Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse (Fourth Edition) BKLE Abs 5 [5] FA (4Nm) fa EK Sh hettK FURS FA F (% ED hk ) Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse (Fourth Edition) EKLE Nhs 5B] FA (AKG) — I George Tchobanoglous Franklin 1. Burton 4B i] H. David Stensel ERA heat(RES 158 § Wastewater Engineering; Treatment and Reuse( Fourth Edition) Bok LB: MBS AH 4 Mi) Metcalf & Eddy Inc. Copyright © 2003 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, EISBN 0 07 112250-8 Authorized reprint from original English language edition published by the MeGraw Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. This edition is authorized for sale in the People’s Republic of China only, excluding Hong Kong, Macao SAR and Taiwan, A BC 6 NG 3 OB A A A A NAHE AR HSE RAL PE RT ITS GM RT. ABGRA RDG AMADA ARM la eA BME BI, RHA BDDR. ABHDWA McGraw-Hill 2) MHEG HEE ARATE ACTER A EAL ABR PF: 01-2002-4627 BoA: BOK TE: ABS il GE 4D 1 fe # Metcalf 8 Eddy, Inc, SR AEE Ck EASE RAE A 100084) http://www, tup, tsinghua, edu, en SONA WR ATA BT RTE: BEBE ABARAT FR AK: 87X60 1/18 ANF, 35. 75 WR: 20091 AR LR 2008 AL AL 45, ISBN 7-302-05857-1/X » 42 EM %, 0001~3000 Ht: 169.00 704 3 HE HhAbout the Authors George Tchobanaglous is a professor emeritus of environmental engineering in the Department of Civil and Buvirunmental Engineering at the University of California, at Davis. He received a B S, degree in civil engineering from the University of the Pacific, an M.S. degree in sanitary engineering from the University of California at Berkeley, und a Ph.D. in environmental engineering from Stanford University. His prin- cipal research interests ure in the areas of wastewater treatment, wastewater filtation, UY disinfection, aquatic wastewater management systems, solid waste management, and wastewater management for small systems, He has authored or coauthored over 350 technical publications, including 12 textbooks and two reference works, The text- books are used in more than 200 colleges and universities throughout the United States. ‘The textbooks and reference books are also used extensively by practicing engineers both in the United States and abroad, Professor Tchobanoglous serves nationally and internationally as conseltant lo both governmental agencies und private concerns. An active member of numerous professional societies, he is a past president of the Asso« ation of Environmental Engineering and Science Professors. He is u registered civil engineer in California, Franklin L, Burton speat 30 years with Metcalf & Eddy serving as vice president and chief engineer in their western regional office in Palo Alto, CA. He received a B.S. degree in mechanical engineering from Lehigh University and an M.S. degree in civil engineering from the University of Michigan. He has been involved in the planning, design, and technical review of over 50) wastewater treatment plants. He was he c author of the third edition of this textbook. He retized from Metcalf & Eddy in 1986 and is in private practice in Los Altos, CA, specializing in treatment technology evaluation, ‘energy management, facilities design review, and value engineering. He is a registered civil and mechanical engineer in California and is u life member of the American Soci- ety of Civil Engineers, Water Snvitonment Federation, and the American Water Works Association H. David Stensel is a professor of civil and environmental engineering at the Uni- versity of Washington, Seattle, WA. Prior to his acaciemic positions, he spent 10 years in practice developing and applying industrial and municipal wastewater treatment processes. He received & B.S. degree in civil engineering from Union College. Sch- enectady, NY, and M.E. and Ph.D. degrees in environmental engineering from Comell University, His principal research interests arc in the areas of wastewater treatment, bio- logical nutrient removal, sludge processing methods, biodegradation of hazardous sub- stances, and stormwater ireutmeut, He has authored or coauthored over 100 technical publications and a textbook on bialogical nutrient removal. He has received the ASCE Rudolf Hering Medal and (wice received the Warer Environment Federation Harrisonwi About the Authors Prescott Eddy Medal for his research contributions. He is a member of numeraus pro- fessional societies, and has served as chair of the ASCE Environmental Engineering Division, treasurer of the American Association of Environmental Engineering Profes- sors, and associate editor of the Water Environment Federation Research Journal. He is a registered professional engineer and a diplomate in the American Academy of Envi- ronmental Engineers.Preface During the past 12 years since the publication of the third edition of this textbook, the umber of new developments and changes that have occurred in the field of wastewater engineering has been dramatic, especially with respect io (1) the characterization of the constituents found in wastewater, both in terms of the range of constituents and the detection limits; (2) a greater fundamental understanding of the mechanisms of biological wastewater treatment: 3) the application of advanced treatment methods for the removal of specific con- stituents; : (4) the increased emphasis on the management of the biosolids resulting from the treat- ‘tent of wastewater; and (5) the issuance of more comprehensive and restrictive permit requirements for the dis- charge and reuse of treated wastewater. The fourth edition of this textbook has been prepared to address the significant new developments and changes that have occurred in the field and to correct other issues with the third edition to make the fourth edition more user friendly, For example, the theory and practice chupters, separated in the third edition, are now combined in the fourth edition to provide subject continuity ard eliminate redundancy. Because of the importance of biological wastewater treatment, four separate chapters have been devoted to this subject. The chapter on advanced wastewater treatment fas been expanded to inchide processes that are increasingly required to meet more stringent dis- charge requirements. A new chapter on disinfection has been added to deal with recent developments in the field. The chapter om reclamation and reuse has been revised com- pletely and much new material hus been added, Because of the importance of biosolids ‘management, an entire chapter is devoted to this subject, The issves of process design and performance to meet more stringent permit requirements, including the upgrading, of existing treatment plants, are considered in Chapter 15. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THIS BOOK Following the practice in the third edition. more than 100 new example problems have been worked out in detail to enhance the readers’ understanding of the basic concepts presented in the text. Wherever possible, spreadsheet solutions are presented. To aid in the planning, unalysis, and design of wastewater management systems, design data and information are summarized aid presented in more than 300 tables, most of which are new. To illustrate the principles and facilities involved in the field of wastewater man- agement, over 570 illustrations. graphs, diagrams, and photographs are included. To help the readers of this textbook hone their analytical skills and mastery of the material, axxtPreface problems and discussion topics are included at the end of each chapter. Selected refer- ences are also provided for each chapter. ‘The Intemational Systert (ST) of Units is used in the fourth edition. The use of ST units is consistent with teaching practice in most U.S. universities and in many coun- tries throughout the world. In gencral, dual sets of units (ie., SI and U.S. customary) have been used for the data tables. Where the use of double units was not possible, con version factors are included es 1 footnote to the table. To further increase the utility of this textbook, several appendixes have been included. Conversion factors from Intemational System (SI) of Units to U.S. Custom- ary Units and the reverse are presented in Appeudixes A-1 and A~2, respectively. Con- version factors commonly uscd for the analysis and design of wastewater management systems are presented in Appendix A~3. Abbreviations for SI and U.S. ‘Customary units are presented in Appendixes A-4 and A-S, respectively. Physical characteristics of air and selected gases and water are presented in Appendixes B and C, respectively. Dis- solved oxygen concentrations in water as a function of temperature are presented in “Appendix D. Tables of most probable numbers (MPN) are presented in Appendix E, carbonate equilibrium is considered in Appendix F, and Moody diagrams for the analy- sis of flow in pipes are presented in Appendix G. USE OF THIS BOOK Enough material is presented in this textbook to support a variety of courses for one or two semesters or three quarters at either the undergraduate or graduate level. The spe~ cific topies to be covered will depend on the time available and the course objectives. Suggested course outlines follow. For 2 one-semester introductory course on wastewater weatment, the following material is suggested: Ee Topic Chapter Sections Introduction te wastewoler Irectment 1 all Wastewater characteristics 2 All Wastewater flowrales and constituent loadings 3 all Introduction to process analysis 4 All Physical unit operations 5 E1058 Chemical unit operations 6 1, 62, Introduction fe biological treatment of wastewater 7 All Disinfection 12 12+1 to 12-5, 12-9 Water rouse 13 13-1 fo 13-2 Biosolids management 4 All Iniroduction to treatment plant perforrnonce 15 15-1 10 15-3Preface | sexi For a two-semester course on wastewater treatment, the following material is sug- gested: Topic Chapter Sections Introduction to wastewater ireatment 1 All Wastewater characteristics 2 All ‘Wastewater flowrates and constituent loodings 3 All Introduction to process analysis 4 Al Introduction to treatment plant performance 1515-1 to 15-3 Physical unit operations 5 All Chemical unit operations 6 A Introduction to biological treatment of wastewater 7 All Suspended growth hiotogicol treciment processes 8 AR ‘Attached growth ond combined biological irectment processes ° $1105 ‘Anaerobic suspended and tached growth trealment processes 1010-1, 10-2, 10-4 Disinfection 12 All Woter reuse 13 Al Biosolids monagement 14 Al Process control and upgrading treatment plant performance 1518-34017 Fora one-semester course on biological wastewater treatment, the following mate- rial is suggested: Topic Chapter Sections Induction to wastewater reatnent 1 All Wastewater characteristics 2 All Introduction to process onclysis 4 all introduction to treatment plant performance. 