Basic of

Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)

LMT05107
Time Table

Time Table (lecture)

• Monday 16:00 - 17:20hrs
• Thursday 10:40AM – 12:00PM
 Assessment Methods
ASSESSMENT METHODS
A. Continuous Assessment
Classroom test One 20 Marks
i) Practical Assignment one 05 Marks
ii) Practical Assignmenttwo 05 Marks
iii) Classroom test two 20 Marks

Total 50 Marks

B. Semester Examination 50 Marks

GRAND TOTAL 100 Marks

PART I : Introduction to GIS
GIS Overview

Objectives:-
•Understand definition of terms, Components of GIS,
Capabilities,
•Understand different GIS Data Types and Models

2
Definition of Terms

• Data
• Information
• System
• Information System
• Geographic Information
• Geographic Information System

3
Data and Information
• Data are representation of facts, concepts or
instructions in a formalized manner, suitable for
communication, interpretation or processing by
human (manually) or automated means. Only
when placed in a context data can produce
information.

4
Information:

• Information is an answer to a specific question. The

question generally emerges in the context of problem
solving in connection with management/decision
making activities.

• Simply Information is regarded as the data which has

been processed transformed into new forms suitable
for specific applications.

5
System and Information System

• A system is a collection of people, means (technical,

financial) and procedures organized to accomplish a
specific set of functions (applications).
• A system is defined as a group of integrated parts which
are designed to achieve a common objective
• Information system is therefore: A system to transform
data into information (including collection, processing,
storing, retrieving, analyzing, protecting and
communicating) such that this information can be used
as input for a decision making process.

6
Geographic Information
• GI- describes objects and/or phenomena from the
real world in the form of:-
•their position with respect to a known coordinate
system
•their attributes that are unrelated to position

7
Geographic Information System (GIS)
• GIS is a set of tools for collecting, retrieving, at will,
transforming and displaying spatial data from the real
world for a particular set of purposes. (Borrough 1986)

• GIS is any manual or computer based set of procedures

used to store and manipulate geographically Referenced
data (Aronoff 1989).

o A computer system capable of holding and using data

describing places on the earth’s surface

8
GIS Definition Cont----
• GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware,
software, geographical data, and personnel designed to
efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze
and display all forms of Geographically referenced data
(Borrough 1998).

• GIS is a computer based system that provides four sets of

capabilities to handle georeferenced data:
•data input
•data management (storage and retrieval)
•data manipulation and analysis
•data output (Aronoff 1998)
9
Components of a GIS as a SOFTWARE

• At the simplest level GIS can be viewed as a software

package with components which include tools for:-
• Data input
• Data management
• Data manipulation and analysis
• Data visualization/output
 Components of a GIS as a SYSTEM

Software 1. Computer system (hardware

People +operating system)
2. The software (the GIS
Data
software)
3. Spatial data (and also
Network
attribute)
4. Data Management and
Procedures Analysis procedures (the
Methods)
Hardware 5. People who operates the
system

11
Essential elements for effective GIS Operation…

• A Processor with sufficient power to run the software

• Sufficient memory for the storage of large volumes of
data

• A good quality high-resolution colour graphic screen

• Data input and output devices (digitizers, scanners,

keyboard, printers and plotters) [ Burrough, 1986]
GIS Applications
• Mapping
• Public Health
• Land use planning and
management
• Cadastre
• Environmental studies
• Natural resource mapping
and management
• Land tenure
• Mineral exploration
• •
Natural hazard prediction
and management
• •
Geological studies
• Engineering design and
planning
• Marketing and Retailing
• Urban Management and
Planning
• Agriculture
• Marine Sciences
• Coastal management
• Water Resource Management
• Soil Resource Management
• Energy Resources Management
Military use
• Navigation
et cetera…………………
12
Five Ms of applied GIS

 Mapping
 Measuring

 Monitoring

 Modeling

 Managing
GIS Data Types
GIS Data Types cont…..

