women are more intimate and emotional, share confidences and assistance,
relationships.. Just listen to me.

COMMUNICATION

First Meetings. Social psychologists “onion theory” Not too quickly.

Communication fosters mutual understanding, increases emotional intimacy, and

helps deepen feelings of love and intimacy.

How men and women communicate differently.

Men, see the world in a hierarchical way. Me first, I win! Solve the
problem. Head nodding.
Women, see the world as a network of interactions and relationships, with
friends, family and partners. Don’t solve the problem, just listen.

Nonverbal communication. Includes eye contact, or lack thereof,

head nodding, gestures, and touching. Uncomfortable men fail to
maintain eye contact or sit still.

Effective Communication.
Get the job done. If you have a message to relay, relay the
message!
Don’t just think about “what” you want to say, but also “how”
you are going to say it.
Think about where you are going to talk.
Self disclosure is critical for moving forward in a relationship, for
both of you, but remember the onion theory. Keeping quiet is safer
than disclosure, but not good in a relationship. Don’t talk about
everything at once.

Orgasm: for both men and women, you should let your partner know that
you have climaxed, or had an orgasm. Men, especially, want to know that
you have.
Love: Sternberg’s triangle of Love. (467)

Passionate Love----Intimate Love-------Companionate Love.

Marriage: Proportion of unmarried adults is higher than ever before

Only 10% of brides are virgins
Rate of divorce is 50%, based on marriages to divorces.
Rate of marriage in young adults is lowest in years.

Marriage is defined as the institution whereby men and women are joined in a special
kind of social and legal dependence for the purpose of founding and maintaining a
family; and intimate or close union.

Why do People Get Married?

1. To have company. Nobody wants to be alone.

Single men, especially, tend to be more drinkers, health problems
and mental health problems.
Married men are less drinkers, smoke less, and are less risk takers.
Perpetuate their off spring. A need to look to the future and be
able to see beyond themselves.

2. It is an organizer of natural desires. A way to handle sex drives and a

need to procreate.
3. It is a contract. In the days of old England. Marriages were arranged and
it was a contract that could not be broken.
4. Marriage is a social good. The health of a marriage was necessary for
the good of society and for the upbringing of the children.
5. Marriage is a sacrament and a covenant. Thomas Aquinas made
marriage a commitment parallel to man’s faithfulness to God.
6. Marriage as Communicative Reality. It is between equal individuals for
mutual comfort and assistance. It is for the greater good economically,
politically, and for companionship. Knowing what you want (Identity)
makes you a better listener and helps you communicate it to your partner.

What Reasons to Not Get Married For:

1. Expect or anticipate a change in personality. I know he is not the
way I want him to be, but he will change for the better.
2. Re-Bound Relationship. Most of these end in divorce because you
don’t get to know each other.
3. Looking for Happiness. Marriage is not a cure for depression. It
does not life the black cloud over yur head. Unhappy before, probably
unhappy after.
4. Different Life goals. Must be on the same page before get married.
Children, future career.
5. Keeping the true Self Hidden.
Extra marital Affairs:

Emotional Sexual Combined

Couple actually Just having sex Both fall in love and
Fall in love Physical only enjoy sex with each other
40% survivability 60-70% 10% survivability
Survivability

What makes marriages work:

-Maturity at time of marriage. The younger the less likely.
-Homogamy which is marriage between individuals who are similar in
attitudes, interests, goals, religion, and socioeconomic status. Social
homogamy, which is similarity in leisure interests and role preferences.

Primary Aging v. Secondary Aging.

Tobacco, alcohol, obesity.

Longitudinal Studies.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:

OCEAN

Personality Traits. Neuroticism-- Anxious, Extroversion, Moody, critical

Extrovesion outgoing, assertive, active
Opennes—Imaginative, curious, artistic
Agreeableness-- Kind, helpful, easygoing
Conscientiousness—organized, deliberate, conforming, self
disciplined.