15 151 to 15-3 Introduction to biological rectment of woslewoter 7 Al Suspended growth biological reciment processes 8 Al Atoched growth and combined bioogicol keatment processes. = 9 All Anaerobic suspended and cttocked growth ireaiment processes 10 All Anaerobic and cerobic digestion and composting 14 1490 ttt Anaerobic and! cerobic digestion One conePreface For 4 one-semester course on wastewater reclamution und reuse, the following material is suggesied Topic Chapter Sections Introduction to woslewaler treatment 1 all Wostewater choracteristcs 2 all Intreduction to woter reclamation and reuse 13 131 Introduction to risk assessment 1a 134 {alroduction to treatment plant performance 15 15-1 to 15-3 Advanced wastewater realment (optional n 16 Disinfection 12 12140 12-5, 42-7 ro 32-9 Water reclamation technologies 13 a4 Storage of reclaimed water 13 13-5 Reuse of redoimed water 3 13-610 13-9 Planning consideration for reclamation and reuse 13 10 For a one-semester course on physical and chemical unit operations and processes, the following material is suggested. It should be noted that material listed below could bbe supplemented with additional examples trom water treatment, Topic Chapter Sections Introduction to process analysis 41S all lairodudion to treatment plant performance 5 1541 to 153 Introduction to physical unit operations ‘Mixing and Aoceulation: 5 4 Sedimentation 5 55, 57, 58 Gas tronster 5 S110 5-12 Filtration {conventional depth filtration} nv 11-3, 1i-4 Membrane filtration W 16 Adsorption n Ww? Gos stripping au 513, 11-8 UY disinftion 2 128 Intraduction fo chemical unit processes 62 Coagulation é 52 Chemical precipitation 6 631065 fon exchange W no Water stobilizatc 6 oF Chemicel oxidotion {corventional} 6 66 ‘Advanced oxidation processes n 9Preface 1 xxw ACKNOWLEDGMENTS A book of this magnitude cavld nat have been written without the assistance of mumer- ous individuals. First and foremost, Mr. Harold Leverenz, a doctoral candidate at the University of California at Davis, provided exceptional assistance. He read and com- mented on all of the drafts, checked the problems, and prepared many of the new fig- ures for this text, In addition, he helped review the page proofs. His devotion (o thestask of making this book student-friendly was beyond the call of duty. Other individuals who contributed, arranged in alphabetical order. are: Mr. Mike Anderson of Nolte and Associates, reviewed portions of the text and worked several design examples, Professor Takashi Asano of the University of California at Davis, the 2001 Stockholm Water Price recipient, revised Chap. 13, which he hed contributed to the third edition; Dr. Keith Bourgeous of Carollo Engineers contributed and reviewed portions of Chap. 11; Mr. Max Burchett of Whitley Burchett & Associates in numerous discussions over many years has contributed vatuable insights on the application of the- ory to practice; Ing. Ennanno Cavciari of Austep Environmental Protection, Milan, Italy, contributed to the section on anaerobic sludge blanket processes in Chap, 10; Dr, Robert Cooper of BioVir laboratories reviewed and provided valuable mput for Chap. 2; Professor John C. Crittenden of Michigan Technological University reviewed Chap. 4 and the scetion an carbon adsorption in Chap. 11; Dr. Alex Ekster, of Eksler and Associates, contributed the sections on process control optimization in Chap. 15; Dr, Robert Emerick of Ecologic Engineers, contributed the section on UV disinfection in Chap. (1; Mr. William Hartnett of Montgomery/Watson contributed writeups on pro- ‘gram logic controllers and piping and instrument diograms in Chap. 15; Dr. Tim Haug of the City of Los Angeles reviewed and provided valuable insight on Chaps. 7 through 10 and 15; Professor David Jenkins of the University of California at Berkeley, pro- vided photomicrographs of filamentous microorganisms; Ms, Surah Mayhew printed most of the photographs; Ms, Margie Nellor of the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County provided a photograph of the Rio Hondo spreading basins, Professor Kara Nelson of the University of California at Berkeley reviewed Chap. 2: Mr. Andrew Salveson of Whitley Burchett & Associates, reviewed Chaps, 2 and 4 and provided data for Chap. 11; Professor Edward D. Schroeder of the University of Califomia at Davis reviewed an early draft of Clap, 7 and provided valuable organizational and technical comments and guidance, and as a colleague of 30 years, Professor Schroeder has con- tributed significantly 0 the education of the senior author; Dr, Richart: E. Speece of ‘Vanderbilt University reviewed the section on anaerobic digestion in Chap. 14 and pro- vided valuable insight; Mr, Jeff Sallar of EOA, contributed to the probabilistic analysis of multiple processes im Chap. 13; Dr, Rhodes Trussell of Montgomery/Watson in numerous discussions offered valuable insights on disinfection, flocculation, and mix- ing processes; and Mr. Mike Weiner of the Orange County Water District provided a photograph of the water spreading basins in Orange County. The collective efforts of these individuals is invaluable. Reviewers, selected by the publisher, who were asked to assess and comment on the prospectus for the fourth edition included Professor James J. Bisogni Jr. of Cornell University. Professor Alan R. Bowers of Vanderbilt University, Professar Jeff Kuo, of California State University at Fullerton, Professor Bruce Logan of Pennsylvania State University, Professor John A. Olofsson of the University of Alaska at Anchorage, androwi Preface Professor Tian C. Zhang of the University of Nebraska at Lincoln, Their input, eafly on, helped guide the development of the final format of the fourth edition. Their contritm- tions are gratefully acknowledged. The reviewers, selected by the publisher, who read the entire manuscript of the fourth edition, were Professor Syed A. Hashsham of Michigan State University; Pro fessor Robert Lang of California Polytechnic University at San Luis Obispo; Professor John T, Novak of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; and Professor Robert M. Sykes of Ohio State University, They provided valuable and timely com- ‘nents that improved the content, organization, and readability of this textbook. Their contributions were significant and are acknowledged gratefully, The assistance of the staif of Metcalf & Eddy in the preparation of this text is also acknowledged. The efforts of Mr, James Anderson were especially important in mak- ing this book possible and in managing the resources made available by Metcalf & Eddy tothe authors, Mr, Jonathan Doane organized the team of staff reviewers and pro- vided liaison between the authors and the reviewers. Vahtable comments were provided that reflect current design practice in both the United States and overseas, “The McGraw-Hill staff was also critical to the production of this textbook. Mr. Bric Munson, formerly of McGraw-Hill, was instrumental in the carly development of this project. Ms. Amy Hill, Developmental Editor, served as the overall project manager. Her organizational skills and tiroless efforts on out behalf have made this book a real- ity, Her sunny personality was also a great help, Ms. Kay J, Brimeyer served as pro- duction coordinator and helped keep all of the loose ends together, while maintaining her sense of humor, Ms, Susan Sexton served as the technical editor. The publishers were Mr, Tom Casson and Ms, Betsy Jones. Finally to Rosemary Tehobanoglous and Nancy Burton who suffered, supported, and encouraged us through the writing of this textbook, we are eternally gratefal. Sup- port for Dave Stensel by Carleen Clark and Pat Halikas was especially helpful George Tchobanoglous Franklin L. Burton —_-H, David Stensel Davis, CA Los Altus, CA Seattle, WAForeword Almost 90 years have passed since Metcalf & Eddy furst published American Sewage Practice, the legendary three-volume treatise that established design standards for sew- rage facilities. Subsequently, the three volumes were combined into a single text, Sew- erage and Sewage Disposal, in 1922 and a second edition was published in 1930 for class use in engineering schools. In 1972, a new version of the textbook was published, Wastewater Engineering: Cottection, Treatment, and Disposal, followed in 1979 by a second edition, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse. A companion textbook, Wastewater Enginecring: Collection and Pumping of Wastewater, was also published in 1981. The most recent publication was the third edition of Wastewater Engineering in 1991. Even though the wastewater practice has continued to evolve and grow during this period, no time period in the past can equal the last decade in terms of technological development. In addition, the awareness of environmental issues among the U.S and world com- munities has reached a level not seen before, This active awareness is driving our indus- ity to achieve levels of performance far beyond those envisioned even as recently as the last decade. This fourth edition of Wastewater Engineering incorporates these concepts as an essential part of a central theme. As a result, the fourth edition has been designed with a forward-looking focus. For example, emerging fields of biological process mod- ling and genetic engineering are addressed with some predictions on where these con- cepts may fit into future wastewater engineering activities. ‘Since the third edition was published in 1991, much focus in the wastewater practice has turned to nutrient removal, with particular emphasis on biological nutrient removal (BNR), Research in this field is being carried on worldwide, and new discoveries that challenge some of the conventional theory continue to be made. The chapters in the fourth ‘edition that pertain to biological processes and BNR are therefore essentially new. They deal with both research results and their applications to wastewater engineering design Pressure for environmental compliance today is greater than ever. Regulatory requirements are, as always, present and forceful. Support from the community for environment-related programs is becoming a stronger driving force than ever before. Stakeholders, as they are often referred to, are quite demanding, well organized, and informed. They challenge wastewater engineers to stretch the performance of existing infrastructure through applied research programs, This concept, referred to by Metcalf & Eddy as “infrastretching,” represents one of the most significant challenges to the practice of wastewater engineering in the new century. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Metcalf & Bddy, Inc, has becn privileged to have as our principal autbors Dr. George Techobanoglous of the University of California at Davis; Franklin L. Burton, a retired vice president of Metcalf & Eddy; and Dr. David Stensel of the University of Washington.Foreword ‘The principal authors were responsible for scope of the textbook, writing, editing, and cootuination with the reviewers and the publisher. Two of our principal authors have enjoyed a long association with the textbook. The third principal author, Dr. Stensel, has joined the team for the fourth edition. Dr. Tchohanoglous was the principal author for the first three editions of this text and far the first two editions of the companion val- ume, Wasiewater Engineering: Collection and Pumping of Wastewater Mr. Burton was technical reviewer for the second edition of this text and the companian text anu a prin- cipal author for the third edition. ‘The staff of Metcalf & Edy played a significant rote in the preparation of this edi- tion, We acknowledge the contributions of the following members of the staff for their valuable efforts in review of manuscripts: Kevin L, Anderson Jonathan W. Doane David P. Bova Robert Gay John G. Chalas Charles E. Pound We would also like to offer our sincere gratitude to Dr. Roger T. Haug for his review of the chapters that cover biclogical wastewater treatment processes. Dr. Hanigs comments were very helpful with respect to achieving one of our goels: the presenta- tion of wastewater engineering in a forward-looking fashion Special appreciation is extended to Jonathan W. Doane for his efforts in managing Metcalf & Eddy’s efforts and to John G. Chalas, che former director of technology of Metcalf & Eddy, now retired, who served as special advisor, ‘dn effort such as this fourth edition could not be successful without the profes- sional encouragement and support of corporate management. We gratefully acknow!