Professional Documents
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NLSS3 Highlights en
NLSS3 Highlights en
2010/11
HIGHLIGHTS
HIGHLIGHTS
GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL
NATIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION SECRETARIAT
CENTRAL BUREAU OF STATISTICS
KATHMANDU, NEPAL
OCTOBER 2011
Published by
The survey collected information on different aspects of household welfare, including consumption,
income, housing, access to facilities, education, health, migration, employment, access to credit,
remittances and anthropometrics. These data are used to identify the extent, nature and determinants
of poverty in Nepal.
Further, these data together with those collected through previous rounds of the survey, will allow the
government of Nepal to review progress to date in improving national living standards and to evaluate
the impact of various government policies and programs on the living conditions of the population.
This report provides highlights of the Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/11. The report has two
main objectives: to provide users with an outline of survey methodology and to provide summary of
survey findings with a comparison with the previous two surveys. Detailed results of the survey will be
published in the “Statistical Reports” to be issued in two volumes in near future.
CBS was assisted in its work by the World Bank through the Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2010/11
project. I am thankful to the World Bank for its help in carrying out the project. I would like to express
my sincere thanks to Mr. Gaurav Datt, Mr. Dean Jollife and Mr. Maheshwor Shrestha for their
contribution at various stages of the survey. In the same way I am thankful to the Consultants Mr Juan
Munoz, Mr. Victor Cannale and Ms. Beatriz Godoy who provided support during the sample design,
data management and questionnaire design phases respectively.
I sincerely appreciate all the field staffs who have worked hard to collect data and BSO heads for their
supervisory role. The team in the Household Survey Section was responsible for overall execution and
supervision of the survey. I appreciate the efforts the team put into implementing the survey and
producing the data analysis results. The members of the team include Mr Anil Sharma, Mr Keshab
Kumar Gautam, Mr Dinesh Bhattarai, Mr Dol Narayan Shrestha Jaya Kumar Sharma, Bed Prasad
Dhakal, Bikash Malla and Mr. Tulsi Prasad Paudyal. Likewise Mr Shibnandan Prasad Shah, Mr Mukti
Nath Khanal, Mr Sunil Kumar Shrestha and Mr Shiva Lal Sharma also contributed as team members
of the survey at different times. The team was ably led by Mr Dhundi Raj Lamichhane- chief of
Household Survey Section. Mr. Bikas Bista, Deputy Director General and Chief of the Social Statistics
Division, deserves special thanks for coordinating the survey. Finally, I would like to express my
sincere thanks to Mr. Tunga Shiromani Bastola, National Consultant, for his dedicated work in bringing
out this report in this form.
August 2011
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE i
ACRONYMS
ii
2.7 Migration and absentees 31
2.8 Agriculture 33
2.9 Consumption 37
2.10 Income 39
2.11 Employment status 41
2.12 Wage employment 43
2.13 Nonfarm economic activities 45
2.14 Remittances and transfer income 47
2.15 Household credit 48
2.16 Adequacy of consumption 50
2.17 Government facilities 52
2.18 Nutrition of children 53
2.19 Panel households 55
REFERENCES 82
ANNEXES
Table A1 An overview of household questionnaires of NLSS, 1995/96 – 2010/11 83
Table A2 Household questionnaire of the 2010/11 Nepal Living Standards Survey 84
Table A3 Community questionnaires of the 2010/11 Nepal Living Standards
Survey 86
Table A4 Major additions and modifications to the household questionnaire 87
Table A5 Field teams of the 2010/11 Nepal Living Standards Survey 89
BOXES
Box 1.1 Distribution of sample districts by ecological belt and development
region 3
Box 1.2 Number of primary sampling units in NLFS-II and NLSS-III 6
Box 1.3 Distribution of PSUs by belt and region, 2010/11 7
Box 1.4 Distribution of sample households by belt and region, 2010/11 7
Box 1.5 Living Standards Surveys of Nepal, 1995/96-2010/11 12
TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary statistics of demographic characteristics, 1995/96 – 2010/11 56
Table 2.2 Summary statistics of housing characteristics, 1995/96 – 2010/11 57
iii
Table 2.3 Summary statistics of access to facilities, 1995/96 – 2010/11 59