Attribute Data are Kept in Relational Database and

linked to the Spatial Data

10
 GIS spatial data type

• Point: wells, street lamps, addresses

• Line: roads, transmission lines, streams

• Area: land use, parcels

• Continuous: elevation, rainfall, ocean salinity

 Spatial Data types
Continuous surface
Point data Line data Area data
data

A
B
A C

X-axis X-axis X-axis

X-axis
GIS Data Models
• A Data Model is a language that defines:-

• the structure of the data to be stored

• the rules the stored data has to obey all the times
• the manipulation functions, which can be effected to
the stored data

13
GIS Data Models cont…

16
Vector Data Model
Raster Data model
Spaghetti Vs Topological Data Representation
Before Cleanup After Cleanup Description Before Cleanup After Cleanup Description

Erase duplicates Extend

or sliver lines undershoots

Erase short Snap clustered

objects nodes

Break crossing Erase dangling

objects objects or
overshoots

1 1
Dissolve Dissolve
2 2 polygons pseudo-nodes
3

18
Regular Vs Irregular Tessellations

Regular grids Irregular grids

19
Advantages of Irregular over Regular Tessellation

20
Spatial data models (comparison)
Raster Model
• Simple Data Structure
• Easy and efficient Overlays
• Compatible with Remote Sensing
Imagery
• Inefficiency use of computer space
• Loss of information when using large
cells
• Less accurate but nice looking maps
• Difficult in Network Analysis
Vector Model
• complex data structure
• Difficult to perform Overlays
• Not Compatible with Remote
• Sensing Imagery
• Compact Data structure
• Point, line, or Polygon are used to
represent spatial objects
• High accurate Map output
• Excellent in Network Analysis
21
 PART II:
GIS data input and
Management
Objectives
• introduce course participants to different data
input techniques

• understand how spatial and attribute data

are organized in a GIS Database
GIS Data Types and Management
GIS Data Sources
• Paper Maps
• Aerial Photographs
• Satellite Images
• Land Surveying data
• Census and survey (social) data
 So what is Data Input?
• Data input is the process of converting data from its existing form
to one that can be used by a GIS (Aronoff, 1989)
• Is the procedure of encoding data to a computer-readable form
(converting from hard to soft)

• Data input and Management are the most expensive and time-
consuming part (Approx-80% of the duration of large GIS project
is on these) [Aronoff, 1989]

• Data input techniques include: (Digitizing, Keyboard encoding,

electronic data transfer)
Digitizing
• Digitizing is the process of converting
analogue graphics/map document into
digital data.
• The process of digitizing involves:
- Spatial (location or geographical) data entry into a
computer.
- Attribute data entry: Data describing the spatial
data.
Digitizing Techniques
• Three different techniques are available
namely;
- Table digitizing,
- Scan digitizing, and
- On-screen digitizing

• The choice of digitization depends on the

quality, complexity and contents of the input
document
 Table Digitizing Technique

• Consists of:
•Digitizing surface on which a graphic document (e.g.. A map)
may be placed, and
•A freely moving hand held cursor.
• Exact position of cursor cross hairs can be recorded in the
digitizer coordinate system.

• A cost effective method of obtaining spatial data by digitizing

existing maps, charts or photographs.
 Table digitization cont…
• This requires manual tracing of all graphical elements
with the help of a hand held cursor.

• The method gives vector data.

• It is labour intensive akin to manual scribing.

Table digitizing
Scan Digitizing (scanning)
• It is also referred as automatic/semi-automatic
digitizing technique

• It requires a scanner (a sensitive light detecting

instrument)

• Every areal element (pixel) is illuminated and the

amount of reflected or transmitted light is recorded.

• It always produces results which are in raster form

Scan Digitizing (scanning)
On - Screen digitizing
• This requires a graphic screen and original document to
be scanned.