- edge the contributions of Robert H. Fisher, chairman and CEO of Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., and John Somerville, president of Metcalf & Eddy. We would also like to acknowledge the vision of our parent company, AECOM Technologies, Inc., acting through Richard Newman, chairman, and Raymond Holdsworth, president, for the commitment they made to complete this offort and io pave the way for future editions. Metealt & Fay would like to make special note of the passing in 2001 of Harry L. Kinsel, a former president of Metcalf & Eddy, Harry Kinsel was known for his pro- fessionalism and commitment to education, Metcalf & Eddy established an intemal ‘competition for technical papers in 1973 in Harry Kinsel’s bonor and this competition will continue as an inspiration to Metcalf & Eddy staff and the industry. Finally, | would like to personally express my appreciation to the entire team of authors, editors, and reviewers for their tireless effort, and the senior management of Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., and AECOM Technologies, Inc., for the opportunity to direct this effort for Metcalf & Bddy. James Anderson Senior Vice President Chief Engineer Metcalf & Eddy, Ine.1-1 1-2 1-3 4 1-5 1-6 2 Preface a Acknowledgments mm Foreword awsti Wastewater Engineering: An Overview 1 ‘Terminology 3 Impact of Regulations on Wastewater Engineering 3 Health and Environmental Concems ‘in Wastewater Management ‘Wastewater Characteristics: Improved Analytical Techniques 10 Importance of Improved Wastewater Characterization 0 ‘Wastewater Treatment 10 Treatment Methads I Current Status D Nev Directions and Concerns 15 Future Trends in Wastewater Treatment 20 ‘Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Pa Current Starus: a New Directions and Concerns 4 Fature Trends in Technology m Biosolids and Residuals Management 22, ‘Current Status 2 New Directions and Concerns 2 Future Trends in Biosolids Processing 23 Constituents in Wastewater a” ‘Wastewater Constituents 2 Constituents Found in Wastewater 29 Constituents of Concern in Wastewater ‘Treanment 4 2-3 a4 25 246 Sampling: and Analytical Procedures Sampling Methods of Anaiysis Units of Measurement for Physical and Chemical Parameters Useful Chemical Retatiomships Physical Characteristics Solids Particle Ste Distribution Turbidiy Color Absorption/Transmittance Temperature Conduct Density, Specific Gravity, ad Specifie Weight Inorganic Nenumezalic Constituents pH Chiorides Alkalinity Nicrogen Phosphorus Sulfur Gases Odors ‘Metallic Constituents Importance of Metals Sources of Metals Sampling and Methods of Analysis Topical Effluent Discharge Limits (for Metals Aperepate Organic Constituents Measurement of Organic Content Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total and Soluble Chemical Oxygen: Demand (COD and SCOD) Total and Dissolved Organic Carbon (TOC and BTOC) UV-Absorbing Organic Constiwents 35 8 az a 31 32 REE 7 7 59 59 Bzr7eas n n n ” eegsa 3 94. 95 viiContents Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) Inserrelationships between BOD, COD, and TOC Oil und Grease Surfactants 2-7 Individual Organic Compounds Priority Poltutants Analysis of individual Organic Compounds Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Disinfection Byproducts Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicats Fimerping Organic Campounds 2-8 Biological Characteristics Microorganisms Found in Surface Waters and Wastewater Pathogenic Organisms Use of Indicator Organisms Enumeration and Identification of Bacteria Enumeration and idenification of Viruses Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Deselopment of Microorganisms Tpping Techniques New und Reemerging Microorganisms 2-9 Tosicity Tests Toxicity Terminology Toxicity Testing Analysis of Texicity Test Resuits Application of Toxicity Test Results Identification of Toxicity Components 3 Analysis and Selection of Wastewater Flowrates and Constituent Loadings 3-1 Components of Wastewater Flows 32 Wastewater Sources and Flowrates Domestic Wastewater Sources and Flowrates Stategies for Reducing Interior Water Use and Wastewater Flowraies Water Use in Developing Countries 98 98 109 Th) Wwe loz 12 tot ips 409 1s 418 126 129 1D 130 130 1a 133 1a 136 137 153, isd 1M 158 102 a5 a1 42 Sources and Rates of Industrial (Nondomestic) Wastewater Flows Infliration/Inflow Exfitration from Collection Systems Combined System Flowrates Statistical Analysis of Flovwratas, Constituent Concentrations, and Mass Loadings Common Statistical Parameters Graphical Analysis of Data Analysis of Wastewater Plowrate Data Definition of Terms Variations in Wastewater Flowrates Wastewater Flowrate Factors ‘Analysis of Constituent Mass Londing Data Wuasiewuter Constinent Concensrations Variations in Constituent Concentrations Flow Weighted Constiteent Concentrations Catcuiation of Mass Loadings Effect of Mass Loading Variabitity ‘on Treatment Plant Performance Selection of Design Flowrates and Mass Losdings Design Flowrates Design Mass Leadings Introduction te Process Analysis and Selection Reactors Used for the ‘Treatment of Wastewater ‘Types of Reactors Application of Reactors Hydraulic Characteristics of Reactors ‘Mass-Balance Analysis The Mass-Balance Principle Preparation of Mass Balances Application of the Mass Balance Analysis Steady-State Simplification Modeling Idea! Flow in Reactors Ideal Flow in Complete-Mix Reactor Ideal Flow in Plug-Flow Reactor 162 163 167 168 170 170 m 178 178 179 180. 181 181 185 192 i94 197 197 199 205 25 218 218 220 220 m m2 2a 224 225, 226 226 2745 a7 48 Analysis of Nonideal Flow in Reactors Using Tracers Factors Leading to Nonideat Flow in Reactors Need jor Tracer Analysis Types of Tracers Conduct of Tracer Tests Analysis of Tracer Response Curves Practical Interpretation of Tracer Measurements Modeling Nonideal Flow in Reactors The Distinction between Molecular Diffusion, Turbulent Diffusion, and Dispersion Plug-Flow Reactor with Asia! Dispersion Compiete-Mix Reaciors in Series Reactions, Reaction Rates, and Reaction Rate Coefficients Types of Reactions Rate of Reaction Reaction Onder Types of Rate Expressions Rate Expressions tised in Environmental Modeling Effects of Temperature on Reaction Rate Coefficients ‘Analysis of Reaction Rate Coefficients Modeling Treatment Process Kinetics Batch Reactor with Reaction Complete Mix Reactor wish Reaciion Complete-Mix Reactors in Series with Reaction Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor with Reaction Comparison of Complese-Mix and Plg-Flow Reactors with Reaction Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor with Retarded Reaction Plug-Flow Reactor with Axial Dispersion ond Reaction Other Reactor Flow Regimes and Reactor Combinations ‘Treatment Processes involving Mass Transfer Basic Principle of Mass Transfer 209 28 2M 231 21 233 222 245 Us 261 261 26s 269 269 Pan mI 2 us 7 28 281 283 283 5-2 Contents Gas-Liguid Mass Transfer LiguidSolid Mass Transfer Incroduetion to Process Seleetion Important Factors in Process Selection Process Selection Based on Reaction Kinetics Process Selection Based on Mass Transfer Process Design Based! on Loading Criteria Bench Tesis and Pilot-Plart Studies Reliability Considerations in Proves Selection Physical Unit Operations Screening Classification of Screens Coarse Screens (Bar Racks) Fine Sercens Microsereens: Sereenings Characteristics and Quantities Coarse Solids Reduction Comminutors Macerators Grinders Design Considerations Flow Equalization Description/Apptication Design Considerations Mixing and Foceulation ‘Consinaous Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment Continuous Mixing in Wastewater Treatment Energy Dissipation in Mixing ind Flacculation Timescale tn Mixing ‘Tapes of Mixers Used for Rapid Mixing in Wastewater Treatment Thpes of Misers Used for Floccuiation Jn Wastewater Treatment Types of Mixers Used for Continuous ‘Mixing in Wastewater Treatment 284 293 297 297 299 300 301 304 301 3 3i5 35 316 322 326 327 330 331 352 333 333 333 333 335 344, 345 245 347 350 350 355 3595-5 57 5-10 $11 12 Contents New Developments in Mixing Technology Gravity Separation Theory Description Particle Seting Theory Discrete Particle Settling Floceulent Particle Settling Inclined Plate and Tube Sening Hindered (Zone) Seung Compression Setting Gravity Separation in an Accelerated Flow Field Grit Removal ‘Types of Grit Chambers Horizontal-Flow Grit Chambers Aerated Grit Chambers Vortex-Type Grit Chambers Solids (Sludge) Degrining Grit Characteristics, Quantities, Processing, and Disposal Primary Sedimentation Description Sedimentation Taak Performance Design Considerations Charactertsites and Quantities of Solids (Sludge) and Scum High-Rate Clarification Enhanced Particle Flocculation Analysis of Ballasted Particle Flocculation and Seating Process Application Large-Scale Swit! and Vortex Separators for Combined Wastewater and Stormwater Flotation Description Design Considerations for Dissolved-Air Flotasion Systems ‘Oxygen Transfer Description Evaluation of Oxygen Transfer Coefficient Aeration Systeris Types af Aeration Systems Diffused-Air Aeration 361 6! 362 303 367 372 314 378 2B 383 384 385 385 386 392 392 394 396 397 405 406, 4 4ui a2 412 a4 ay) 49 419 422 425 425 425 430 430 430 5-13 ol 62 Mechanical Aerators Energy Requirement jor Mixing in Aeration Systems Generation and Dissolution of High-Purity Oxygen Pastaeration Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS) by Aeration Emission of VOCS Mass Transfer Rates for VOCs ‘Mass Transfer of VOCs from Surface ‘and Diffused-Air Aeration Processes Contra! Strategies for VOCS Chemical Unit Processes Role of Chemical Unit Processes in Wastewater Treatment Application of Chemical Unit Processes Considerations in the Use of Chemical Unit Processes Fundamentals of Chemical Coagulation Basie Definitions Nature of Particles in Wastewater Development and Measurement of Surface Charge Particle-Particle Interactions Particle Desiabilization with Potentia!- Determining fons and Electrolytes Particle Destabilization and ‘Aggregation with Polyelectroistes Particle Destabilization and Removal with Hydrolyzed Metal Tons ‘Chemical Precipitation for Improved Plant Performance Chemical Reactions in Wastewater Precipitation Applications Enhanced Removal of Suspended Solids in Primary Sedimentation Independent Physicai- Chemical Treatment Extimation of Studge Quantities from Chemical Precipitation Chemical Precipitation for Phosphorus Removal 443 452 456 456 457 450 463 a5 416 any 478 479 430 ag 482. 