Menopause: Women
-Sometime between ages 42-58 ovulation and menstruation stop, usually because of
marked decrease in hormones, especially estrogen. Menopause is dated one year
after the woman’s last menstrual cycle.
- Smoking and malnutrition cause it to start earlier. Hysterectomy also causes to
start earlier. Begins with shorter menstrual cycles and then they become erratic.
- Reduction of estrogen can lead to osteoporosis, and deposits of fat in the arteries
leading to heart problems. Usually not experienced until late adulthood.
- May experience “hot flashes” caused by temporary disruption of the homeostasis
in the body. Also, clammy hands.
- Loss of estrogen also leads to drier skin, less lubrication during excitement stage
of relations, and some loss of breast tissue.
- HRT “Hormone Replacement therapy) Estrogen pills. Women’s Health
Initiative, on a longitudinal study (thousands of women over 10 years) has
 proven that HRT increases chances of heart disease, stroke and breast cancer, and
does not really reduce the effects on senility. (U.S. Preventive Task Force 2002)
- Recent studies, however, have refuted this study on the basis that the study was
done in New England and included many smokers which amounted to a
confounding variable in the study. HRT does seem to work during the
menopausal period but then switching to estrogen vaginal cream, or asitil which
helps with osteoporosis and replaces estrogen. Vaginal estrogen cream.

Men:
- Men continue to produce sperm all their life, and do not experience a sudden drop
of testosterone as do women, however, the level produced is lower as evidenced
by a longer excitement period and refractory period in relations. Affected by lack
of sexual activity, financial or marital worries, and unwanted retirement.

Midlife Crises:
- A period of unusual anxiety, radical re-examination and sudden transformation
around age 40.
- No real evidence to support the phenomena. If anything it was a “60’s thing.”
- Actually women have more of a re-birth, feeling that they con do “corrections” in
their life and live a better life. (Stewart and Ostrove, 1998)
- Myth is a result of certain personal changes that do occur during this time:
-Notice graying hair
-Birthdays are seen as years to live, rather than years since birth, less time to
accomplish life’s goals. Some see it as last chance to divorce and remarry or an
extra marital fling. Men are “risk takers” so there are less men and more
women.
-Such changes and reactions to life’s events have more to do with personality than
chronological clock.
Men tend to re-examine things and want to replace.
Women tend to re-examine and adjust their situation.

Cougars: A 35+ year old female who is on the "hunt" for a much younger,
energetic, willing-to-do-anything male. A woman in her sexual prime who
prefers to hunt rather than be hunted. A cougar's victims are usually under 25, as
cougars prefer to mate with men who still have hair. Cougars are non-committal,
choosing to move from mate to mate without ever settling down.

Families: Work as support groups, problem solving groups, and partners serve as
“intimate soul mates,” which allow you to discuss problems and set dreams.
Marriage is linked to personal happiness, health, and wealth. Happiness in
marriage seems to be high at first, then dips a bit, and then resurges in late middle
adulthood. Almost 46% of marriages in middle adulthood are re-marriages by at
least one of the couple. In re-marriage men become healthier and sociable,
women become more financially stable. No guarantee that love is better the
second time around. Correlationally second marriages tend to fail more than first
marriages. Second marriages tend to favor men more than women. There are
 more women than men, men tend to marry younger women than older or near age
women, if men married more in their age group then they would have 3x more
selection.

Grandchildren:
-Remote grandparents. Emotionally distant but esteemed elders who are honored
and respected and obeyed by children and grandchildren. Usually landowners.
-Involved grandparents. Active in the daily life of grandchildren. Live near them
and provide substantial care and support.
-Companionate Grandparents. Independent and autonomous. Maintaining a
separate household. Spoil grandchildren but do not usually discipline them especially in
ways that their parents wouldn’t.

LATE ADULTHOOD
Biosocial
Ageism: Refers to prejudice against people because of their age..

Gerontology: The study of old age.

Geriatrics: The medical specialty devoted to aging.