• The scanned data on screen is then digitized feature by

feature by an operator who places the virtual (screen)
cursor on the image displayed on the screen.
Electronic Data Transfer
• Converting available digital data into a form/format
readable by your GIS.
• Those data come from devices such as:-
- GPS Receivers
- Total Stations
- Data loggers

• You therefore need a download cable and a data

communication software
GPS is just a tool……

You will have to have

a GIS or AutoCAD
software to use it.
Total Station
 Processes in building a raster / vector data set
(GIS Database)

Satellite
Georeference Raster
Images
Data

Scanning Rasterize
Aerial
Photographs On-screen
Vectorize

Vector
Data
Maps Digitizing
Tables

Tables
Digital database
 PART III:

REFERENCE COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
 Objectives

 To enable course participants to appreciate the role of

coordinate reference systems in cartographic
mapping.

 To enable course participants to select suitable

coordinate reference system specifications in a GIS
environment.
Introduction

This series of lectures will attempt to cover:

• Reference coordinate systems principles and
properties
•Geographic coordinate systems
•Projected coordinate systems
• Selection of suitable reference coordinate
system for specific themes/purposes.
Introduction…

 Geoid
• Is a line approximating surface of the earth, at the
sea level, and perpendicular to the gravitation
field.
The Earth as an Ellipsoid
 Satellite measurements have proved that the earth
is flattened at the poles and extended (bulged) at
the equator.
 The earth ellipsoid (Spheroid).

Pole

Equator

Pole
Geographic Coordinate Systems (GCS)

The ellipsoid and a sphere

 Earth’s flattened shape can best be described by reference to an
Ellipsoid.
b An ellipsoid a>b
a a=semi-major axis (equatorial radius)
b=semi-minor axis (polar radius)
 The representation of the earth using Sphere is attempted to
make calculations easier

A sphere a=b
Geographic Coordinate Systems
(GCS)

The ellipsoid and a sphere

 Definition of the Ellipsoid
• An ellipsoid can be defined by:
• Equatorial (a) and Polar (b) radii to give:
Flattening (f) = (a-b)/a
Geographic coordinate system (cont.)
• The ellipsoid and a sphere
• The sphere is recommended for use in small scale
mapping (smaller than 1:5000000)
• The ellipsoid is recommended for use in larger scale
mapping (1:1000000 or larger)
• On the ellipsoid/ sphere point is
referenced by its latitude and longitude

• The origin (0,0) is defined by where the Equator and the

Prime meridian meet
• Measurement units: Deg. decimal/ Deg., min., sec.
Geographic coordinate system
(cont.)
• The ellipsoid and a sphere
• Global ellipsoid
• Best fits the shape of the earth globally
• Attempts to get best fits for mapping countries/continents
has resulted into many and different ellipsoids being in
use today.
• Local ellipsoid
• Best fit one region e.g. a country or a particular area
• Current initiatives to use one spheroid, WGS84
Geographic Coordinate System
(cont.)
Datum – What is it?
A datum is a set of parameters defining a
coordinate system, and a set of control points
whose geometric relationships are known, either
through measurement or calculation.
 Defines the position of the ellipsoid relative to the
center of the earth
 Provides a frame of reference for measuring locations
on surface of the earth
 Defines the origin and orientation of latitudes and
longitude lines
Geographic Coordinate System
(cont.)
Datum
 Geocentric datum

• Defines the best earth-fitting ellipsoid which relates

coordinates to the earth’s center of mass e.g. WGS84.
• The coordinate system origin of the geocentric datum
is at center of mass of the earth
• WGS84 for example serves as the framework for
location measurements worldwide
Geographic Coordinate System
(cont.)
Datum
Local datum
• Aligns its ellipsoid to closely fit the earth’s surface in a
particular region
• The datum point of origin is determined by matching a
point on the surface of the ellipsoid to a particular
position on the surface of the earth
• The coordinates of the origin point are fixed and all
other points are calculated from it
Geographic Coordinate System
(cont.)

Datum
 Local datum
• The center of ellipsoid of a local datum is offset
from earth’s center hence the coordinate system
origin is not also at the center of the earth
• Because a local datum aligns its ellipsoid so
closely to a particular area on the earth’s surface,
it is not suitable for use outside the area for which
it was designed.
Geographic Coordinate systems
(cont.)