Table 2.4 Summary statistics of literacy and education, 1995/96 – 2010/11 60
Table 2.5 Summary statistics of health services and HIV/AIDS, 1995/96 – 2010/11 62
Table 2.6 Summary statistics of maternity and family planning, 1995/96 – 2010/11 65
Table 2.7 Summary statistics of migration and absentees, 2003/04 – 2010/11 67
Table 2.8 Summary statistics of agriculture, 1995/96 – 2010/11 68
Table 2.9 Summary statistics of consumption expenditure, 1995/96 – 2010/11 70
Table 2.10 Summary statistics of household income, 1995/96 – 2010/11 71
Table 2.11 Summary statistics of employment status, 1995/96 – 2010/11 72
Table 2.12 Summary statistics of wage employment, 1995/96 – 2010/11 73
Table 2.13 Summary statistics of non-farm economic activities, 1995/96 – 2010/11 74
Table 2.14 Summary statistics of remittances and transfer income, 1995/96 –
2010/11 75
Table 2.15 Summary statistics of household loans, 1995/96 – 2010/11 76
Table 2.16 Summary statistics of adequacy of consumption, 1995/96 – 2010/11 78
Table 2.17 Summary statistics of government facilities, 2003/04 – 2010/11 80
Table 2.18 Summary statistics of nutrition of children, 2010/11 81
FIGURES
Figure 1.1.1 Number of PSUs and households enumerated in Nepal Living
Standards Survey, 1995/96 – 2010/11 13
Figure 2.1.1 Percentage distribution of population by broad age group, 1995/96 –
2010/11 15
Figure 2.1.2 Percentage distribution of households by size, 1995/96 – 2010/11 15
Figure 2.1.3 Sex ratio and dependency ratio and female household head, 1995/96 –
2010/11 16
Figure 2.2.1 Percent of households with access to household amenities and
facilities, 1995/96 – 2010/11 19
Figure 2.3.1 Percent of households within the reach of 30 minutes, 1995/96 –
2010/11 21
Figure 2.4.1 Literacy rate of adults (15 years and older), 1995/96 – 2010/11 23
Figure 2.4.2 Percent of population (6 years and older) “currently attending”
school/college, 1995/96 – 2010/11 24
Figure 2.4.3 Percent of population (6 years and older) that never attended any
school, 1995/96 – 2010/11 24
Figure 2.5.1 Percent of population with chronic and acute illnesses and disability,
1995/96 – 2010/11 27
iv
Figure 2.5.2 Cost of acute illness treatment in government health facilities, 2003/04
– 2010/11 27
Figure 2.6.1 Average number of children ever born and total fertility rate, 1995/96 –
2010/11 30
Figure 2.6.2 Knowledge and use of family planning methods, 1995/96 – 2010/11 31
Figure 2.6.3 Birth delivery and prenatal and postnatal care, 2003/04 – 2010/11 31
Figure 2.7.1 Percent of migrants by sex, 2003/04 – 2010/11 33
Figure 2.7.2 Percent of migrants by origin, 2003/04 – 2010/11 33
Figure 2.8.1 Percent of households with land, operating owned land and area
irrigated, 1995/96 – 2010/11 36
Figure 2.8.2 Percent of households by size of land operated, 1995/96 – 2010/11 36
Figure 2.9.1 Nominal per capita and household consumption, 1995/96 – 2010/11 38
Figure 2.9.2 Share of per capita consumption of the poorest and the richest
population group, 1995/96 – 2010/11 38
Figure 2.9.3 Share of nominal consumption expenditure, 2010/11 38
Figure 2.10.1 Nominal per capita and household income, 1995/96 – 2010/11 40
Figure 2.10.2 Share of per capita income of the poorest and the richest population
group, 1995/96 – 2010/11 40
Figure 2.10.3 Share of nominal income by source, 1995/96 – 2010/11 40
Figure 2.11.1 Participation rate, current employment and individuals occupied in
extended economic activity, 1995/96 – 2010/11 43
Figure 2.11.2 Current unemployment rate by sex, 1995/96 – 2010/11 43
Figure 2.12.1 Percent of wage earners and mode of payment by sector, 1995/96 –
2010/11 45
Figure 2.12.2 Average nominal wage rate by sex, 1995/96 -2010/11 45
Figure 2.13.1 Nonfarm enterprise by ownership, registration and hired labour
employment status, 1995/96 – 2010/11 47
Figure 2.14.1 Percent of households receiving remittances and share of remittances
received, 1995/96 – 2010/11 48
Figure 2.15.1 Percent of households with loans and purpose of loan and collateral
status, 1995/96 – 2010/11 50
Figure 2.16.1 Percent of households reporting facilities "less than adequate", 1995/96
– 2010/11 52
Figure 2.17.1 Percent of respondents who perceive government facility is “poor”,
2003/04 – 2010/11 53
Figure 2.18.1 Nutritional status of children under 5 years, 2010/11 55
v
ACRONYMS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
ASFR Age Specific Fertility Rate
BCG Bacillile Calmette Gurin
BSO Branch Statistical Office
