Running head: PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 1

Predictors of Retention for First-Generation Latino Students

Alexis Torres

Northern Illinois University

PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 2

Abstract

In 2015 the Latino population made up 17.6% of the U.S. population, but currently still does not

have an equal representation in higher education. Using Tierney revision to Tinto’s integration

theory and Latino critical race theory, this study analyzes meaningful student involvement and

the benefits first-generation Latinos receive from being involved in ethnic based co-curricular

activities. Research shows that involvement that builds on Latino student’s past experiences

allows students to feel more connected to campus and helps with retention. This study will

collect information on characteristics of involvement over the course of six years, and will use an

explanatory correlational study design to find what characteristics are predictors of retention.

Keywords: Latinos, first-generation, retention, co-curricular involvement

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Predictors of Retention for First-Generation Latino Students

In the ever-changing demographics of the United States there are ethnic groups that are

making significant strides in becoming a larger percentage of the population. One of the groups

with a large documented growth is Latinos. In 2015 with a population of 56.5 million, Latinos

made up 17.6% of the total U.S population (Flores, Lopez, & Radford, 2017). While this ethnic

group makes up a large percentage of the country’s population they are also the least educated of

all major ethnic groups (Gandara, 2010). This unpreparedness for academic achievement follows

Latino students from elementary school to their performance in college. This leads to poor

outcomes of first-generation Latinos in higher education settings. Given the size of the Latino

population it is not only important to create more prepared students for the benefit of the group,

but it is also important for the future of the nation.

A majority of college bound Latinos are first-generation students, and this study will

focus on this target population. While 63.3% of Latino students in the United States are Mexican

(Flores, Lopez, & Radford, 2017), as a variable Latinos will be defined as all members of the

population that are of Latin American origin or descent. First-generation students will be defined

as students whose parents had no formal college education (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, &

Terenzini, 2004). Retention as a variable will be looked at as either returning to their higher

education institution or not returning to their higher education institution.

The study will be grounded on Latino critical race theory and William Tierney’s theory

of cultural integrity; a revision to Tinto’s theory of departure. Latino critical race theory focuses

on social injustices and barriers faced by the Latino population. It acknowledges race as a social

construct that creates a dominant group and that leads to an unequal distribution of resources and
PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 4

opportunities (Villalpando, 2003). This unequal distribution favors the dominant group in

receiving better resources that results in increased academic preparedness and achievement.

Tierney’s revision to Tinto’s theory of departure posits that student’s persistence

increases when offered co-curricular opportunities that validate their culture identities. This

revision is drastically different from Tinto’s theory, which calls for severing ties from their

previous culture (Tierney, 1999). Tierney’s theory is more beneficial to minority students whose

culture is most different from the dominant culture on campuses.

Despite the growing population of Latinos in the United States, research on this

population shows some challenges regarding the education field. First, studies show that there is

unequal Latino political and bureaucratic representation in education (Ross, Rouse, & Bratton,

2010). Representation in these areas could lead to policies that benefit Latinos and increase

academic opportunities. Second, studies show that there are Latino barriers in political

incorporation which leads to a decrease in Latino voters (De la Garza, & Jang, 2011). Without

the Latino voter population, Latinos are not able to vote for politicians that have their best

interest in mind. Lastly, research indicates that there is an unequal Latino portrayal in

introductory U.S. government and politics textbooks (Monforti, & McGlynn, 2010). While this

study is specific to one subject area, more research must be done to determine if this is a pattern

that is seen throughout academic materials.

As stated previously Latinos are one of the fastest growing minority populations in the

United States, and with this increase comes a higher percentage of Latinos becoming eligible to

attend higher education settings. These students are the future generations of the nation and their

academic achievements will have a significant impact on its ability to compete globally. By

exploring co-curricular resources and the added benefits of participation to increase retention, the
PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 5

study will be able to increase the literature on best practices on increasing first-generation Latino

student retention. Additionally, this will serve as a starting point for future research on creating

individual models for supportive environments tailored for specific minority student populations.