483, 285 486 498 493, 497 398 499 500é7 Chemisty of Phosphate Precipitation Strategies for Phosphorus Removal Phosphorus Removal Using Metal Salts and Polymers Phosphorus Removal Using Lime Phosphorus Removal with Effluent Filtration Comparison of Chemical Phosphorus Removal Processes Estimation of Sludge Quantities from Phosphorus Precipitation CChemicat Precipitation for Removal of Heavy Metals and Dissolved Inorganic Substances Precipitation Reactions Coprecipitation with Phosphorus Chemical Oxidation Fundamentals of Chemival Oxidation Applications Chemical Oxidation of BOD and COD Chemical Oxidation of Ammonia Chemical Neutralization, Seale Control, and Stabilization pH Adjustment Analysis of Scaling Potential Sealing Control Stabilization Chemical Storage. Feeding, Piping, and Control Systems Chemica’ Storage and Handling Dry Chemical-Feed Systems Liguid Chemical-Feed Systems Gas Chemical-Feed Systems Initial Chemical Mixing 301 503 505 307 508 508 509 54, 54 517 sv $17 922 523 a4 526 326 528 $32 $32 532 533 $33 536 57 340 Contents7-2 rH 7-4 Fundamentals of Biological Treatment Overview of Biclogical ‘Wastewater Treatment Objectives of Biological Treatment Sonie Useful Definitions Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment Types of Biological Processes for Wastewater Treatment Composition and Classification of Microorganisms Celi Components Celi Composition Environmtenizal Factors Microorganism Idensificaiion and Classification Use of Molecular Tools Introduction to Microbial Metabolism Carbon and Energy Sources for Microbial Growih Nutrient and Growth Factor Requirements Bacterial Growth and Energetics Bacterial Reproduction Bacterial Growth Patterns in a Batch Reactor Bacterial Growth and Bromass Yield Measuring Biomass Growth Estimating Biomass Yield und Oxygen Requirements from Stoichiometry Estimating Biomass Yield from Bioenergetics Stoichiometry of Biological Reactions Biomass Synthesis Yields for Different Growth Conditions Observed versus Synthesis Yield Microbial Growth Kinetics 348 S47 598 555 337 538 598 501 563 563 565 565 566 566 367 567 sn aT x9 S80) 580 74 7-7 78 Microbial Growah Kinetics Terminology Rute of Utilization of Soluble Substeaces Other Rate Expressions jor the Unitecation of Soluble Substrate Rate of Soluble Substrate Production from Biodegradable Particwlate Omanic Matter Rate of Biomass Grows with Soluble Substrates Kinetic Coefficients for Substrate Utilization cord Biomass Growth Rate of Oxygen Uptake Effects of Temperature otal Volatile Suspended Solids anit Active Biomass Net thamasy Yield and Observed Yield Modeling Suspended Growth Treatment Processes Description of Suspended Growth Treutment Processes Biomass Mass Balance Subseraie Mass Butane Mixed Liquor Solids Concentravion ‘and Solids Production ‘The Observed Yield Oxygen Reguirements Design and Operating Parameters Process Performance und Stability Modeling Plug-Flow Reactors Substrete Removal in Atached Growth Trcaument Processes Substrate Fhec in Biofilms Substrate Mass Ralcice for Biogilne Substrate Flux Limitations Aerobic Bivlogieat Oxidation Process Description Microbiology 583 5a 584 585 585. 586 387 588 589 $89 $92 592 595 595 598 600 ear 02 606, on 608 608~~ 7-10 7-12 7-3 8-1 Stoichiometry of Aerobie Biological Oxidation Growth Kinetics Environmental Factors Biological Nitrificawon Process Description Microbiology Stoichiometry of Biological Nurification Growth Kinetics Environmental Factors Biological Denitrification Process Description Microbiology’ Stoichiometry of Biological Denitrification Growth Kinetics Environmental Ractors Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Deseription Microbiology Stoichiometry uf Biological Phosphorus Removal Growth Kinetics Environmental Factors Anuerobie Fermentation and Oxidation Pravess Description Microbiology Stoichiomerry of Anaerobic Fermentation and Oxutarion Growth Kinetics Ervirownental Factors Biologicat Removal of Toxic and Recalcitvant Organic Compounds, Development of Biological Treatment Methods Anaerobic Degradation Aerobic Biodegradation Abiotic Losses Modeling Biotic and Abiotic Losses iological Removal of Heavy Metals Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes Introduction <0 (he Activated- ‘Shudge Process. ow a 610 61k ot 61 612 old ois 616 616 ais ve) 621 62 623 624 62s eT 629 6 629 630 1 633 634 635 635 635 ai? 638 638. oan 658 et 8-2 Contents Historical Devetopment Description of Basic Process Evolution of the Activated: Sludge Process Recent Process Developments Wastewater Characterization Key Wastewater Constituents jor Process Design Measurement Methods for Wastewater Characterization Recyele Flows and Loadings Fundamentals of Process Analysis, and Control Process Design Considerations Process Control Operational Problems Actrvated-Shadge Selector Processes Processes for BOD Remewal and Nittification Process Design Considerations Complete-Mix Activated Sludge Process Sequenving Baich Reactor Process Stayed Aciivated-Sludye Process Alternative Processes for BOD Removal and Nitrification Process Design Parameters Process Selection Considerations Processes for Bivlogical Nivoger Removal Overview of Biological Nitroger- Removal Proresses Single-Sludge Biological Nitrogen- Removal Processes Process Design Considerations Anaxic/Aerobic Process Design Step-Feed Anoxieierobie Process Design Intermittent Acranian Process Design Postanoxic Endogenous Denitrification Sequencing Batch Reactor Process Analysis Postanoxie Deeitrification with aan Externat Carbon Source Nitrogen Removal in Anaerobic Digestion Recycle Streams 661 61 663 666 666 oH 6 616, on 6x9) 604 700 703 104 705 0 734 TBR 749 180 749 750 750 783 761 165 116 780 Bl 74 788xiv | Contents 8 8-10 ot Alternative Process Configurations {for Biological Nitrogen Removal Process Design Parameters Process Selection Considerations Processes for Biological Phosphorus Removal iological Phasphorus- Removal Processes Process Design Considerations Process Control Solids Separation Facilites Methods to Improve Phosphorus. Removal Efficiency in BPR Systems Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Performance Alternative Processes for Biological Phosphorous Removal Process Design Parameters Provess Selection Considerations Selection and Design of Physical Facilities for Activated-Studge Processes Aeration System ‘Aeration Tanks and Appurtenainces Solids Separation Design of Solids Separation Facilities Suspended Growth Aerated Lagoons Types of Suspended Growth ‘Aerated Lagoons Process Design Considerations for Flow-Tarough Lagoons Duai-Powered Flow-Through Lagoon System Biological Treatment with Membrane Separation Overview of Membrane Biological Reactors Process Description Membrane Fouling Control Process Capabilities Simulation Design Models Mode! Mairix Format, Camponents. ‘and Reactions ‘Model Applicaslons Attached Growth and Combined Biological Treatment Processes Background 789 789 789 709 798 801 SoH 805 805 807 809 809 R16 816 816 820 833 840 841 gat 853 854 854 855 897 a58, 859 360 861 88? 888 2 os 9% o7 Evolution of Attached Growth Processes Mass Transfer Limitations ‘Trickling Filters Trickling Filter Classificaaion ‘ond Applications Design of Physical Facilites Process Design Considerations Nitrification Desiga Rotating Biological Contactors, Process Design Considerations Physical Facilities for RBC Process RBC Process Design ‘Combined Aerobie Treatment Processes ‘Trickling Fitter/Solids Consace cond Trickling Filter/Activated- Shudge Processes Activated Biofilter and Biofiter Activared-Sladge Processes Series Trickting Filter-Activated- Sludge Provess Design Considerations for Combined ‘Tickling Filter Activated- Sludge Sestems Activated Sludge with Fixed- Film Packing Processes with Internal Suspended Packing for Attached Growth Processes with Internal Fixed Packing {for Sitached Growh Submerged Attached Growth Processes Downflow Submerged Attached Growth Processes Upflow Submerged Anached! Growth Processes Fluidized-Bed Bioreactors (FBR) Attached Growth Denitrification Processes Downflow Packed. Bed Postunoxie Denitrification Processes Upftow Packed-Bed Postanoxic Denitrification Reactors Pluidized-Bed Reactors for Postanoxic Denitrification Submerged Roiating Biologicat Contactors Aitached Growth Preanoxic Denitrification Processes 888 890 893 896 922, 930 952, 935 957 940, 940, 943 944 982 982 955 957 987 959, 961 962 962 967 967 96910 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 Anaerobic Suspended and Attached Growth Biological Treatment Processes ‘The Rationale for Anaerobic Treatment Advantages of Anaenbec Treatment Processes Disadvantages aj Anaerobic Treatment Processes Summary Assessment General Design Considerations for Anaerobic Treatment Processes. Characteristics of the Wastewater Solids Retention Time Expected Methane Gas Production ‘Trecament Efficiency Needed Sulfide Production Ammonia Toxicity Liguid-Solids Separation Anaerobic Suspended Growth Processes Complete-Mix Process Anaerobic Coniact Process Anaerobic Sequencing Baich Reactor Design of Anserobic Suspended Growth Processes Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Provesses: Upfiow Sludge Blanket Reactor Process Design Considerations for UASB Process Anaerobic Baffled Reactor Anaerobic Migrating Blanket Reactor Attached Growth Anaerobic Processes Upfiow Packed-Bed Atiached Growth Reactor Upflow Attached Growth Anaerobic Expanided-Bed Reactor Anached Growth Anaerobic Fluidized-Bed Reactor Downflow Attached Growth Processes ‘Other Anacrobic Treatment Processes Covered Anaerobic Lagoon Process Membrane Separation Anaerobic Treatment Process 983 984 986 986 986 ONT 991 992 994, 998 995 996 996 oor 997 999 999) 1005 L005 1007 1016 1017 1018 lane 120 120 1022 1024 1024 1026 VW M1 11-2 11-3 14 11-5 Contenss Advanced Wastewater Treatment ‘Need for Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies Used for Advanced Treatment Residual Constituents in Treated Wastewater Classification of Technologies Removal of Organic und Inorganic Colloidal and Suspended Solids Removal of Dissolved Organic Constinents Removal of Dissolved Inorganic Constinents Removal of Biviogicul Conssinents Process Selection and Performance Data Introduction to Depth Filtration Description of the Filtration Process Filter Hydraulics Analysis of the Filtration Process Selection and Design Considerations for Depth Filters Available Filtration Technologies Performance of Differeni Types of Filter Technatogies issues Related to Design and ‘Operation of Treatment Facilities Importance of influent Wastewater Characteristics Selection of Filtration Technology Filter-Bed Characteristics Filter Flownate Control Filter Buckwashing Systems Filter Appurtenances Filter Instrumentation and Controt Systems Effluent Filtration with Chemical Addition Filter Problems Need for Pitor-Plant Stuties Surface Filtration Dixcfilter® Cloth-Media Disk Filter® Performance Characteristics xv 1035 1037 1038 1038 1038 4038 1040, rot 1043 1044. 