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics (Nepal)
DPT Diphtheria Pertusis and Tetanus
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GER Gross Enrolment Rate
GPS Geographical Positioning System
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IUD Intra Uterine Device
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
LSMS Living Standards Measurement Survey
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NDHS Nepal Demographic Health Survey
NAR Net Attendance Rate
NER Net Enrolment Rate
NGO Non Government Organization
NLFS II Nepal Labour Force Survey 2008
NLSS I Nepal Living Standards Survey 1995/96
NLSS II Nepal Living Standards Survey 2003/04
NLSS III Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/11
NPCS National Planning Commission Secretariat
PPS Probability Proportional to Size
PPM Parts Per Million
PSU Primary Sampling Unit
SSU Secondary Sampling Unit
TB Tuberculosis
TBA Traditional Birth Attendant
TFR Total Fertility Rate
TYP Three Year Plan
UN United Nations
VDC Village Development Committee
VSC Voluntary Sterilization Camp
WB The World Bank
WHO World Health Organization
vi
CHAPTER 1
OUTLINE OF SURVEY METHODOLOGY
1
government “to monitor progress in 1.4 Statistical unit
improving national living standards and to
evaluate the impact of various The statistical unit or the enumeration unit
government policies and programs on the of a survey is the basic entity for which
living conditions of the population”. the required data items are gathered.
NLSS-III is basically a household survey
Besides, the survey findings would be the
and the enumeration unit of the survey is
basis for monitoring the achievement of
the household.
MDGs over the years.
The definition of a household for the
1.2 Objective of the survey survey is primarily adopted from the
The main objective of the NLSS-III is to guidelines laid down by the United
Nations in its “Principles and
update data on the living standards of the
Recommendations for Population and
people. The survey aims to assess the
Housing Censuses, Rev 2” (UN, 2008).
impact of various government policies
According to the guidelines the concept of
and programs on the socio-economic
household is based on the “arrangements
changes in the country during the last 7
made by persons, individually or in
years. The survey also aims to track
groups, for providing themselves with
changes experienced by previously
food or other essentials for living”. A
enumerated households during the past
household may consist of one person or a
fifteen and seven years.
group of two or more persons. The
persons in the group - may pool their
1.3 Survey scope
incomes, may have a common budget,
The survey scope concerns the data to may be related or unrelated or may
be collected. Consistent with the basic constitute a combination of persons both
survey objectives, the data items included related and unrelated.
in the survey belong to the following
1.5 Coverage
broad topics: demography, housing,
access to facilities, migration, consumer The survey in principle covers the whole
expenditure, education, health, marriage country, including both rural and urban
and maternity history, work and time use, areas. A brief description of the
employment and unemployment, wage geographical and administrative division
and salary, agriculture, non agricultural of the country follows. The country is
activities, credit and savings, absentee divided into 75 administrative districts.
population, remittances and transfers, These 75 districts are grouped into three
social assistances, adequacy of ecological belts running from north to
consumption and government south – the mountains, the hills and the
services/facilities, anthropometry, and Tarai. Each ecological belt is further
tracking of households enumerated (in divided into five development regions –
the previous surveys). eastern, central, western, mid-western
and far-western region. Thus 15 eco-
2
development regions (or inter-regions) living in schools hostels, prisons, army
are formed by the cross combination of camps and hospitals) were also excluded
three ecological belts and five from the survey. The household members
development regions (Box 1.1). were determined on the basis of the usual
place of their residence. Foreign nationals
All households in the country were
whose usual place of residence is within
considered eligible for selection in the
the country were included in the survey.
survey. The survey, however, excluded
the households of diplomatic missions.
