Chapter 6

TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUES
This chapter presents an introduction to graphical techniques
for analyzing space-time relationships, graphical and
mathematical techniques for analyzing traffic queues and
delays, and analysis of transportation networks.
The analysis of traffic flow is the basis for
design of:
 transportation system operating strategies

 traffic control systems

 certain physical features of transportation systems

SPACE-TIME RELATIONSHIPS
Traffic engineers represent the location of a specific vehicle at
a certain time with a space-time diagram. This two-
dimensional diagram shows the trajectory of a vehicle through
time as it moves from a specific origin to a specific
destination. Multiple vehicles can be represented on a
diagram and, thus, certain characteristics, such as flow at a
certain site for a certain time, can be determined.
When such motion takes
place along a single linear
facility such as a roadway
or a railway, it can often
be represented by the
space – time diagram.
t2

t1
Space-time diagrams are used in several different ways.
Where the problems involved are simple enough, they may be
used to provide direct graphical solutions. In more
complicated cases, they may be used as an aid in developing
analytical solutions to control problems, simulation models,
and theoretical models of traffic flow.
DIRECT GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS
DIRECT GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS

Some space-time problems are so simple that they lend

themselves to direct graphical solutions.
One such example is that of a
rail transit system which has a
single-track line.
As is usually the case with such
systems, it is planned to
schedule trains at regular
intervals, and trains are
expected to travel at uniform
speeds.
In order for trains traveling in
opposite directions to pass one
another, there must be some
double-track sections.
Design issues include the number
and location of such double-track
sections, and the minimum length
required for such sections if trains
are to pass one another without
delay and allowance is made for
trains running behind schedule.
Suppose such a transit system has a single-track section
15 km long. Trains are to be dispatched from each end
at 10-min intervals and have 5-min layovers(waiting
times) at either end. For simplicity, the fact that trains
stop at stations along the way will be ignored, and it
will be assumed that all trains travel at a uniform speed
of 45km/h in both directions. The problem is to
determine the number and location of double-track
sections, and the minimum length required for such
sections in order for trains running as much as 2 min
behind schedule to pass one another without delay.
Solution:
Location is represented by the horizontal axis and time by the
vertical axis, so the slopes of the trajectories represent the
reciprocal of the speeds of the trains. The solid sloped lines
represent the trajectories of trains when they are traveling on
schedule and the dashed sloped lines represent the trajectories of
trains traveling exactly 2 min behind schedule. These are
determined by drawing lines parallel to the trajectories, offset
vertically by 2 min. the limits of the double-track sections are
represented by the dashed vertical lines. These are determined by
points at which the trajectory of a train traveling on schedule
crosses that of a train in the opposite direction that is 2 min
behind schedule. As can be seen, four double-track sections, with
a minimum length of 1.5 km each, are required.
Problem No. 2

Dispatch or arrival times for trains on a single-track line which

is equipped with one or more sidings where trains traveling in
opposite directions may pass one another.
Assume that a rail line is 90 km long with a 7.5 km –long
double-track section (siding) located between 60 and 67.5 km
from the west end. Suppose a train leaves the west end at
1:00 p.m. and travels east at a constant speed of 45km/h. a
second train leaves from the east end at 1:30 p.m. and may
travel at any speed up to 90km/h. The problem is to
determine the earliest time the westbound train can arrive at
the west end of the line. An alternative problem is to
determine the latest dispatch time (after 1:00 p.m.) that will
allow the westbound train to reach its destination without
unnecessary delay.
The trains can pass another only in the double-track section.
Moreover, if the westbound train is to arrive at its destination
at the earliest possible time, they should pass at the west end
of the double-track section. From the diagram, it is easy to
see that in order for the westbound train to arrive at its
destination as early as possible, it ought to pass the
westbound end of the double-track section just as the
eastbound train arrives there and then travel at its maximum
speed of 90 km/h for the rest of its trip. The solution to the
first problem involves finding a speed that will allow the
westbound train to leave at 1:30 p.m. and arrive at the critical
point at the proper time.
…continuation