1044 1944 1050 1057 1069 1069 1078 1080 1081 1081 1084 1089 1091 1093, 1093 1095 1096 1996 1098 1098 1100 1103xvi | Conton's 11-6 — Membrane Filtration Processes Nos Performance Expectations in wo. Envi- Membrane Process Terninaloge og Reclamation Applications standards Membrane Process Classification 104 Operating Prabiems 13d in Membrane Configurations 110% Disposal of Concenirated Waste 1208 * Membrane Operation ut Membrane Fouling MF Application of Membranes Ht Electrodiabysis Wel Pitot Studies for Membrane Applications 1134 Disposal af Concemirated Waste Streams 1038 VI-7— Adsorption 13 Tepes of Adsorberts TRS Fundamentals of Adsorption nao Aetivaied Carbon Adsorption Kinetics 146 Activated Carbon Treatment Process Applications iy Anaysis and Design of Grant Activated Carhon Contactor 1152 Smatl-Seate Column Tests 1156 Anatysis and Design of Powdered Activated Carbon Contactor 1159 Activated Sludge with Powdered Activated Carbon Precament let 11-8 Gas Stripping L162 Anaiysis of Gas Stripping Les Design of Stripping Towers nv Application 178 TIO Ton Exchange Heo Jon-Bxchange Materials uel Typical lon-Exchange Rewctns TKD Exchange Capacity of Tor Buchange Resins 1183 Jon-Exchange Chemistry 1185 Application of lon Exchange 1189 Operational Considerattons 1196 11-10 Advanced Oxidation Processes 196 Theory of Advanced Oxidation 1196 Technotogies Used ti Produce Hydrexst Radicals (HO") 1197 Applications 1200 Operational Problems 1202 V1=11 Distillation i202 Distittation Processes 120212 12-1 12-2 12-3 12-4 12-5 Disinfection Processes Regulatory Reyeizements tor Wastewater Disinfection Doinlection Theory Characrevisties of su leat Disinfectant Disinfection Methods nd Meas Meehanisos of Disintrewrts rctons tnfbacing the Acre of Disonfectanis Disinfsction with Clone Characteristics of Chterive Compennds Chemesiry of ChHoriie Componnes Brewhpoin Reaction with Chlorine Measurement aad Reporting vf Diunicetion Pricess Variables Germivicitd bifeienes of Chlorine und Vavieine Chiorme Conyouds Factors That Afiect Dasinfection Hifvienc uf Chtorine Masletiny the Chtorine Phrinicetion Process Revtew of the Cyt Concept Requived Chlorine Doseige for Divinfeetion Formation and Convred of Disinfection Baproducs Eavirommtentel Impacts Disnleetion with Chlorine Dinside Characteristics of Chlorine Deavide Cherie Diecide Chevtistes Bifectiveness of Chiorine Dieaite cas Dishyectant Byprodtuct Formation and Cosine Enciroumenial Impacts Dechlormanien Need Jor Dechlorination, 1s 1260 1261 el 161 12-6 12-7 12-8 12-9 Dechiorination af Wastewater Treated with Chtorine act Chlorine Compounds Dechlorination of Cilorme Binide with Sulfur Dioside Design of Chlorination and Dechlorination Facilities Sistine Chlorination Facitities Application Flow Diagrams Bosage Control Injection cma Teittal Mixing Chlorine Contact Busin Design Chlorine Residual Measurement Chlorine Storage Facilities Chlorine Conmtainent Bacitines Dechlorination Facilities Disnafeenon with Gaone Ocone Properties Osune Chemisty Ozone Disinfection Sustemns Components Effecmveness of Or0Re as ¢ Disingectaant Modeling the Ozone Dasinfection Process Required Ucone Dosages jor Disinfection Bxproduct Formation and Control Environmental bnpacts of Using Osone tier Benefits of Using Orome Other Chemical Disinfection Methods Peracesie Acid Osanestivdregen Perenide (Peroxane} Combined! Chemical Dasinfection Pracesses Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Disinfection. Sorrce of UV Radvation UY Disinfection Syvtem Components and Configurations 1261 1264 1264 1258 1266 1269 1270 ea 4283 1284 1284 1286 1286 1287 1287 1288 1290 1230, 1293 1293 1295 1295 1205 1295 1297 1297 1298 198 1301xviii 12-10 13 11 13-2 133 We ‘Comments Germicidal Fffectiveness of WY Radiation Modeling the UY Disinfection Process Estimating UV Dose Uteravioles Disinfection Guidelines Selection and Sizing of a UY Disinfection System Troubleshooting UY Disinfection Systems Environmental Impacts of UV Radiation Disinfection Comparison of Alvemative Disinfection Technologies Germicidal Effectiveness Advantages and Disadvantages Water Reuse Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse: An Introduction Definition of Terms The Role of Water Recveling in the Hydrologic Cycle Historical Perspective Wastewater Reuse Applications Need for Water Reuse Public Health and Environmental Assues in Water Reuse Constituents in Reclaimed Water Public Heaith Issues Environmental Issues The Evolution of Water Reuse: Guidelines in the United States Water Reclansation Criteria in Other Countries What Level of Trearment ds Necessary? Introduction to Risk Assessment Risk Assessment Risk Management Ecological Risk Assessment Risk Assessment for Water Reuse Limitations in Risk Assessment for Water Reuse ‘Water Reclamation Technologies: 1304 1309 Bu 1816 Bt 1326 (329 19 133 1330 (aa5 137 137 U7 1349 iss) 1384 1386 bse Lass 1388 1388 Le2 1365 1366 1366 Br 1373 1378 i374 1336 13-5 13-6 V7 13-8 13-9 Constituent Removal Feckinologies Conventional Wastewater Treatment Process Flow Diagrams for Wazer Reclamation Advanced Wastewater Treatment Process Flow Diagrams Performance Expectations for Water Reclamation Processes Predicting the Performance of Treaiment Process Combinations Treatment Process Reliability Storage of Reclaimed Water Need for Storage Meeting Water Quaiity Discharge Requirements Operation of Storage Reservoirs Problems Involved with Siorage of Reclaimed Water ‘Management Strategies for Open cand Enclosed Reservoirs Agricuiaral and Landscape Inigation Evatuation of Irrigation Water Quality Other Problems Industrial Water Reuse Industrial Water Use Couling Tower Makeup Water Water and Sat Balances ix Coating Tower Common Water Quality Problems in Cooting Tower Svstems Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water Gromndwater Recharge Methods Pretreatment Requirements for Groundwater Reckarge Fave of Contaminants in Groundwater Groundwater Recharge Guidelines Planned Indirect and Direct Potable ‘Water Reuse Planned Indiveet Potable Water Reuse Planned Direct Potable Water Reuse Planned Poiable Waser Reuse Criteria What Is the Ultimate Wiawer Reuse Goal? 1376 (377 1379 1379 1387 1391 1391 1392 1392 98 1399 1401 1401 1410 llr 1413 1413 lala Late 1422 1423 1426 1427 1429 1429) 1431 132, 1432, 143313-10 1311 14 14-1 14-2 43 14-4 14-5 4-6 147 14-8 149 Planning for Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Planning, Basis Market Assessment Monetary Analyses Other Planniaig Factors Planning Report Epilogue on Water Reuse Issues Treatment, Reuse, and Disposal of Solids and Biosolids Solids Sources, Charactensties, and: Quantities Sourves Characteristics Quantities Regulations for the Reuse and Disposal of Sotids in the United States Land Application Surface Disposal Pathogen and Vector Attraction Reduction Incineration Solids Processing Flow Diagrams Sludge and Scum Pumping Pugs Headioss Determination Stuctge Piping Preliminary Operations Grinding Screening Degritting Blending Storage ‘Thickening Application Description and Design of Thickeners Introduction to Stadilization Alkaline Stabilization Chemicut Reactions in Lime Stabilization Heat Generaiton Application of Alkaline Stabilization Processes Anaerobic Digestion Process Fundamentals 1433 W433 WH 135 6 7 1438 1447 14st ist Wat $454 1400 1st L361 Ler L464 L405 L465 1465 1475 M8i 1482 1482 182 L484 Last 1aNs HRS SAS 1x9 1399 1500 is0o 102 1502 sus 1506 14-10 wit 14-12 14-13 1414 145 Contents Description of Mesophitic Anaerobic Digestion Processes Process Design for Mesophitic Anaerabie Digestion Selection of Tank Design and Mixing System Methods for Enhancing Solids Loading and Digester Performance Gas Production, Collection, and Use Digester Heating Thermophilic Anaembic Digestion Two-Phased Anaerobic Digestion Acrobic Digestion Process Deseription Conventional Air Aerobic Digestion Dual Digesiton Autoihormel Thermophilie Aerobie Digestion (ATAD} High Purity Oxygen Digestion Composting Process Microbiology Process Description Design Considerations Cocompasting with Municipal Solid Wastes Public Health and Lawnanmental sues Conditionny Chemical Condinoning Other Conditioning Methods Dewatering Contrifagation Belt-Filter Press Filter Presses Sixdge Drying Beds Reed Bets Lagoons Heat Drying Heat-Transfer Methods Provess Descripiion Product Characteristics Provct Transport and Storage Fire and Explosion Hazards Air Poitution and Odor Consro! Incineration Fundamental Aspects of Complete Combustion Muliple-Hearth Incineration Fluidiced-Bed incineration 1507 1509 1516 1522 1923 1523 1529 1531 1533 1934 1535 1541 1541 1845 1546 i847 1887 1550 1551 1454, 1854 1555 1557 i588 1589 1563 1565 1570 1578 1578 1579 1879 1580, 1584 1585 1585 1585 1586 1587 1588 1590Xx 14-16 14-17 14-18 15 15-1 15-2 15-3 Contents Coincineration with Maricipat Solid Waste Ai Pollution Control Solids Mass Balances Preparation of Solids Maxy Bulurces Performance Date far Salids- Processing Fucilines Ampact af Return Flows arid Lawl ‘Application of Biosolids tn Land Site Evaiuation and Seiection US. EPA Regulations for Beneficial Use and Disposal of Biosotids Design Loading Rates Appticeaion Methoris Application to Dedicated Leands Laratitings Biosolids Conveyance and Storage Conveyance Methods Storage Issues Related to Treatment-Plant Performance Need for Upgrading Treatment-Plant Performance Meeting Curren: and Future Needs Mecting Mare Stristgent Discharge Reguiresnenss Divcharge Lamits for Wastewater Treatment Plants Teeatment Process Reliability snd Selection of Design Values Variability in Wastewater Treatment Selectian of Provess Desig Parameters in Meet Discharge Permit Luntits: Pergiormener of Combined Processes Development of frpat-Ouiput Date Oxlor Management Tigres of Odors Sources af Odars Movernent of Osiors from Wastercater Treaiment Fuctiities Strategies for Odor Management Gdior-Trewtenent Methods Selection and Design of Qdor-Contrul Fecitties Design Considerations for Chemical Scrubbers Is 1s92 1592 1595 19% 1504 Fotis 1909 Loo Il} Il? Layo ler sol 1622 167 1633 to leM Weis 168 Hoan 136 reat les? Tout 1650 1650 1650 1654 1sd Inge eats 1068 134 15-5 15-6 15-7 Appen A 8 € D Design Considerations for Oddor- Control Biofiters Introduction te Automatic Process Contra! Process Disturbances Conteal Systems for Wastewater Treatment Phanits Contral Algonans Process Conrad Diagrams Description of Automate Contra Suaiens Klemens Faergy Mficreney vp Wastewater Treatment Overview of the Use of Blectricity in Wiestewater Treatett Measures for Fnprowing, Energy Eyficienct Upgrading Wastewater Treazmeat- Plant Performance Pracess Oprinication Upgrading Existing Wastewater Treatment Facititees Lnuportant Design Considerations For New Wasiewatee Treatment Plants Process Design Considerations for Liguidd Sirvauns Proveas Design Considerations for Sulids Processing Odor Coatrat dixes Conversion Factors: Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air Physical Properties of Water Solubility of Dissolved Oxygen in Water ay a Furchon of Salinity and Barvmetrie Pressure MPN Tables and Their Use Carbonate Equilibrium Moods Diagrams for the Analysis of Flow un Pipes Indexes Name Index Subject Inder 1670 tort 1678 1879) 1682, 1680 1693 708 Wot 1105 1708 1708 ur 172i m1 1721 ne i729 ust Val 1745 1739 1753 18ST 1759 im1-1 1-2 3 1-4 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview TERMINOLOGY 3 IMPACT OF REGULATIONS ON WASTEWATER ENGINEERING 3 HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT 7 WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS 9 improved Anatyticai Techniques 10 Importance of improved Wastewater Characterization 10 WASTEWATER TREATMENT 10 Treatment Methods 1! Current Status 12 New Directions ond Concemns 15 Future Trends in Wostewoter Treatment 20 WASTEWATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE 20 Current Status 27 New Directions and Concerns 21 Future Trends in Technology 21 BIOSOLIDS AND RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT 22 Current Status 22 New Directions and Concerns 23 Future Trends in Biosolids Processing 23 REFERENCES 24 Exery community produces Poth liquid and solid wastes and air emissions. The liquid ‘waste—wastewater—is essentially the water supply of the community after it has been used in a variety of applications (see Fig. 1-1). From the standpoint of sourves of gener- ation, wastewater may be delined as a combmation of the liquid or wauer-carried wastes removed from residences, institutions, and commercial and industrial establishments, together with such groundwater, surface water, and stonnwater as my be present, ‘When untreated wastewater aecumatates and is allowed to go septic, the decom- position of the organic matter it contains will lead to nuisance conditions including the production of malodorous gases. In addition, untreated wastewater contains numerous2 | Chapler 1 Wostewator Engineering: An Overview Figure 1-1 Schematic diagram of e ‘weslewalar management inkosructute. Rafat verond few Domestic wastewater pathogenic microorganists that dwell in