The institutional households (like people
Box 1.1: Distribution of sample districts by ecological belt and development region
Ecologic Development region
al belt
Eastern Central Western Mid- Far-western
western
c
1. Taplejung 22. Dolakha 41. Manangb 62. Dolpaa 67. Bajura
c a c
9. Sankhuwasabha 23. Sindhupalchok 42. Mustang 63. Jumla 68. Bajhangc
c c
Mountains 11. Solukhumbu 29. Rasuwa 64. Kalikot 75. Darchula
65. Mugu
66. Humlaa
c c
2. Panchthar 20. Sindhuli 36. Gorkha 52. Pyuthan 69. Achham
c
3. Ilam 21. Ramechhapc 37. Lamjung 53. Rolpa 70. Doti
c
7. Dhankuta 24. 38. Tanahu 54. Rukumc 73. Dadeldhura
8. Terhathum Kabhrepalanchok 39. Syangja 55. Salyan 74. Baitadi
c 25. Lalitpur
10. Bhojpur 40. Kaski 59. Surkhet
Hills 12. Okhaldhunga 26. Bhaktapur 43. Myagdi 60. Dailekh
27. Kathmandu c c
13. Khotang 44. Parbat 61. Jajarkot
c c
14. Udayapur 28. Nuwakot 45. Baglung
30. Dhading 46. Gulmi
31. Makawanpur c
47. Palpa
51.
Arghakhanchi
c
4. Jhapa 17. Dhanusha 48. Nawalparasi 56. Dang 71. Kailali
c
5. Morang 18. Mahottari 49. Rupandehi 57. Banke 72. Kanchanpur
c
6. Sunsari 19. Sarlahi 50. Kapilbastu 58. Bardiya
Tarai 15. Saptari 32. Rautahat
16. Siraha 33. Bara
34. Parsa
35. Chitwan
a
Note: District not selected in the survey.
b
District selected only in the panel sample.
c
District selected only in the cross section sample.
3
1.6 Time reference − a “panel” sample in addition to the
nationally representative sample of
Survey time reference is a period households, and
encompassing the various time reference − data collection over a period of 12
dates or periods of data collection for months divided into several phases to
individual data item. Generally, the time capture “seasonal variation”.
reference for the survey is either the day
of enumeration or a particular day (for
inventory items) and a longer period (for 1.7.1 Sampling frame
continuous activities). As required by the
The initial frame for the NLSS-III survey
nature of the survey, NLSS-III adopted an
was based on the frame prepared for the
elaborate time reference scheme. The 2008 Nepal Labour Force Survey (NLFS-
time references adopted in the NLSS-III II). This was done “to take advantage of
are as follows: the cartographic segmentation and
household listing operations” conducted
• The day of enumeration or a
by the CBS for the NLFS-II. Number of
particular day
households at ward level was obtained
• Past 7 days
• Past 30 days from the 2001 Population Census. CBS
• Past 12 months has constructed a data set with basic
• Past agricultural year information (number of households, total
population, and male and female
1.7 Survey methodology population) at the ward level. This data
set was used to construct the frame for
As in the previous two rounds of the the selection of primary sampling units
NLSS, the NLSS-III followed the Living (PSUs).
Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS)
methodology developed and promoted by The PSU for the NLFS-II were either
the World Bank (WB). The main features individual wards or sub-wards or groups
of the methodology include: of contiguous wards in the same VDC. A
group of wards was considered as single
− a relatively “smaller” sample size PSU, to ensure that each unit contained
compared with the other in-depth at least 30 households.
household surveys,
For the ultimate sample selection of
− an “integrated” multi-topic household
households in the NLFS-II, a frame was
questionnaire for collecting a
prepared in each ward selected at the
comprehensive data set on household
earlier stage of sampling. For this, a list of
welfare, all households was prepared in all the
− an “innovative” data management wards selected for the survey. Selection
technique including field based data of households was carried out from these
entry and field verification system, listings using systematic sampling with a
random start. Before the listing, an
4
intensive cartographic work was cross sectional sample and the second
undertaken (in the urban areas and some was a panel. The panel sample consisted
of the rural areas) to form appropriate of PSUs and households previously
enumeration block having around 200 enumerated in one or both of the past two
households. rounds of the survey.