Examples of Ellipsoids

Name Date Semi-Major Semi-Minor Use

Axis Axis
WGS72 1972 6378135 6356750.519915 World Wide

WGS84 1984 6378137 6356752.31 World Wide

 Geographic Coordinate systems (cont.)
Examples of Ellipsoids
Name Date Semi-Major Semi-Minor Use
Axis Axis
Airy 1830 6377563.396 6356256.91 Great Britain

Australian 6378160 6356774.719

National
Bessel 1841 6377397.155 6356078.96284 Europe, Chile,
Indonesial
Clarke 1866 6378206.4 6356583.8 North America,
Phillipines
Clarke 1880 6378249.145 6356514.8695 France and
5 Most of
Africa
Everest 1830 6377276.3452 6356075.4133 India Burma
Ceylon,Malasia
Geographic Coordinate systems
(cont.)
Examples of Ellipsoids
Name Date Semi-Major Semi-Minor Use
Axis Axis
Fischer 1960 6378166 6356784.28

Fischer 1968 6378150 6356768.33

GRS80 1980 6378137 6356752.3414 North America

Helmert 1907 6378200 6356818.17 Egypt

Hough 6378388 6356911.94613

Krasovsky 1840 6378245 6356863.0188 USSR, Some

Eastern Europe
Projected Coordinate systems
Definition
• Projected coordinate systems are any coordinate
system designed for a flat surface such as printed
map or a computer screen. Hence
• It is defined on a flat-two dimensional surface and is
always based on geographic coordinate system.
• Location are identified by x,y coordinates on a grid
with the origin at the center of the grid
• From earth’s shape (sphere or ellipsoid), positions
are transformed to create a flat map sheet. This
mathematical transformation is called Map projection.
Projected Coordinate systems
(cont.)

Definition
Map projection
The process of systematically projecting (transforming)
locations from the surface of the ellipsoid (spheroid) to
representative positions on a flat surface using
mathematical algorithms.
 Projected Coordinate systems (cont.)
Map
Projections
•What do they do?
• Allows areas on the surface of the Earth (a spheroid)
to be represented on a map (a flat surface).
• Defines the relationship between the map
coordinates and the geographical coordinates
• In this way the precise position of features on
the Earth's surface can be represented on the
map.
Projected Coordinate systems
(cont.)

The Map Projection Process

The
earth Mathematical figure Ellipsoid or
Close to the Sphere
Size and shape of the
Earth
Globe

MAP

Developable surfaces
 Projected Coordinate systems (cont.)
The Generating Globe
Merits: Demerits:
• Directions: true. • Even the largest globe has a very
small scale and shows relatively
• Distances: true. little detail.
• Shapes: true. • Costly to produce, reproduce and
• Areas: true update.
• Difficult to carry around.
• Bulky to store.
• Only one hemisphere can be seen
at a time
Hence, maps (2D presentation) made to get away
from globe’s demerits.
 Projected Coordinate systems (cont.)

From the Globe to the Flat Surface

 Projections Based on Geometric Surfaces:

Cylinder Plane
(cylindrical Projections) Cone Azimuthal /Zenithal
conical projections Projections)
Properties of Projections

 Conformal projection:
• Maps preserve local shape and direction/angles
 Equal Area/Equivalent projection:
• Maps preserve area.
 Equidistant projection:
• Maps preserve distance in certain directions only.
 True-direction projections
• Maps preserve directions in all directions.
Distortions in Map Projections
 The globe as the only true representation of the
surface of the entire earth.
 Impact of laying out the curved surface on a flat
surface.
 A map can show one or more - but never all - of
the following:
• True directions
• True distances
• True Areas
• True Shapes.
Distortions in Map Projections ctd.

 In other words, all map projections cause some

deformations (distortions) to the projected
surfaces.
 They distort area, distance or direction to varying
extents.
 Because of the nature, distribution & magnitude
of distortions, there’s need to select projections
depending on specific map purpose.
Managing Distortions

 The impact of distortions depends on two things:

• The use of the map, and
• The scale of the map
 Selection of a projection that either preserves
desired map purpose/theme or minimizes certain
type of distortions.
 Selection of projection that suits location of area
mapped on the earth sphere.
 Adoption of secant projections.
 Zoning e.g. UTM.
Generalized Use of Map Projection
Types
 Cylindrical Projection
• Used for Equatorial Regions
 Conical Projection
• Used for Regions between Equator and Poles
 Azimuthal Projection
• Used for Polar Regions
Projected coordinate systems (cont.)