The solution to the second part involves finding the time the
westbound train must leave in order to arrive at the critical
point at the proper time, if it travels at 90 km/h. as can be
seen, the earliest possible arrival time for the westbound train
at the west end is 3:00 p.m. The latest it could leave the east
end and arrive at this time is 2:00 p.m. if it leaves at 1:30 p.m.,
it should travel the first 30 km at an average speed of 36
km/h.
DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL
SOLUTIONS
DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
Most space-time problems are complicated enough that it is
not efficient to use graphical methods for routine solutions. In
this case, space-time diagrams are often used to derive
analytical relationships, which may then be used to produce a
large number of solutions quickly and accurately. An example
of this type of use of space-time diagrams is the derivation of
basic relationships used in the analysis of capacity for airport
runways used for landings only.
Runway capacity is largely a function of the air traffic rules
used by the air traffic control system. A fundamental rule
states that, when flying under instrument conditions, all
aircraft at a given elevation must maintain certain minimum
longitudinal distance separations. The reason for this rule is
that under instrument conditions, the responsibility for
maintaining aircraft separations lies with the air traffic
controllers, rather than the pilots, and it is fairly easy to verify
distance separations on the radar screens used by the
controllers.
Normally, the minimum distance separation is 3 nautical
miles; however, because of wake turbulence caused by
wingtip vortices, larger separations are required on the final
approach path to the runway for aircraft following wide-body
jets. A second fundamental rule states that there can be only
one aircraft on the runway at a time. In most cases, however,
the minimum distance separations in the air will be more
critical than the runway occupancy times.
Under instrument conditions, all aircraft using conventional
instrument landing systems must be traveling in the direction of
the runway and on the same glide path from a point known as the
entry gate to the runway threshold. This path from the entry gate
to the runway threshold is known as the common approach path.
Prior to the entry gate, aircraft may be on various headings or at
different elevations. Consequently, minimum distance separations
between aircraft must be maintained from the time the lead
aircraft arrives at the entry gate until it passes the runway
threshold. More modern microwave landing systems allow
relaxation of the requirement that all aircraft approach the runway
on the same heading, and as will be seen from the analysis, this
increases the capacity of the runway.
 The speed of the trailing
aircraft is equal to or greater
than that of the lead aircraft.
Consequently, it is gaining on
the lead aircraft as it travels
along the common approach
path, and the critical distance
separation occurs just as the
lead aircraft arrives at the
runway threshold.

Time separation at runway  

threshold, vi ≤ vj tij  
 v j 
 The space diagram shown is drawn
with tie as the horizontal axis and
distance as the vertical axis; hence
the slopes of the trajectories
represent the speeds of the
aircraft. The length of the common
approach path is represented by 𝛾
and the minimum distance
separation by 𝛿. The speed of the
lead aircraft is given by 𝑣𝑖 , that of
the trailing aircraft by 𝑣𝑓 , and the
time separation between the two
Time separation at    1 1  aircraft by 𝑡𝑖𝑗 .
runway threshold, tij      
 vj  v j vi 
vi ≥ vj
Given these relationships, it is possible to calculate
time separations for a variety of aircraft pairs, and from
these to calculate the weighted average time
separation and hence the runway capacity.
DEVELOPMENT OF
SIMULATON MODELS
SIMULATION MODELING

Is the process of creating and analyzing a digital

prototype of a physical model to predict its
performance in the real world.
Simulation modeling is used to help designers
and engineers understand whether, under what
conditions, and in which ways a part could fail
and what loads it can withstand.
 USES OF SIMULATION MODELING
Optimize geometry for weight and strength
Select materials that meet weight, strength, and
budget requirements
Simulate part failure and identify the loading conditions
that cause them
Assess extreme environmental conditions or loads not
easily tested on physical prototypes, such as
earthquake shock load
Verify hand calculations
Validate the likely safety and survival of a physical
prototype before
 The 7 steps
1 - Determine the goals
Setting the goal is the first step to be taken. We should never
start a simulation without having a purpose to be achieved.
The discrete event simulation can be used for a multiple
purposes, among the most common are:
Increasing productivity in existing production systems;
Assist in decision-making in new facilities investments;
Sizing process inventories;
Analysis of material flow;
Sizing manpower;
Continuous improvement of the production process.
2 - Perform an appropriate data collection
In this step we must analyze the actual system and check
what information is relevant to construct the model.
3 - Build the model
Through the use of dedicated software for this type of
simulation, we should compare the tool objects and the
elements that make part of the process.
4 - Validate the built model
With the model already built it's necessary to validate the
data that were considered for their construction, in other
words, we should check if the model is actually working as
real system in case of existing processes, or in case of
processes not yet available we should see if it's behaving
as imagined.
5 - Perform simulation and collect the results
After the data has been validated, we must start the simulation
and collect the results. For significant data collection, the
model must remain running for a certain period of time, thus it is
possible to obtain more reliable results.
6 - Analyze the results
In this step we need to critically analyze the results and turn
them into information to aid in decision-making and serve as
answers to questions that were part of the goal.
7 - Make the final documentation
As a final step, the documentation should be prepared with the
information obtained from the simulation, describing in detail
what should be done.
Trajectory space-Time Diagrams
 The time-space diagram is a graph that describes
the relationship between the location of vehicles in
a traffic stream and the time as the vehicles
progress along the highway. The following diagram
is an example of a time-space diagram.
Nontrajectory Space-Time Diagrams