the human intestinal tract, Wastewater also contains nutrients, which can stimulate the growth of aguatic plants, and may contain toxic compounds or compounds that potentially may be mutagenic or carcinogenic. For these reasons, the immediate and nuisance-free removal of wastewater from its sources of generation, followed by treatment, reuse, or dispersal into the environment is neces- sary to protect public health and the environment, ‘Wastewater engineering is that branch of environmental engineering in which the hasie principles of science and engincering ase applied to solving the issues associated with the treatment and reuse of wastewater. The ultimate goal of wastewater engineering is the protection of public health in a manner commensurate with envitanmental, eco nomic, Social, and potitical concems, To protect public health and the environment, itis necessary to have knowfedge of (1) constinents of concer in wastewater, (2) impacts of these constituents when wastewater is dispersed into the environment, (3) the transfor- mation and jong-term fate of these constituents in weatinent processes, (4) treatment1-2 1-2 Impact of Regulations on Wastewater Engineering | 3, methods that can be used (o remove or modify the constituents found in wastewater, and (5) methods for beneficial use of disposal of solids generated by the treatment systems, ‘To provide an initial perspective on the field of wastewater engineering, common terminology is first defined followed by (1) 2 discussion of the issues that need to be addressed in the planning and design of wastewater management systems and (2) the current status and new directions in wastewater engineering. TERMINOLOGY In the literature, and in governmental reguianons, a variety of terms have been used for individual constituents of concer. in wastewater, The terminology used commonly for ‘key concepts and terms in the ficld of wastewater management is summarized in Table 1-1. In some cases, confusion and undue negative perceptions arise with the use of the terms contaminants, impurities, and pollutants, which are often used interchangeably. To avoid confusion, the term conseéiuent is used in this text in place of these terms to refer to an individual compound or element, such as ammonia nitrogen, The term characteristic is used to refer to a group of constituents, such as physical or biological chanucteristies, ‘The term “sludge” has been used for many years to signify the residuals produced in wastewater treatment. In 1994, the Water Environment Federation adopted a policy defining “biosolids” a5.a primarily organic, solid wastewater treatment product that can be recycled beneficially, In this policy, “solids” ure defined as the residuals that are derived from the treatment of wastewater. Solids that have been treated to the point at which they ate suitable for beneficial use are termed “biosolids.” In this text, the terras of solids and biosolids are uscd extensively, but “sludge” continues to be used. espe- cially in cases where untreated solid material and chemical residuals are referenced. IMPACT OF REGULATIONS ON WASTEWATER ENGINEERING From about 1900 to the early 1970s, treatment objectives were concerned primarily swith (1) the removal of colloidal, suspended, and floatable material, (2) the treatment of biodegradable organics, and (3} the elimination of pathogenic organisms. Imple~ mentation in the United States of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Public Law 92-500), also known as the Clean Water Act (CWA), stimulated substantial changes in Wastewater teatment to achieve the objectives of “fistmable and swimmabte” waters. Unfortunately. these objectives were not uniformly met, From the early 1970s to about (980, wastewater treatment objectives were based primarily on aesthetic and environmental concems. The earlier objectives involving the reduction of biological oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS}, and path- genic organisms continued hut at higher levels, Removal of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, also begun to be addressed, particularly in some of the inland streams and lakes, and estuaries and hays such as Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound. Major programs were undertaken by both state and federal agencies to achieve more effective and widespread treatment of wastewater to improve the quality of the surface ‘waters, These programs were bused, in part, on (1) an increased understanding of the environmental effects caused by wastewater discharges; (2) 4 greater appreciation of the adverse long-term effects caused by the discharge of some of the specific constituents4 | jhe 1-1 CChapler 1 Wostewofer Engineering: An Overview Terminology commonly used in the field of wastewater engineering? Term Biosolids Class A biosolids? Class B biosolids? Characteristics [wastewater} Composition Consitventst Contaminents Disinfection fluent Impurities Nonpoint sources Nutrient Poremeler Point sources Pollutants Reclamation Recycling Repuriication Rowse Sludge Solids Definition Primarily an organic, semisolid wastewater produc! that cemains afer solids are stabilized biologiealy or chemically ond are witable for beneficial use Biosolids in which the pcthogens (including enteric viruses, pathogenic bacteric, and viab hal ove ere osc blow ure! dele laa ns me aS le Biosolids in which the pathogens are reduced to levels that are unlikely to pose a threat 1 public heath andthe ewironment uncer specific vse conditions. Class 6 biosclds cannot be told or given eway in bags or aber containers r applied on ‘chs or home gordens General costes of wasewalerconstivents suchas physical, chemical, biological, and biocherice! ‘The makeup of wastewater, including the physical, chemical, ond biological consiuerts Individual components, elements, or biological enies such as suspended solids or ammonia aitrogen ‘Consitvents added to the water supply through use Reduclion of disecse-causing microorganisms by physical or chemical means The liquid discharged from a processing step Conslituents added ‘0 the water supply through use Sources of pollution thot originate from multiple sources over a relatively large area. [An clement thot is essential forthe growth of pnts ond animals. Nutrients in wastewotor, Usually nitrogen and phosphorus, may cause urwanled algal ond plant growths in lakes and streems A meosurable factor suchas Femperahre Polutionat loads discharged at a specific location from pipes, cuts, end conveyance methods from oiher municipal wastewater treckment plants or industrial waste Irectment fciites Constivenlsadkled tothe water supply through use Treatment of westeweler for subsequent ceuse application or the act of reusing rected wostewoter The route of treated wastewater cn biosolids fr heneficiol purposes Tieolment of wastewater too level suitable fora variety of applications induding indiroct or direct potable revse Dereficiol use of reclaimed or epuriied wastewater or soblizod biosolids Solids removed from wastewater during trecment. Solids thal are treat further ae termed biosolids Material emovad from wastewler by gravity seperation [by clarifiers, thickeners, and lagoons} and is he solid residue From dewelering operations Adapted, in part, from Cries ond Tehcbenaglovs {1 796) PLS. EPA (19975) To avoid confusion, the ‘orm “constituents” is used in this tex’ in place sf contaminants, impurities, ond polsantsTable 1-2 Summary of significant U.S. federal regulations that affect wastewater management 1-2 impact of Regulations on Wastewater Engineering | 5 found in wastewater: and (31 the development of national concem for the protection of the environment. As a result of these programs. significant improvements have been made in the quality of the surfiwe waters Since 1980, the water-quality improvement objectives of the 1970s have continued, but the emphasis has shifted to the definition and removal of constituents thar may cause long-term health effects and ensironmental impacts. Health and environmental concerns are discusscd in niore detain the Following section. Consequently, white the early treatment objectives remain vakd today, the required degree of treatment has increased significantly, end addvional trestmient objectives and gouls have been added. Therefore, treatment objectives inust go hand in hand with the water quality objectives of standards established by the federal, state, and regional regulatory authorities, lmpor- tant federal regulations that have brought about changes in the planning ané design of wastewater treutment facilities in uhe United States are summarized in Table 1-2. It is interesting to note that the clean «av acts of [970 and 1990 have hed a significant impact oon industrial and municipal waslewater programs, primarily through the implementa- tion of treatment fucilites for the control of emissions. Regulation Description Cleon Water Act (CWA) Establishes the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System {Federol Woter Palision __|NPDES|, a pormiting program bosed on uniform Control Ad Amendments of fechnelagical minimum standards for eech cischarger 1972} Woler Quality Act of 1987 Strongthens federal water quality regulations by providing {WGA (Amendment cf the changes in permiting and adds substantial pencties For permit WAL vic'otions. Amends solids control program by emphasizing icentfcotion and regulation of toxic pollutants in sewage sladge 40 CFR Part 503 (1993) Regulates the use und disposal of biosolids from waslewater (Sewage Sludge trectmant plans. Limilalons cre established for ‘tems such as Regulations} contaminants (mainly metals), pathogen content, ond vector comaction Nationcl Combined Sewer Coardinates planning, selection, design, and implementation of Overflow {CSO} Policy C50 management préctices end controls to mest sre 11994} ‘oF CWA. Nine minimum controls and development of long, term CSO contro! plons ore required to be implemented immediately Cleon Air Act of 1970 end Establishes limitations for specific air pollutants and instittes 1990 Amendments prevention of significant deterioration in air quality, Maximum ‘achievable control technology is required for any of 189 listed cchermicals from “moyor sourees,” ie, plants emiiting at least kg/d AO CFR Part 60 Establishes air emission limits for sludge incinerators with apocites lager then 1000 kg/d {2200 Ib/ai dry basis, Totol maximum dely load Reyes sotes to develop prioritized lists of polluted or {(TOMi) (2060) threatened woter bodies and te establish the maximum amount Section 303}d} of the CWA of pollutant (TMOU that a water body can receive and still meet water quality stondards —6 | Chapter 1 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview Parsaant (o Section 304d) of Public Law 92-500 (see Table 1-2). the U © rotimenta! Protection Agency (U.S, EPA) published its definition of mirumumn +, for secondary treatment, This definition, origitally issued in 1973, was amend. 