In this study, I will seek to increase the knowledge on first-generation Latino students

regarding their motivation in continuing their education, and the relation of co-curricular

activities and student retention. Using data from purposive sampling of higher education students

in northern Illinois, I will address the following research question: To what extent is participation

in college extracurricular activities related to retention among first-generation Latino college

students? Through information gained in the study, I hope to get a better understanding of the

predictors in retention rates of first-generation Latinos in relation to co-curricular involvement.

More importantly I expect to get information on best practices in designing co-curricular

activities that support and guide first-generation Latinos through their journey in higher

education.

Literature Review

There are many demographic groups found in the total population of students that make

up higher education in the United States. One of the many groups in this diverse population is

first-generation Latino students. While this subgroup includes members of other student

populations this specific group encounters problems that are unique to their situation. Within the

scope of higher education, students who are considered first-generation are students whose

parents have not obtained a degree from a college or university (Pascarella, Pierson, Wolniak, &

Terenzini, 2004). Being the first in their family to attend college also comes with the task of

navigating through higher education with no guidance. Additionally, first-generation Latino

students encounter barriers that could be categorized as relational, individual, and systemic
PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 6

(Gonzalez, 2015). These barriers include their family’s inability to provide guidance, the

individual’s unpreparedness for college, and the systems that put them at a disadvantage.

In 2015 there were 56.5 million Latinos in the U.S. and they accounted for 17.6% of the

nation’s total population (Flores, Lopez, & Radford, 2017). With Latinos making up such a large

percentage of the U.S. population, it is important to study this population and work on ways to

assist the students within this group to be academically successful. This paper will cover the key

characteristics of first-generation Latino students, the ways these students are underserved in

higher education, and the promising practices around academically and socially supporting these

students.

Characteristics

While there is a limited amount of information regarding first-generation Latinos the

available research shows that they have characteristics that create barriers in their academic

careers. Latino students share many key characteristics with other first-generation students, such

as being older, minorities, having dependent children, and coming from low-income families.

These shared characteristics are predictors of low rates of college attendance and enrollment

patterns that are consistent with low persistence and risk of dropping out (Engle, 2007). A focus

on retaining these students needs to be established and resources must to be implemented to meet

their needs. Additionally, these students tend to be less academically prepared when compared to

their non-first-generation peers, and have difficulty seeking on-campus resources and financial

aid (Tym, McMillion, Barone, & Webster, 2004). These are all issues that were identified as

having an affect a student’s perception of being part of the campus community and could cause

financial burdens if the correct financial resources are not located.

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While this group of students exhibit characteristics that could be categorized as being

negative, there are also positive characteristics associated with first-generation Latinos and other

minority first-generation students. Research shows that many minority students who are the first

in their family to attend college do well academically, as they see attendance in a higher

education institution as a way to improve their socioeconomic situation (Dennis, Phinney, &

Chuateco, 2005). Obtaining a college degree opens doors for academic and financial

opportunities that were not available before. First-generation Latino students have the added

pressure of being seen as a key to improving their family’s lives. This aspect is used as

motivation to pursue higher education and to be successful academically.

Another characteristic that is specific to first-generation Latino students is having cultural

fluidity when navigating through their higher education setting (Muñoz, & Maldonado, 2012).

These students live in an academic world where they have developed a new culture that is

combination of their home culture and the dominant culture on campus. They could switch

between their Latino culture and U.S. culture when one is more appropriate over the other. These

students depend on culture norms to know what culture is appropriate to display in different

settings. They develop this culture dichotomy as they see Latino culture as being unaccepted in

higher education.