Space-time diagrams may be used to display

information about traffic states (such as speeds,
flow rates, or densities) as well as vehicle
trajectories. The most common way of
displaying traffic-state information in a space-
time format is by means of contour diagrams. In
these, contours are used to isolate space-time
regions with similar traffic-state values.
Example of a speed-contour map, showing the
effect of a traffic accident on flow upstream.
Speed contours, accident on westbound Interstate 8, July 9, 1986.
 Queuing Analysis
 One of the major issues in the analysis of any traffic system is
the analysis of delay. Delay is a more subtle concept. It may
be defined as the difference between the actual travel time
on a given segment and some ideal travel time of that
segment.
 Most recent research has found that for highway systems,
there is comparatively little difference between these two
speeds. That being the case, the analysis of delay normally
focuses on delay that results when demand exceeds its
capacity; such delay is known as queuing delay, and may
be studied by means of queuing theory. This theory involves
the analysis of what is known as a queuing system, which is
composed of a server; a stream of customers, who demand
service; and a queue, or line of customers waiting to be
served.
Basic structure
Queueing Theory
 Is the mathematical study of waiting lines, or queues. A
queueing model is constructed so that queue lengths
and waiting time can be predicted.
o Applications of Queuing Theory
o Telecommunications
o Traffic control
o Determining the sequence of computer operations
o Predicting computer performance
o Health services (e.g. control of hospital bed
assignments)
o Airport traffic, airline ticket sales
o Layout of manufacturing systems
Queue Discipline

 Queue discipline is a parameter that explains how

the customers arrive at a service facility. The various
types of queue disciplines are:
o First in first out (FIFO)
o First in last out (FILO)
o Served in random order (SIRO)
o Priority scheduling
o Processor (or Time) Sharing
1. First in first out (FIFO):
If the customers are served in the order of their arrival, then
this is known as the first-come, first-served (FCFS) service
discipline.

2. First in last out (FILO):

Sometimes, the customers are serviced in the reverse order
of their entry so that the ones who join the last are served
first.
3. Served in random order (SIRO):
Under this rule customers are selected for service at
random, irrespective of their arrivals in the service
system.
4. Priority Service:
Under this rule customers are grouped in priority classes on
the basis of some attributes such as service time or
urgency or according to some identifiable characteristic,
and FIFO rule is used within each class to provide service.
5. Processor (or Time) Sharing:
The server is switched between all the queues for a
predefined slice of time (quantum time) in a round-robin
manner.
• STOCHASTIC QUEUING MODELS
• TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS OF
QUEUING THEORY
• QUEUE DENSITY, STORAGE, AND
SPILLBACK
 STOCHASTIC QUEUING MODELS
STOCHASTIC - Randomly determined; having a random
probability distribution or pattern that may be analyzed
statistically but may not be predicted precisely.

 QUEUING MODELS - Queuing theory is the mathematical

study of waiting lines or queues. In queuing theory, a
model is constructed so that queue lengths and waiting
times can be predicted (Sundarapandian 2009).
 STOCHASTIC QUEUING MODELS

Stochastic queuing models are classified as to the assumptions made

about the distributions of the arrivals and service times and the number
of channels (parallel servers) involved. For instance, an M/D/I (M - is
the traffic arrival and departure which is exponential assumption, D – is
the traffic departure and arrival which is the uniform, deterministic
distribution) queuing system is one in which arrivals are experimentally
distributed.
 STOCHASTIC QUEUING MODELS M/D/I
2𝑝 − 𝑝2
𝑄= (1)
2(1 − 𝑝)
𝑝
𝑤= (2)
2µ(1 − 𝑝)
2−𝑝
𝑡= (3)
2𝜇(1 − 𝑝)
Where: λ = arrival rate
μ = Service rate
ρ = λ/ μ = Traffic Intensity
Note: queue length, waiting times, and total delay
approaches infinity as the traffic intensity approaches 1.0
 STOCHASTIC QUEUING MODEL M/M/1
Both arrivals and service times are exponentially
distributed and there is one channel.
𝑝2
𝑄= (𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
1−𝑝

𝑝
𝑤= (𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
2µ(1 − 𝑝)

2−𝑝
𝑡= (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦)
2𝜇(1 − 𝑝)
 STOCHASTIC QUEUING MODEL M/M/1
Stochastic queuing systems are said to be;