1985 to allow additional flexibility m applying the percent removal requirements of poi- Intants to treatmient facilities serving separate sewer systems. The definition of s ary treatment is reported in Table {3 and includes three major effluent parameters, 5- day BOD. TSS. and pH. The substitution of S-day carbonaceous BOD (CBOD) for BOD, may be made at the option of the permitting authority, These standards provided! the basis for the design and operation of most weatment plants. Special interpretations of the definition of secondary sreatruent are permitted for publicly owned treatment works (1) served hy combined sewer systems, (2) using waste stabilization ponds and trickling filters, (3) receiving industrial flows, or (4) receiving less concentrated snl ent wastewater from separate sewers. The secondary treatment regulations were amended further in 1989 to clarity the percent removal requirements during dry periods for treatment facilities served by combined sewers. fn 1987, Congress enacted the Water Quality Aet of 1987 (WQA), the first mayor revision of the Clean Water Act, Important provisions of the WQA were: (1) strength ening federal water quality regulations by providing changes in permitting and adding substantial penalties for permit violations, (2) significantly amending the CWA's formal sludge control program by emphasizing the identification and regulation of roxie pal lutants in sludge. (3) providing furding for state and U.S, EPA studies for defining nun point and toxic sources of pollution, (4) establishing new deadlines for compliance including pricritics and permit requirements for stormwater, end (5) 4 phase-out of the construction grants pragrant as a meihod of financing publicly owned treatcuent works (Potwy, Table 1-3 Minimum national standards for secondary treatment?» Unit of Average 30-1 ‘Average 7- Characterinte of discharge measurement concecbetion?” ——Semratnaiae? BOD, rrg/t 30 4s Tete suxpended solids ma/t 0 45 Hydrogerrine concentration PH unis Within the ronge of 6.0 0 9 0 at al mest caop! mgft 25 Federal Register (1988, 1969) “Present sandords allow stabizaion ponds and wicklng fiers to hove higher 0-day avaroge concentrations {45 veg/t] and 7 day average cenceritaions {65 mg/'} of BOD/wapended solids performance levals as long es the wots quality of he Tecaring water is fot adversely alocied. Excetions cre cto permite for combined Lewes, certain ndustial categories, ond less ceacentcted wastewotor ftom separate sewers. Fox preciso vequntemonts oF exceptions, Federal Register (1988) should fe cons “Net 10 be exceeded #Avorage removal shall not be less than 85 percont, *Oniy eniorced if caused by induskial wastewater or by inplant inorganic ehemicol alton. 'May be substituted for BODs ot the option of the permitting authority. cond1-3 1-3 Health end Environmental Concerns in Wastewater Managemest | 7 Recent regulations that aftecr wastewater facilities design include dhose for the treatment, disposal, and beneficial use of biosolids (40 CFR Part 03). ln the biosolids regulation promulgated in 1993, national standards were set for pathogen and heavy metal content and for the sale handling and use of biosolids. The standards are designed to procect human heaith and the cnvironment where biosolids are applied beneficially to land. The rule also promotes the development of 4 “clean sludge” (U.S. EPA, 1999), The total maximum daily load (TMDL) progran was promulgated in 2000 but is not scheduled to be in effecr until 2002, The TMDL tale is designed to protect ambi- ent water quality, A TMDL represents the maximum amouat of a pollutant thal a water body can receive and slill meet water quality standards, A TMDL is the sam of (1) the individual waste-load allocaions for point sources, (2) load allocations for nonpoint sources, (3) natural background levels, and (4) a margin of safety (U.S. EPA, 2000). To implement the rule, a comprehensive watershed-based water quality management pro- gram must be undertaken to tine! and control nonpoint sources in addition to conven- tional point source discharges. With implementation of the TMDL rule, the focus on ‘water quality shifts from technology-based controls to preservation of ambient water quality, The end result is an integrated planning approach that transcends jurisdictional boundaries and forces different sectors, such us agriculture, water and wastewater util- ities, and urban sunolf managers t0 cooperate. Implementation of the TMDL rule will vary depending on the specitic water quality objectives established for each watershed and, in some cases, will require the installation of advanced levels of treatment, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT ‘As research into the characterises of wastewater has become more extensive, and as the techniques for analyzing specifie constituents and their potential health and envi- ronmental effects have become niare comprehensive, the body of scientific knowledge has expanded significantly. Many of the new treatment methods being developed are designed to deal with health and environmental concems associated with findings of recent research. However. the advancement in treatment technology effectiveness has rot Kept pace with the enhanced constituent detection capability. Pollutants can be detected at lower concentrations than can be attained by available treatment technology. ‘Therefore, careful assessment of health and environment effects and community con- cerns about these cffects becomes increasingly important in wastewater management. ‘The need io establish a dialogue with the community is important to assure that health and environmental issnes are being addressed. Water quality issues anse when increasing amounts of treated wastewater are dis- charged to water bodies thar are eventually used as water supplies. The waters of the Mississipp) River and many rivers in the eastern United States are used for municipal and industrial water supplies and as repositories for the resulting treated wastewater. In southern California, a semiarid region, increasing amounts of reclaimed wastewater are being used of are planned io be used for groundwater recharge to augment existing potable water supplies, Significant questions remma about the testing and levels of treat ment necessary fo protect human health where the commingling of highly treated waste- water with drinking water sources results in indirect potable reuse, Some professionals8 | Chapler 1 Wostewaler Engineering: An Overview Figure 1-2 ‘Atomic odsorption spectrometer used for the detection of metals. Photo was taken in ‘wastewater ealtant plant laboratory. The tse of such analytical ingrumens is now commonplace at wastewater eaten plants. object in principle to the indirect reuse of treated wastewater for potable purposes; oth- 15 express concern that current techniques are inadequate for detecting all microbial and chemical contaminants of health significance (Crook et al., 1999), Among the lat- ter concerns are (1) the ack of sufficient information regarding the health risks posed by some microbial pathogens and chemical constituents in wastewater, (2) the nature of unksown or unidentified chemical constituents and potential pathogens, and (3) the effectiveness of treatment processes for their removal. Defining risks to public health based on sound science is an ongoing challenge. Because new and more sensitive methods for detecting chemicals are available and methods have been developed that hetter determine biological effects, constituents that were undetected previously are now of concern (see Fig. 1-2). Examples of such chem- ical constituents found in both surface and groundwaters include: #-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), a principal ingredient in rocket fuel, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), a highly soluble gasoline additive, medically active substances including endocrine dis- ruptors, pesticides, industrial chemicals, and phenolic cornpounds commonly found in ‘nonionic surfactants. Endocrine: disrupting chemicals are a special health concern as they ‘can mimic hormones produced in vertebrate animals by causing an exaggerated response, or they can block the effects of a hormone on the body (Trussell, 2000). These chemicals ‘can cause problems with development, behavior, and reproduction in a variety of species. Increases in testicular, provtate, and breast cancers have been blamed on endocrine- disruptive chemicals (Rocfcr et al., 2000). Although treatment of these chemicals is not curently a mission of municipal wastewater treatment, wastewater treatment facilities may have tu be designed to deal with these chemicals in the future. Other health concerns relate to: (1) the release of volatile organic compounds. (VOCS} and toxie air comaminants (TACs) from collection and weatment facilities, (2) chlorine disinfection, and (3) disinfection byproducts (DBPs), Odors are one of the most serious environmental concems to the public, New techniques for odor measure- ‘ment are used to quantify the development and movement of odors that may emanate from wastewater facilities, and special efforts are being made to design facilities that minimize the development of odors, contain them effectively, and provide proper treat- ment for their destruction (see Fig, 1-3).Figure 1-3 Covered treatment plant facies forthe control of odor emissions. 1-4 Wastewoter Characteristics | 9 Many industrial wastes contain VOCS that may be flammable, toxic, and odorous, and may be contributors to photochemical smog and tropospheric ozone, Provisions of the Clean Air Act and local air quality management regulations ate directed toward (1) minimizing VOC releases ut the source, (2) containing wastewater and their VOC emissions (ie.. by adding enclosures), reating wastewater for YOC removal, and col- leeting and treating vapor emissions frora wastewater. Many VOCs, classified as TACs, are discharged to the ambient atmosphere and transported to downwind receptors. Some air management districts are enforcing regulations based on excess cancer risks for lifetime exposures to chemicals such a's benzene, tichloroethylene, chloroform, and methylene chloride (Card and Corsi, 1992), Strategies for controlling VOCS at waste- water treatment plants are reviewed in Chap. 5. Effients containing chlorine residuals are toxic to aquatic lie, and, increasingly, provisions to eliminate chlorine residuals are being instituted, Other important health issues relace to the reduction of disinfection byproducts (DEPs) that are potential car- cinogens and are formed when chlorine reacts with organic matter, To achieve higher ‘and more consistent microorganism inactivation levels, improved performance of dis- infection systems must be addressed. In many communities, the issues of safety in the transporting, storing, and handling of chlorine are also being examined, WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS Prior to about 1940, most municipal wastewater was generated from domestic soutces. Afier 1940, as industrial development in the United States grew significantly, increasing amounts of industrial wastewater have been and continue to be discharged to municipal collection systems, The amounts of heavy metals and synthesized arganic compounds generated by industrial activities have increased, and some 10,000 new organic com- pounds are added each year. Many of these compounds are now found in the wastewater from most municipalities and communities. ‘As technological changes take place in manufacturing, changes also occur in the compounds discharged and the resulting wastewater characteristics. Numerous com- pounds gencrated from industrial processes are difficult and costly to treat by conven tional wastewater treatment processes. Therefore, effective industrial pretreatment10 Chapter | Wastewater Engineering: An Overview 1-5 becomes an essential part uf an overall water quality management program. Enforce- ‘ment of an industrial pretzeatment program is a daunting task, and some of the regu- lated pollutants still escape to the municipal wastewater collection system and must be treated, In the future with the objective of pollution