Underserved in Higher Education

This idea of Latino culture being deemed unacceptable in higher education is not an idea

that is unsubstantiated. There is a lack of Latino representation in education materials, and

political and bureaucratic representation in education (Monforti, & McGlynn, 2010; Ross,

Rouse, & Bratton, 2010). In this specific situation it speaks on introductory U.S. government and

politics textbooks overlooking major contributions by Latinos and only discussing their progress
PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 8

in civil rights and immigration chapters. The political and bureaucratic representation is

representative of the political climate in the Texas school system and is indicative of the lack of

policies that are implemented to benefit Latino students. While these examples are specific they

are still characteristic of issues found with the representation of Latinos in higher education.

Another way that first-generation Latino students are underserved in higher education is

in the assumption that theories created to assist the general population could also be applicable to

them. One such case would be in applying Tinto’s Integration theory to assist this group of

students to increase their retention. While it might be successful with the dominant population

found on campuses it does not consider first-generation Latino students culture capital or lack

thereof. Researchers have seen this as being problematic and inadequate in explaining students of

colors situation, and in providing a base from which these students could adapt to their college

environment (Museus, & Quaye, 2009). This theory creates an unrealistic assumption that first-

generation students could sever ties with their home cultures and easily assimilate to the

dominant campus culture.

Theoretical Framework

Tierney is one of the many researchers that saw Tinto’s theory as problematic and has

made improvements to his theory to be more applicable to students of color. Tierney explained

that expecting nontraditional students to move away from their roots causes a dissonance. He

included that it is up to campus administrators to create a campus that bridges students pre-

college culture and the dominant campus culture (Museus, & Quaye, 2009). He saw accepting

the campus culture as being beneficial to retention. However, he recognized the culture that

students of color enter college with is dramatically different, and completely severing ties would

cause a dissociation issue. Providing a revision to Tinto’s theory, Tierney posited that providing
PREDICTORS OF RETENTION 9

a smoother transition into the dominant campus culture increased student’s persistence (F). By

providing opportunities that validated their home culture it allows students to feel more

connected to the campus.

Another theory that will guide this study is Latina/o critical race theory (LatCrit).

Latina/o critical race theory is an addition to critical race theory to tailor to the specific barriers

encountered by Latinos, but both deal with the issues of social justice and racial oppression faced

by people of color (Villalpando, 2003). These two theories were created and used by legal

scholars but have increasingly began to be used to encounter race issues in higher education. It is

only fitting to use LatCrit as a theoretical lens when exploring the benefits of extracurricular

involvement in Latino students. By using this theory, one could acknowledge that there is

inequality and inequity in the distribution of resource on campuses, and thus the added need of

exploring the predictors of retention in this population.

Promising Practices

With this idea in mind we see an example of a promising practice that could assist first-

generation Latino students in being retained at their institution. An article by Octavio

Villalpando (2003) looked at the idea of self-segregation vs. self-preservation. In his article,

Villalpando addresses a phenomenon that is seen across campuses, which is students tend to

group together with students that are of the same ethnicity. While the dominant white culture

sees this in a negative aspect, there are many Latino students who see this as way to feel more

connected and supported on campus. This support base is the reason why many Latinos and other

minority groups become involved in cultural organizations. Through involvement in their

communities, community service, and in groups with similar demographics students develop

skills to overcome issues with isolation, marginalization, and racism ( Villalpando, 2003). In
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addition to these skills students also create a supportive community in the larger scope of the university

that assists with retention.

As stated previously, first-generation Latino students have the added pressure of their

family depending on them to be successful academically and beyond into their professional

career. Considering this one would expect that family support would be key to providing a

support base to help these students be academically successful. However, a study utilizing focus

groups to explore the different support outlets of first-generation students concluded that family

was not a primary academic support base. Instead, the students discussed that peer support was

crucial in dealing with campus issues and in locating academic resources that were pertinent to

their situation (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005). Being the first in their family to attend

college was the reason why their family was not able to serve as a primary resource, but students

did identify family as proving emotional support. This information calls for campus practitioners

to create programs that build on peer support and student involvement, such as study groups,

peer mentoring, and student organizations (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005).