Young old, usually those under age 75 who are financially secure, relatively healthy, and
integrated into their lives. Old-old, after 75 years of age, with some physical, mental, or
social deficits. Older-old elderly adults, over 85 who are dependant on others and
usually require supportive services.

Primary Aging in Late Adulthood:

Vision: Cataracts is a thickening of the lens, causing vision to become cloudy,
opaque, and distorted.
Glaucoma, less common but more dangerous. It is a buildup of fluid
within the eye which can damage the optic nerve causing sudden and total
blindness. If detected early can be treated with eyedrops.

Elder Speak: Similar to baby talk, you use simple short sentences, exaggerated
emphasis and at a slower rate of speech.

Sleep: Over age 60 you lie in bed awake for a longer period of time, have more
light sleep and shorter REM sleep. Usually 6 hours of sleep instead of 8.

Compression of Morbidity: Staying healthy until the last year of life by living
healthy and busy lives. i.e. the Romanian old couple that has a home and
gardens all day. Last year of life will have illnesses.

Theories of Aging:
Wear and Tear theory: Human body wears out because of the
passage of time and exposure to environmental factors. Supported by 1.
 the fact that women that don’t have babies live longer, 2. people who are
overweight get sick more often and die younger.

Life Expectancy. Maximum life expectancy which is the oldest age that
one can live. Humans 122, Indian elephants 70, giant tortoises 180.
Average Life Expectancy. Men 74, women 80. places known for
longevity Ecuador 87, Republic of Georgia 90.

Cognitive:

Seattle Longitudinal Study indicated that very little change occurred in early and
middle adulthood. Decline begins at age 60, but other studies indicate that
no changes until age 80.

Memory. Loss of memory is feared by many because of senility. Greatly

exaggerated.
Encoding is less sometimes because of the dulled senses. They do not
hear what you have said, or the information comes in too fast. Thickening
of the myelin on the axons results in slower speed of processing.
Remember that crystallized intelligence is not affected by this, only fluid
intelligence. Telephone calls study. Younger adults forgot to make the
calls or the numbers because they relied on memory. Older adults did not
because they used retrieval cues and selective attention.
Use of control processes. Use of selective attention, storage
mechanisms, and retrieval strategies, such as “lists” so as to not forget.
Tend to rely on prior experiences, general principles and prototypical
thinking. Rules of thumb. But remember that long term memory lasts
forever.
No evidence links loss of cognitive skills with loss of neurons in the brain.
Terminal decline. An overall slowdown of cognitive abilities in the days
or months before death. Changes in cognition and increased depression
usually precede the decline in health before death. Not a result of being a
certain age, but rather being close to death.

Dementia. Physiological loss of brain functioning. Causes impaired judgment,

memory loss and loss of problem solving ability (often expressed as
confusion.)

Vascular dementia is widely considered the second most common type of

dementia. It develops when impaired blood flow to parts of the brain
deprives cells of food and oxygen.
The diagnosis may be clearest when symptoms appear soon after a single
major stroke blocks a large blood vessel and disrupts the blood supply to a
significant portion of the brain. This situation is sometimes called “post-
stroke dementia.”

Vascular Dementia

Latinos in the United States have higher rates of vascular disease, so they may also
be at greater risk for developing Alzheimer’s.*
According to a growing body of evidence, risk factors for vascular disease – including
diabetes, high blood pressure and high cholesterol – may also be risk
factors for Alzheimer’s and stroke-related dementia.

Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disorder named for German physician

Alois Alzheimer, who first described it in 1906. Most common form of
dementia. Characterized by plague and tangles in cerebral cortex.
Begins in hippocampus (memory)

Ten Warning Signs of onset of Alzheimers;

1. Memory changes that disrupt daily life.
2. Difficulty following a plan or working with numbers.
3. Difficulty completing daily tasks, i.e. driving to store.
4. Difficulty keeping up with time and place, ie dates, seasons.
5. Perception and distance is distorted. Pas a mirror and think
someone is there.
6. Trouble following a conversation. Stop in mid-sentence.
7. Misplacing things and trouble tracing steps.
8. Poor judgment. Pay a lot of money for a simple job.
9. Withdrawal from work and social activities.
10. Mood and personality changes. Confused, suspicious, depressed,
fearful or anxious.