prevention, every effort should be made by industrial dischargers to assess the environmental impacts af any new com- pounds that may enter the wastewater stream before being approved for use. [f a com- pound cannot be treated effectively with existing technology, it should nut be used. Improved Analytical Techniques Great strides in analytical techniques have been made with the deveiapment of new and more sophisticated instrumentation. While most constituent concentrations are reported in milligrams per liter (mg/L), measurements in micrograms per fiter (ug/L) and ‘nanograms per liter ng/L.) anv now common, As detection methods become more sensi« tive und a broader range of compounds are monitored in water supplies, more contami- ‘pants that affect humans and the em ironment will be found. Many trace compounds and microorganisms, such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parcum, bave been iden- tified that potentially may cause adverse heaith etfects. Increased analytical sophistica tion also allows the scientist and engineer to gzin greater kuowledge of the behavior of wastewater constituents and how they affect process performance and effluent quality. Importance of Improved Wastewater Characterization Because of changing wastewater characteristics and the imposition of stricter limits on wastewater discharges and biosolids that are used beneficially, greater emphasis, is being placed on wusiewuter characterization, Because process modeling is widely used in the design and optimization of biological treatment processes (¢.g., activated sludge), thorough characterization of wastewater, particularly wastewaters contain- ing industrial waste, is imercasingly important. Process modeling for activated siudge as it is currently conceived requires experimental assessment of kinetic and stoi- chiometric constants. Fractionization of organic nitrogen, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total arganic curbon into soluble and particulate constituents is now used to optimize the performance of both existing and proposed new biological treatment plants designed to achieve nutrient removal. Techniques from the microbiological sciences, such as RNA und DNA typing, are being used to identify the active mass in biological sreatment processes, Because an understanding of the mature of waste- water is fundamental to the desiga and operation of wastewater collection, treatment, and reuse facilities, a detailed discussion of wastewater constituents is provided in Chap. 2. WASTEWATER TREATMENT Wastewater collected from municipalities and commmities must ultimately be returned toreceiving waters or to the land or reused. The comapiex question facing the design engi- neer and public health officials ts: What levels of treatment must be achieved ia a given application —beyond those prescribed by discharge permits—to ensure protection of pablic health and the enviroument? The answer to this question requires detailed analy-Table 1-4 Levels of wastewater treatment? 1-5 Wostewarer Treatment | 11 ses of local conditions and needs, application of scientific knowledge and engineering judgment based on past experience, and consideration of federal, sate, and local regula- tions, In some cases, 2 detailed sisk assessment may be required. An overview of waste- ‘water treatment is provided in this section. ‘The reuse and disposal of biosolids, vexing problems for some communities, are discussed in the following section. Treatment Methods ‘Methods of treatment in. which the applicacion of physical forces predominate are known as unis operations, Methods of eaunent in which the removal of contaminants is brought about by chemical or biological reactions are known as unit processes. At the present time, unit operations and processes are grouped together to provide various levels of reatment known as preliminary. primary, advanced primary, secondary (without or with, nutrient removal}, and advanced (or tertiary) treatment (see Table 14). In preliminary treatment, gross solids such as large objects, rags, and grit are removed that may dam- age equipment, In primary treatment, a physical operation, usually sedimentation, is used to remove the floating and settieable materials found in wastewater (see Fig, |). For advanced primary treatinent, chemicals are added to enhance the removal of st pended solids and, to a lessor extent, dissolved solids. In secondary treatment, biologi- cal and chemical processes ate used to remove most of the organic matter, In advanced treatment, additional combinations of unit operations and processes are used to remove residual suspended solids and other constituents that are not reduced significantly by conventional secondary treatment. A listing of unit operations and processes used for Treatment level Description Preliminary Removal af wastewater consiivents such as rags, sticks, Foctables, grt, and grease that may cause maintenance or operational problems ‘wih the treatment operations, processes, and ancitiary systems Primary Removal of a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter from. the wastewater ‘Advanced primary Enhanced removel of suspended solids and organic metter from the ‘wostewler Typically accomplished by chemical adeition or firation Secondary Removal of biodegradable erganic matter [in solution or suspension] ‘ond suspended solids, Disinfection is also typically included in the delnition of conventional secondary raatment Secondary wih Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids, end nutrient remove) —_utents {itrogen, phosphorus, or both nitrogen and phosphorus) Tertiary @emoval of residue! suspended solids after secondary treatment) stool by grnuar mediom feion or mirosereens, Diet i tlio typicelyo port of lertary treatment, Nurien! romoval is ofan included in tis defrition Advanced Removal of dissohed and suspended materiel ramairing ofer normal bielogicol treatment when required for various woter reuse ‘applications: “Adopled, in part, rom Cites end Tchobanoglous |1 998),12 | Chapter 1 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview Figure 1-4 Typical primary sedimentation tanks: used to remove eating cand settleable material from wastewater. the removal of major constituents found in wastewater and addressed in this text is pre~ sented in Table 1-5. About 20 years ago, biological nutrient removal (BNR)—for the removal of nitro- gen and phosphorus—was viewed as an innovative process for advanced wastewater tteatment, Because of the extensive research into the mechanisms of BNR, the advan- tages of its use, and the number of BNR systems that have been placed into operation, ‘nutrient removal, for all practical purposes, has become a part of conventional waste- ‘water treatment. When compared to chemical treatment methods, BNR uses less chem- ical, reduces the production of waste solids, and has lower energy consumption, Because of the importance of BNR in wastewater treatment, BNR is integrated into the discussion of theory, application, and design of biological treatment systems. Land treatment processes, commonly termed “natural systems,” combine physical, chemical, and biological treatment mechanisms and produce water with quality similar to or better than that from advanced wastewater treatment. Natural systems are not cov ered in this text ws they are used mainly with small treatment systems; descriptions may he found in the predecessor edition of this text (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991) and in Crites and Tchobanoglous (1998) and Crites et al. (2000). Current Status Up until the late 1980s, comentional secondary treatment was the most common method of treatment for the removal of BOD and TSS. In the United States, nutrient removal ‘was used in special circumstances, such as in the Great Lakes area, Florida, and the Chesapeake Bay, where sensitive nutrient-related water quality conditions were identi- fied, Because of nutrient enrichment that has led to eutrophication and water quality degradation (due in part to point source discharges), nutrient removal processes have. evolved and now are used extensively in other areas as well. ‘Ss a result of implementation of the Federal Water Polletion Control Act Amend- ments, significant data have been obtained on the numbers and types of wastewater facilities used and needed in accomplishing the goals of the program. Surveys are con- ducted by U.S. EPA to track these data, and the results of the 1996 Needs Assessment Survey (U.S. EPA, 1997a) are reported in Tables 1-6 and 1-7. The number and types ofTable 1-5 1-3 Wasteweter Treament | 13 Unit operations and processes used fo remove constituents found in wastewater Constituent ‘Suspended solids Biodegradable organics Nutrients Nitrogen Phosphorus Nitrogen and phosphorus Pathogens: Colloidal and dissolved solids Volatile orgonic compounds Odors Unit operation or process Screening Gril removal Sedimentation High-rale cboriication Flotation Chemical precipitation Depih flction Surface filration Aerobic suspended growth veriations Aerobic attached growth variations Ancersbie suspended growth variations Ancerobic attached growth variations Lagoon variations Physical-chemicel systems Chemical exidation Advanced oxidation Membrane filtration ‘Chemical axidtion (breckpoint chlorination) Suspended-growh rirliation and denitrification variations Fixed film nitrification and denitrification varictions Air stripping Jon exchange Chemical trectment Biological phosphorus removel Biclegical nutrient removal voriations Chlorine compounds Chlorine dioxide Ozone Urraviolet (UV) rodiation ‘Membrones Chemical treciment Corben adsorption ton exchenge Air stripping Corben adsorption Advanced oxidotion ‘Chemica! serubbers Corben edsorption Bioiers Compes* fiers 4 f 814 10,14 19 611 n 811 sh W W 15 M45 1S is —14 | Chopter 1 Wastewater Engineering: An Overview facilities needed in the future (~20 yr) are also shown in Table 1-7. These data are use- ful in forming an overall view of the current status of wastewater treatment in the United States. The municipal wastewater trestment enterprise is composed of over 16,000 plants that are used to treat a to1el flow al about 1400 cubic meters per second (m¥s) [32,000 million gailons per day (Meal/d)]. Approsimately 92 percent of the total existing flow is handled by plants having a capacity of 0.044 m'/s [I million gallons per day (Mgal/d)] an larger, Nearly one-half of the present design capacity is situated in plants Table 1-6 Totel exist Number of U.S. Flow ranges of flowrate featnos by eet gala m/s foclities = Mgal/d——mi/s ange (1996}* 0,000-0.100 0.000-0.00438 ada 287 12.87 0.101-1.000 0.0044-0,0438. 4476 2,323 101.78 1.001-10.000 0.044-0.438 2573 7,780 340,87 10,001-100.00 044-438 Aad 11,666 SILI2 100.00 4.38 10,119 443.34 Othe _ _ Total 32,175 1,409.68 ‘Adapted from U.S. EPA [1997o} *Flow dota unknown. Table 1-7 Number of U.S. wastewater Ireatment facilities by design capacity in 1996 and in the future when needs ‘ore met? Future Faxilties Existing facilities (when needs ara ret) Number of Number of Level of treatment facilities Mgol/d m/s facilities Mgol/d m/s) Less thon secondary 176 3,054 133.80 al 601 26.33 Secondary 9,388 17,734 716.98 9,738 17,795 779.65 Grecter than secondary” AA2B 20,016 876.96 $135 28,588 1,252.53 No discharget 2,032 1,421 62.26 2,369 1,803 73.99 Total 16,024 42,225 1,850.00 18,303 43,787 2,137.50 a 2 Adapted from U.S. EPA (19970). “Treatment plants that meer efluen standards higher thon those given in Table 1-3.

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