Another factor that creates barriers for first-generation students is that there is research

being done that identifies the lower rates of retention/persistence, but not enough research is

being done that looks at how these students are being successful. One study acknowledged this

gap in research and looked at the benefits of involvement in service learning and its contribution

to the success of first-generation lower-income students. The results in the study identified four

themes that characterized the impact and benefits of being involved. The four themes included

building skills and understanding, developing resilience, finding personal meaning, and

developing critical consciousness (Ling Yeh, 2010). These four themes were important in developing a

better understanding of how first-generation students are being successful and in identifying the benefits

of involvement in relation to increasing retention and persistence rates.

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Gaps in Literature

There is still much research that must be done to fully understand first-generation Latino

student’s journey through higher education. An emphasis needs to be placed on researching

barriers that prevent these students from transitioning and acclimating to their specific campus

and their relation to the population’s retention rate. The current research does show that many of

the general problems that are experienced by first-generation students are also experienced by

students in the Latino subpopulation (Engle, 2007). However, there are characteristics and

barriers that first-generation students experience that are specific to this population. Additionally,

much of the research that is available has a large focus at looking at Latinos and first-generation

students in a deficit lens, so additional research must be done that explores ways that these

students are being successful at their institutions (Ling Yeh, 2010).

Summary

The uniqueness of the first-generation Latino population is the reason why there needs to

be a concentration on practices that could be implemented to assist these students. These students

cannot be grouped together with the dominant group on campus, as they are different even from

other subgroups within the first-generation population. Their specific characteristics, motivations

for attending higher education, and barriers must be looked at in order to tailor programs that

meet their needs when addressing retention issues. Campus practitioners need to expand on

Tierney revision to Tinto’s Integration theory to create practices that validate these students’ past

experiences (Tierney, 1999). A key to helping this population of students to feel connected to

campus is to create meaningful co-curricular activities that build on their home culture and that

allow them to develop supportive skills. Only then could higher education institutions assist

students with retention and persistence in higher education.

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Method

The proposed study will be using a quantitative study design, since it will be looking at the rate

of Latino student retention in relation to the level of involvement and the amount of benefits

from this involvement. The specific quantitative research design that the study will be using is an

explanatory correlational study. This design will be implemented because the study will be

exploring First-Generation Latino students and independent variables associated with this

population, such as cocurricular involvement, level of academic preparedness, motivation, etc.,

and how they are correlated with this population’s retention.

Participants

The sample for this study will be obtained using a purposive sampling design. Due to the

small percentage of first-generation Latino students on U.S college campuses, this design will be

the most appropriate in specifically targeting this population. To gain access to the population I

will be working with gatekeepers who work with these students, such as resource centers, TRIO,

Upward Bound etc., to identify and recruit first-generation Latino students for the study. The

target population is first-generation Latinos in Illinois, and the accessible population is first-

generation Latinos in northern Illinois. To get a representative population, 30 students will be

recruited from ten public institutions, ten private institutions, and ten community colleges in

northern Illinois, so my anticipated sample population will be 900 students.

The desired characteristics of the participants for the study will be students of Latino

ethnicity, who are first-generation, and who have an age range from 18-32 years old. To increase

comfortability when collecting data, the study will have the research settings at sites where

students interact with gatekeepers. With the sample population including students from different
 PREDICTORS OF RETENTION
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institutions the findings will be able to be generalized to institutions with similar campus

settings.

Instrumentation

To gather information on the participants the study will utilize questionnaires that will

identify characteristics of the participants and the variety of their involvement. All questionnaires

will be administered individually in a paper and pencil format at the secure research setting. The

reason for the test being administered in this fashion is to accommodate for student’s varying

degrees of technology competence. The first questionnaire will consist of Yes/No questions (e.g.

Do you participate in ethnic based organizations? Yes__No__), and there will be an option for

students to input characteristics or benefits that were not included. The first questionnaire will

consist of 25 questions that touch on predicted benefits and characteristics associated with

involvement. The following survey will increase in questions depending on responses provided

by the participants.