6
Box 1.3 : Distribution of PSUs by belt and region, 2010/11
Eastern Central Western Mid Far Total
western western
Cross-section
Mountains 9 13 0 5 7 34
Hills 36 122 60 31 18 267
Tarai 61 55 36 27 20 199
Total 106 190 96 63 45 500
Panel
Mountains 4 3 1 1 2 11
Hills 6 23 12 6 3 50
Tarai 13 14 7 3 2 39
Total 23 40 20 10 7 100
Combined sample
Mountains 13 16 1 6 9 45
Hills 42 145 72 37 21 317
Tarai 74 69 43 30 22 238
Total 129 230 116 73 52 600
7
1.7.7 Enumeration status First, draft questionnaires were developed
based on the questionnaires used in the
The survey enumerated 5988 sample NLSS-II. The questionnaires were pre-
households from 499 primary sampling tested several times to assess their use
units (PSUs) from the cross section under actual field conditions. Pre- tests
sample. As regards to panel sample, from were conducted in Kanchanpur, Doti,
100 PSUs 1032 households were tracked Banke, Rupandehi, Kaski, Kathmandu,
and enumerated (out of which 513 Lalitpur, Nuwakot, Dolakha, Dhanusha,
households were the households Dhankuta, Jhapa and Panchthar districts.
enumerated in the NLSS-II and the rest Following the experience of the pre-tests
were the households enumerated in both and the feedback obtained from potential
of NLSS-I & II). Thus, in total 7020 data users, the questionnaires to be used
households were enumerated in the for the actual survey were finalized.
survey.
In line with the project's objective of
1.8 Survey questionnaire improving linkages between data users
and the data collecting agency, the data
As in the previous two surveys, NLSS-III
needs and priorities identified by the
used two types of questionnaires: project's Steering and Technical
household questionnaire and community Committees were given special
questionnaire. There were two separate consideration when finalizing the
community questionnaires one each for questionnaire.
rural and urban communities.
An overview of the household
As many of the NLSS-II questions as questionnaire used in the three rounds of
possible were retained in the NLSS-III. the NLSS is given in Table A1 (Annex).
However, some important additions and An 80-paged household questionnaire
modifications were made in these with 21 sections and 9 appendices was
questionnaires to address the administered in the NLSS-III. The content
contemporary issues.
of this household questionnaire is
A new section with questions on presented in Table A2. The content of the
anthropometry and breastfeeding was rural and urban community
added in the NLSS-III household questionnaires is presented in Table A3.
questionnaire. Other two new sections An annotated list of changes and
added were on “jobs and time use” and modifications in the household
“employment and unemployment”. questionnaire of NLSS-III compared with
Additional questions on food consumption NLSS-II is presented in Table A4.
during the past 7 days were introduced in
1.9 Field work organization
"food expenses and home production"
section. For some other questions of the 1.9.1 Field teams
NLSS-II, answer categories were
modified, expanded or elaborated. In NLSS-III, data were collected by 20
field teams (Table A5). Each team was
8
responsible for a particular area of the numerators was assigned the task of
country. Teams were formed to balance computer data entry in the field.
the workload and travel time among the
teams. The teams were based in the
1.9.2 Selection of field staff and
appropriate Branch Statistics Office training
(BSO) of the CBS, and each team
All together 100 field workers were
covered on average 30 PSUs during a
assigned in the main enumeration of the
period of 12 months.
survey. Majority of the field workers were
Each team consisted of one supervisor, mobilized from the regular staffs of the
three interviewers (including at least two CBS and the Branch Statistics Offices
female interviewers) and one specially (BSOs). In addition to the regular staff,
trained data entry operator. 40 female interviewers were newly
recruited for the purposes mentioned
Each team was equipped with a laptop earlier - to conduct interviews related to
computer, solar panel power box, GPS women and to take anthropometric
device, kits for testing iodine in salt, measurements.
instruments for measuring height and
weight of children and other logistics Female interviewers were recruited on a
required in the field. year contract. To encourage the local
participation, these female interviewers
Among the team members, supervisor were recruited from three centres of the
was responsible for coordinating, country: Biratnagar, Kathmandu, and
supervising, and monitoring the field Nepalganj. The required number of
work. Besides, supervisor was female interviewers was recruited on the
responsible to complete the community basis of a job interview of each candidate.
questionnaires. Other responsibilities
included checking the filled-in The training of the field workers
questionnaires and doing real time (supervisors, interviewers, and data entry
corrections, and supervising data entry operators) was the main training for the
activities. survey. The training commenced on
January 17, 2010 and concluded on
The primary job of the interviewer was to February 14, 2010 covering 25 working
complete the household questionnaire days in total.
after interviewing the household head or
other relevant member(s) of the The training was organized in the two
household. Female interviewers were adjacent training centres at Jawalakhel,
assigned the additional task of Lalitpur in the Kathmandu valley. There
interviewing the female members of were 120 participants in the training
household (especially sensitive questions programme at the beginning. The
related to women). They were also participants were divided into four groups
assigned to measure the height and and four concurrent group sessions were
weight of children in the interviewed held. Out of 120 participants, 117
household. Further, One of the completed the training successfully.