Under saturated; traffic intensity < 1.0

Saturated; traffic intensity ≥ 1.0

Note: queue length, waiting times, and total delay

approaches infinity as the traffic intensity
approaches 1.0
TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS OF
QUEUING THEORY
Queuing Theory use to analyze;
AIRPORTS;
Model the operation of runways
Airspace on runway approaches
Baggage handling systems
Ticketing
Check in operations
Departure lounges
TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS OF
QUEUING THEORY
Highways;

Operation of toll booths

Effects of capacity changes due to geometrics

Temporary capacity changes due to incidents (e.g. accidents)

Effects of traffic signals and other control devices

Effects of traffic disruptions caused by railroad grade crossings

&drawbridges
 TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS OF
QUEUING THEORY

Mass Transit Systems;

Use of ticket windows/ticket dispensing machines

Operation of fare gates

Platform capacities
TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS OF
QUEUING THEORY

Railroads;

Yard operations

Water Transportation;

Locks and port operations

All types of freight transportation;

Loading/unloading operations
 PROBLEM
Morning peak traffic upstream of a toll booth is given
below. The toll plaza consists of three booths each of
which can handle an average of one vehicle every 6s.
Using a queuing diagram, determine the maximum
queue, the longest delay to individual vehicle, and the
total delay.
TIME PERIOD 10-min VOLUME CUMULATIVE VOLUME
7:00-7:10 200 200
7:10-7:20 400 600
7:20-7:30 500 1100
7:30-7:40 250 1350
7:40-7:50 200 1550
7:50-8:10 150 1700
 A ramp meter operates during the morning peak period. Ramp
meter cycles vary with time as shown in the table below. The
Metering scheme allows one vehicle per cycle to pass the signal.
The table below givs the number of vehicles demanding service
on the ramp during particular time intervals, the cumulative
demand for the ramp for the morning peak, and the ramp meter
cycle for each interval. Using Queuing diagram, determine the
maximum queue, the maximum delay to any vehicle, and the
total delay.
TIME PERIOD 15-min. Vol. Cumulative Vol. Meter Cycle,s
6:30-6:45 75 75 6
6:45-7:00 100 175 10
7:00-7:15 125 300 12
7:15-7:30 110 410 12
7:30-7:45 80 490 10
7:45-8:00 65 555 6
 QUEUE DENSITY, STORAGE, AND
SPILLBACK
 The density (vehicle per unit distance) of traffic in a queue is generally
much greater than that of free flowing traffic.
 Direct Surveillance - used to estimate density.
 Occupancy – (the fraction of time vehicles are over the detector) is a
measure often used as a substitute for density.
 A second reason that queue density is of interest is that it can be used
to determine the physical length of the queue, and hence, the amount
of space that must be provided or store it. As a general rule, it is
desirable to avoid situations in which the queue from bottleneck blocks
traffics not bound for that bottleneck. In this case the queue is said to
spill back into the upstream section.
NETWORK
ANALYSIS
Network Analysis
■ Is the mathematical analysis of complex working procedures in
terms of a network of related activities.

■ Transport network analysis is used to determine the flow of

vehicles (or people) through a transport network, typically
using mathematical graph theory. It may combine
different modes of transport, for example, walking and car, to
model multi-modal journeys. Transport network analysis falls
within the field of transportation engineering.
Network Analysis

■ The traffic analysis techniques covered so far are primarily useful

for analyzing individual facilities. Actual traffic systems usually
consist of networks of facilities in which there are several possible
paths that can be followed between any two points. The analysis
of travel times and vehicle movement is much more complicated
for networks than for individual facilities, and many interesting
problems remain unsolved.
Network Analysis

■ A network consists of a set of nodes connected by links.

■ Nodes may be either origins or destinations of trips (in which

case they are called source nodes or sink nodes) or may be a
decision points. Links are elements in the network which have
cost. As commonly used in transportation applications, links
are transportation facilities such as road or railway segments
and nodes are points at which these facilities intersect.
Network Analysis
■ Links without physical length may be included if they represent
costs which can be separated from the cost of traversing of physical
link. Costs will usually include travel time, but may also include
the travel distance, money costs or some sort of weighted sum of
several cost elements.
Network Analysis
■ There are two network analysis problems of a particular interest in
transportation. The first of these is the traffic assignment problem,
which consists of predicting traffic volumes on each link in a
network. This problem is normally considered to be a part of
transportation demand analysis, and will be discussed further in
Chapter 13.