After the participants identify benefits of extra-curricular involvement, there will be a

second questionnaires that checks on their level of involvement and/or if they benefit from

involvement (e.g. How involved are you on campus? 1_2_3_4_5_, Does being involved help

with academic motivation? Yes__No__). To check the reliability and the validity of the

measurement the participants will be administered the same test at the end of the semester and

the beginning of the next semester to make sure the responses provided are still matching. If the

answers are not matching researchers will have the opportunity to follow up with participants

and check on the discrepancies in the responses. The “other” option on the questionnaires will be

added to gather information on possible extraneous variables that might threaten internal

validity.
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Procedures

With participation in this study there is a data security risk, but due to the nature of the

information collected the risk is minimal. Although the risk is minimal the researchers will alter

the participant’s name by creating a system to identify individuals and collect information on

their involvement without using identifying information. The benefits of participating in the

study would be adding knowledge to the subject that could assist participants and future students

to increase retention rates. Given the age of the participants they would be able to sign an

informed consent after being given the details of the study and covering the risk and benefits of

participating. To avoid response-bias the participants will be told that the study is only collecting

information regarding characteristics of their population. After the completion of data collection,

the participants will be debriefed on the study also looking at retention patterns.

To begin the study researchers will gain access to the research sites by contacting the

gatekeepers at each institution. The will be given information on the benefits of carrying out the

study in the desired research site, and the larger implications of the study. Once entry is given to

the research site and participants are identified they will be given the overview of the study and

will be provided the consent forms. The study will follow first year students in the Northern

Illinois region over the course of six years. The participants will be administered a 25-question

questionnaire that will consist of Yes/No questions, and there will be an option for students to

input characteristics or benefits that were not included. The following questionnaires will

increase in questions depending on responses provided by the participants in the initial one. At

the end of each semester, and at the beginning of the next semester, the students will complete a

questionnaire consisting of yes/no questions to gather updated information on the characteristics

and involvement patterns of the population. Additionally, the study will be tracking if the
 PREDICTORS OF RETENTION
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students were retained throughout their time as undergrads. At the completion of the study, the

information obtained will be analyzed and will be checked for independent variables that were

related with students being retained at their institution. Additionally, students will be debriefed

on the study collecting information on retention rates.

Proposed Analytic approach

Since data will be collected on retention at multiple points (e.g. Semester 1 retention,

semester 2 retention, etc.) there will be multiple dependent variables. After looking at the

distribution of the data the researchers will conduct multiple statistical analyses to account for

each dependent variable. When considering the participants independent variables (motivation,

academic preparedness, etc.) and their relation to retention researchers will use a binary logistic

regression analysis.

To display the results the study will also use a graphical analytical approach. Since they

are easier to read the study will be using primarily bar graphs, but when appropriate will be using

pie charts as well.

Limitations

A limitation in the proposed study will be the accessible population when sampling. The

sample would be limited to First-Generation Latinos in the Northern Illinois region and the study

will not have information regarding the target population in other regions. To account for this

limitation, different types of institutions (public, private, and community colleges) will be used

to increase the generalizability of the findings. Another limitation will be with the instrument for

collecting data. The study will be using questionnaires to collect data and students might select

answers that they think the researchers deem more favorable. To help overcome this limitation of

response bias the participants will be told that the study is collecting information on the
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characteristics of the population. They will later be debriefed that the information will be used to

find predictors of retention amongst the population.

A plausible threat to the study’s internal validity is extraneous variables. There could be

independent variables that were not accounted for that could have positively or negatively

affected retention. To deal with this threat the study will have institutions with similar student

populations as a control variable. This will help with having students that have similar campus

environments, which includes campus resources, peer support, and campus climate. A threat to

external validity is that I am focusing on a very specific sub-population, so generalizability

wouldn’t be applicable to the entire population of students. However, within this specific study it

is not an issue as the findings will be used to generalize about other first-generation Latino

students.
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