The difference between Alzheimer's and typical age-related changes

Signs of Alzheimer's Typical age-related changes

Poor judgment and decision making Making a bad decision once in a while

Inability to manage a budget Missing a monthly payment

Forgetting which day it is and

Losing track of the date or the season
remembering later
 Difficulty having a conversation Sometimes forgetting which word to use

Misplacing things and being unable to retrace steps

Losing things from time to time
to find them

Partly hereditary. Age is the chief factor. 1 in 5 over age 85 will develop
Alzheimer’s. Usually takes 10 years to progress.

FOUR MOST COMMON AILMENTS OF THE ELDERLY:

1. Cancer: This is the most serious of all ailments. Over two thirds of the elderly are
affected by this disease. Lung and breast cancer are the most common, with skin cancer
making the occasional appearance. Cancer can be treated successfully nowadays, but the
success rate is low in aged patients. Senior citizens are not strong enough to cope with the
course of chemotherapy. An early diagnosis of cancer increases the chances of a full
recovery. Thus, any anomaly should be checked out immediately by a medical
professional.

2. Dementia: A large number of seniors suffer from Dementia. Dementia is caused due
to damage of the connections between the brain and nerve endings. This ailment is not
curable and its causes are unknown. There is no effective treatment for this disease, but
some drugs may help to temporarily control the symptoms. The most potent and common
form of Dementia Is Alzheimer's Disease. The symptoms of Alzheimer's disease build up
gradually over a period of a few years. It is frustrating for the patients as they become
more and more confused and lose all their memory.

3. Parkinson's disease: This is another disease related to the nerve cells, and its causes
are yet unknown. Dementia affects the mental health of the individual whereas
Parkinson's disease is primarily a physical disability. The symptoms of Parkinson's are
uncontrollable shaking of the limbs, that is just as frustrating. There is no cure for this
disease, although it may be contained to some extent for a short period, with the use of
drugs. After a certain period, the symptoms cannot be controlled.

4. Diabetes: This ailment is a result of bad diet and considered to be a lifestyle disease.
High fat and sugar intake may be the causative factors. Diabetes is caused due to the
body's inability to produce insulin to keep blood sugar levels under control. This disease
is curable with diet and medication either in injection or tablet form. Great attention must
be paid to wounds in diabetics as the wounds have a tendency to degenerate faster than a
non-diabetic. The result may be amputation of limbs, which is quite common. Hence, a
swift diagnosis and treatment is necessary for Diabetes.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/1662832

DEATH AND DYING:

Martin Luther King, “If you don’t have anything in your life worth dying for, you
haven’t lived.”
Woody Allen, “I don’t have anything against dying; I just don’t want to be there
when it happens.”

Five Stages of Dying.

Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance.

Deciding how to die.

Euthanasia: Passive. Allowed to die through cessation of drugs.

Active. Actually brings about the death to relieve suffering. Oregon
and the Netherlands allow.
Hospice. Patients receive palliative care (treatment of illness designed to relieve
pain and suffering of patient and family.) Not designed to cure. Patient
given any drugs that help because it is absurd to think about drug
dependence on someone who is dying.

Older people “plan” for death. Only anxiety about death is if they will have a “good
death” meaning swift, painless, at home, and surrounded by family.

Bereavement. A sense of loss following a death. Grief is an individual’s emotional

response.
Mourning. Public or community involvement in death that benefits the living.

Eulogy. Emphasizes the dead person’s strength and success in life for all to enjoy.
“Disenfranchised Grief” Exclude some co-workers or family.

Will v. Dying Intestate.