Projection parameters
• Each map projection needs a set of projection parameters to
be able to defined a projected coordinate system.
• These parameters are used to specify the origin and
customize a projection
 Angular projection parameters
 Azimuth- defines a center line of a projection
 Central meridian/ Longitude of origin- defines the origin of x-
coordinates
 Central parallel- defines the origin of y-coordinates
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)

Projection parameters
 Linear projection parameters
 False easting: a linear value applied to the origin of the x-

coordinates
 False nothing: a linear value applied to the origin of the y-

coordinates
These values are applied to ensure that all coordinates are
positive.
 Scale factor: a unit less value applied to the center point or line of

a map projection
The scale factor is usually slightly less than 1 e.g. UTM is 0.9996.
Projected coordinate systems (cont.)

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

 This projection is a specialized application of the
Transverse Mercator Projection.
 The Universal Transverse Mercator System, divides
the globe into 60 zones, each spanning 6° of
longitude.
 The zones are numbered consecutively beginning
with zone 1 between 180o and 174o W longitude,
and progressively eastward to zone 60 between
174o and 180o east longitude.
 The limits of each zone are 84° N, 80° S.
Projected coordinate systems
(cont.)

UTM
 Method of projection: Each UTM zone has its
own Central Meridian (CM) from which it spans 3
degrees west and 3 degrees east of the central
meridian.
 X- and Y-coordinates are recorded in metres.
 The origin for each zone is the Equator and its
central meridian.
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)
UTM

 To eliminate negative coordinates, the projection

alters the coordinate values at the origin.
 The value given to the central meridian is the
False Easting, and the value assigned to the
Equator is the False Northing for the southern
hemisphere regions.
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)
UTM
 For locations in the Northern Hemisphere, the
origin is assigned a false Easting of 500,000, and
a false Northing of 0.
 For locations in the Southern Hemisphere, the
origin is assigned a false easting of 500,000 and
a false northing of 10,000,000.
• Grid values to the west of the CM are less than
500,000 m; to the east, more than 500,000 m.
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)

UTM

 Lines of Secancy - Two lines parallel to and

approximately 180 km(1.62o) to each side of the
central meridian of the UTM zone.
 Scale Factor along the parallels =1, at CM =
0.9996 and at edge of a zone = 1.0007.
 Linear graticule - The central meridian and the
Equator.
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)
UTM
Properties
 Shape Conformal. Accurate representation of
small shapes. Minimal distortion of larger shapes
within the zone.
 Area - Minimal distortion within each UTM zone.
 Direction - Local angles are true.
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)
UTM
Properties
 Distance - Scale is constant along the central
meridian, but at a scale factor of 0.9996 to
reduce lateral distortion within each zone.
 With this scale factor, lines lying 180 km east and
west of and parallel to the central meridian have
a scale factor of 1.0.
 Projected coordinate systems (cont.)
UTM
Limitations
 Designed for a scale error not exceeding 0.1
percent within each zone. This projection spans
the globe from 84° N to 80° S.
 Error and distortion increase for regions that
span more than one UTM zone.
UTM

Uses and applications

 Medium-scale topographic maps of regions
throughout the world.
 Aeronautical charts.
References
 Dent, B. (1993) Cartography, Thematic map
Design, Wm. C. Brown publishers, Dubuque,
IA.
 Garo, L. A.B. (2000), Map Projections,
http://www.uncc.edu/lagaro/cwg/mapproj/
Lecture 4:

GIS Data Analysis

Objectives

• Appreciate different GIS operational

capabilities
• Differentiate GIS from other information
systems
• Able to make use of different GIS
analytical tools to solve real world
problems
 GIS Spatial Analysis
definition
 Spatial analysis is transforming and combining “data
from diverse sources / disciplines into useful
information, to improve one’s understanding or to
satisfy the requirements or objectives of decision-
makers.” [de By (ed) ITC 2000]
 Spatial analysis are all “methods that can be applied to
geographic data to add value to them, to support
decisions, and to reveal patterns and anomalies that
are not immediately obvious – in other words, spatial
analysis is the process by which we turn raw data into
useful information.” [Longley et al. 2001]
what analysis tool to use?
 “Effective spatial analysis requires an
intelligent user, not just a powerful computer”
[Longley et al. 2001].