■ The second, which is covered here, is the problem finding the

minimum cost path between any two nodes in a network, given the
cost of traversing each link.
Minimum Cost Path Algorithm

■ The most efficient solution to the minimum path problem for

large networks is a procedure known as Dijkstra,s algorithm.
This algorithm is a classic network analysis technique and
exists in several versions. The version presented here is
adapted to hand calculation; however, some of the
modifications necessary to adapt it to computer calculation are
discussed.
Minimum Cost Path Algorithm

■ In order to use the algorithm, it is necessary to set up the network, identifying all
nodes, links, and link costs. For purposes of hand calculation, the networks should be
represented by a diagram. Nodes are represented by a circle split by a horizontal line.
In the space above the line, each node is identified by a unique number or letter. In the
space below the line, a node label will be written. This label will consist of the cost of
reaching the node from the source by the minimum path to that node and the last node
on the minimum cost path from the source. Links are represented by lines connecting
the nodes, and link costs are written beside the links.
Minimum Cost Path Algorithm

■ The algorithm consists of a process of node labeling. The key to this process is that
nodes are labeled in ascending order of the cost of reaching them from the source
node. This is accomplished by repetition of the following steps:

1. Let the most recently labeled node be designated i. Generate tentative labels for
all previously unlabeled nodes that can be reached directly from node i, and
eliminate the links between node i and these nodes from further consideration by
making a mark through them. The cost portion of the tentative label for node j is
the cost of reaching node i plus the cost of link ij, and the last-node portion is i.
Minimum Cost Path Algorithm

2.. If no tentative label yet exists for the node in questions, add the label just
generated to a list of tentative labels. If a previous label does exist, compare the
tentative label just generated with the old one. If the cost portion of the new label
is less than that of the old one, write down the new label and eliminate the old
label by striking through it. If the cost of the new label is greater than that of the
old one, ignore the new label and keep the old one. In case of ties, either label, or
both, may be kept, depending on the application

3. Search for the list of tentative labels to find the least-cost tentative label, and
label that node on the network diagram. Eliminate the node just labeled from the
tentative label list (it is now a final label).
Minimum Cost Path Algorithm

4. Repeat step 1, proceeding from the node just labeled until

the sink node is reached. The node label of the sink node will
be the cost of reaching that node from the source node by
the minimum path, and the minimum path itself may be traced
back to the source by means of the last node portion of the node
labels.
 Minimum Cost
Path Algorithm
As an example of the
algorithm procedure, consider
the network in Figure 8.22. The
problem is to find the minimum
path from node A to node F, and
the cost of traversing it. The
numbers beside the links are the
link costs.
 Minimum Cost
Path Algorithm
The first step is to set up a
tentative node table and label the
beginning node. In this case, it
does not matter whether the
search starts at node A or node F,
so node A is chosen arbitrarily.
Since there is no cost to reach
node A from node A, the label for
node A is (0, -). This step is
shown in Figure 8.23.
 Minimum Cost
Path Algorithm
Next, tentative labels are
generated from nodes B and D,
which can be reached directly
from node A. The tentative label
list is searched, and node D is
found to have the least-cost
tentative label. Node D is then
labeled. Figure 8.24 shows
these steps.
 Minimum Cost
Path Algorithm
Next, the tentative label
for node E, which is the only
node that can be reached
directly from node D, is
generated. The tentative label
list is searched, and node E is
found to be cheapest. It is now
labeled. Figure 8.25 shows these
steps.
 Minimum Cost
Path Algorithm
Following this, tentative
labels are generated from nodes B
and F, which can be reached directly
from node E. Since the new cost for
node B is less than that already
recorded, the old label is replaced.
The tentative label list is searched,
and node B is found to be the
cheapest. Node B is labeled and
eliminated from the tentative label
list. Figure 8.26 shows these steps.
 Minimum Cost
Path Algorithm
Next, a tentative label is
generated for node C, which is
the only node than can be
reached directly from node B.
The tentative label list is search,
and the node C is found to be the
cheapest. It is now labeled.
Figure 8.27 shows these steps.
 Finally, a tentative label is
generated for node F, which can be
reached directly from node C. This proves
to be cheaper that the old label for node F,
so the old label is replaced. Node F is the
only remaining node on the tentative label
list, so it is now labeled. All nodes now
have final labels. The cost of reaching
node F from node A is found to be 14.
The minimum path from node A to node
F is found by tracing the last-node portion
of the label back from node F to node A.
The path (in reverse order) is found to be
F-C-B-E-D-A. The path is row marked on
the diagram by the arrows. Figure 8.28
illustrates these steps.
Network Analysis

■ Network models are used to analyze travel times where there is

more than on possible path between the ultimate origin and
destinations of a trip. Efficient algorithms exist to solve for the
minimum cost path where link costs are independent of flows.