 …You know Why????? (next slide….)

 what analysis tool to use?
 „..., our journey will be a conceptual one, and you
will be spending more time learning to think
spatially than on the commands you will need to
perform analysis. Remember, the only way to decide
which commands to use is to know what you are
trying to do. It is a much shorter path from
concepts to commands than from commands to
concepts, …“ [DeMers 2000]
Introduction

Distinguishing functions of GIS

For spatial decision making

Transform raw spatial data into useful

information
 Data analysis operations

 Measurement
• Basic spatial measurements: x,y, distance, area etc.
 Spatial query
• Data retrieval on both geometric and attribute data
 (Re)Classification
• Assign new classification codes
 Overlay
• Topological and Raster overlay
 Neighbourhood
• Evaluate the characteristics of surrounding area.
 Network analysis
• The connectivity of linear features.
 Spatial query

Select all clinics in

district “A”.
Spatial query
- Select features adjacent to other features
Features adjacent to the Original selection
original selection polygon
polygon

• also called MEET

relationship.
• Share common
boundaries.
• Apply only to line
and polygon
features.
Spatial Roads and

query clinics

Select 1st
class road
Example:
Select all clinics within 200
meters from the first class
roads.

Create
buffer along
1st roads

Select clinics
within the buffer
polygons
 (Re)Classification

 Assign codes based on specific attributes.

 Reduce the number of classes and eliminate
details.
 useful for revealing spatial patterns.
 reclassify data in different systems or for
different purposes.
 Example: soil types reclassified into soil
suitability for agricultural purpose.
 (Re)Classification - procedure

 Specify input data source.

 Apply one of the classification methods.
 Specify the output data - new classification
(both spatial and attributes).
 (Re)Classification - 1 : 1

 The total number of classes do not change.

 No geometric change on vector data.
 Different classification systems.
 (Re)Classification - M : 1

 The number of classes is reduced.

 May have geometric editing after the classification.
 Also called generalization, aggregation, merge and
dissolve operations.
(Re)Classification - M
:1

M:1
classification

CODE OLD TYPE NEW TYPE

10 Planned Residential Residential
20 Industry Commercial
30 Commercial Commercial
40 Institutional Public
50 Transport Public
60 Recreational Public
70 Non Built-up Non Built-up
80 Unplanned Residential Residential
UDSM
 (Re)Classification - 1: M

 The number of classes increases.

 Additional information are needed for 1:M
classification.
 A geometric feature may be divided into two or
more features.
 Overlay operations

Combines several map layers into one.

New spatial elements are usually created.
All map layers must be in the same
coordinate systems.
Both on vector and raster data.
 Overlay operations -
Vector data
 Topological overlay.
 Involves complicated geometric calculations to
create new topology.
 Spatial features are combined.
 New attributes are assigned to each new feature,
such as area, parameters.
 The attributes from the input map layers are kept
in the output.
Overlay operations
 Overlay operations - Union
• All the features in the two input data source
are kept in the output.
• Applies only to polygon features.

Input 1

Output

UNION
Input 2
 Overlay operations - Intersect
• Only the features inside the common area of the
two input data are kept in the output.
• One input data can be point, line or polygon feature
type, the other must be a polygon data set.

Input 1 Output

INTERSECT

Intersect data set

 Overlay operations - CLIP

 Extracts those features from an input

coverage that overlap with a clip coverage.
 No combination of attributes.

Input 1 Output

CLIP

Clip data
set
 Overlay operations - ERASE
 Erases the input coverage features that
overlap with the erase coverage polygons.
 No combination of attributes.

Input 1 Output

ERASE

Erase data
set