9
Different methods of training were were issued to rectify the errors and
adopted. The methods used included inconsistencies found in the field work
study of the questionnaire and the (especially in the computer data entry
reference manual, classroom sessions, programmes).
class exercise sessions, mock interviews
The second phase of data collection work
and field practices and discussions.
started from April 3, 2010 and continued
A separate training one each for till the June 26, 2010. During this phase,
supervisors (on community work on 131 PSUs was completed. The
questionnaires) and data entry operators third phase of the field work continued
(on data entry and verification from July 1, 2010 through October 24,
procedures) was also organized. Besides, 2010 and 200 PSUs were completed in
female interviewers were trained in this period. The fourth phase began on
anthropometrics. Interviewers were also October 29, 2010 and was completed by
trained on how to measure the iodine
the first week of February, 2011. Field
content in the salt used by households.
review meetings were held in the break
The core team members of the project periods between these phases and they
conducted the training. The UNICEF- were basically used for discussions of
Nepal assisted the trainers in conducting field difficulties and for rectifying the
the anthropometric sessions. National errors.
and international consultants also were
involved in the management and
1.9.4 Data entry and management
supervision of the training. As in the previous two rounds of the
survey, a distinctive feature of the NLSS-
1.9.3 Data collection
III was the use of personal computer in
Data collection was carried out over a the field. A data entry programme
period of 12 months to cover a complete developed specifically for the survey was
cycle in agricultural activities and to installed on each computer provided to
capture seasonal variations in other the field teams.
variables. Fieldwork took place in four
subsequent phases. The data entry programme enabled the
data entry operator as well as the team
The first phase started on February 21, supervisor to find out mistakes and
2010 and 69 PSUs (including 7 panel
missing data (if any) and to perform
PSUs) were covered during a period of
inconsistency checks. When problems or
29 days. After the completion of the first
errors were found, the interviewers
phase, a 5-day review meeting of the field
returned to the households to correct the
workers commenced on March 29, 2010.
errors. The field supervision from the CBS
This review meeting was used for
included the real time check and
discussions about difficulties in the field
verification of data entry work in the field.
and preparations for the second phase.
During the review meeting, instructions
10
This process of real time entering, • Western rural Tarai
checking and correcting data in the field • Mid-western and far-western rural
helped to enhance the quality of data Tarai
collected. It also reduced the time lag
between data collection and data 1.11 Comparative summary
processing. This also helped to make Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) carried
data available for processing shortly after out Nepal Living Standards Survey
the completion of the collection phase. (NLSS) for the first time in 1995/96. The
After the completion of the field work, second round of the NLSS was
collected data were sent back to the CBS conducted in 2003/04. The Nepal Living
from the field. Data processing and Standards Survey 2010/11 (NLSS-III) is
analysis was done in the CBS using the third round of the survey conducted
STATA statistical software package. by the CBS as a follow up of the previous
two rounds.
1.10 Analytic domains
All the three surveys followed the Living
The original idea was to provide an Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS)
estimate for each of 14 strata formed for methodology developed and promoted by
selecting the PSUs. However, it was felt the World Bank (WB). NLSS-II
that the number of sample households in enumerated 3912 households from 326
some of these strata was insufficient for PSUs compared to 3373 households from
the required precision of the estimate. 274 PSUs in NLSS-I. NLSS-II also
Based on experience and statistical interviewed 1160 households from 95
theory, it is estimated that the sample can panel PSUs that were enumerated in
provide desegregated estimates for the NLSS-I.
following 12 areas (called the analytic
NLSS-III enumerated 7,020 households,
domains):
of which 5,988 households were from the
• Mountains cross-section sample and the remaining
• Urban areas of the Kathmandu valley 1,032 were from the panel sample.
• Other urban areas of the hills
A summary of the methodology of the
• Eastern rural hills
three Nepal Living Standards Surveys
• Central rural hills
conducted by the CBS, Nepal is
• Western rural hills presented in Box 1.5.
• Mid-western and far-western rural
hills
• Urban areas of the Tarai
• Eastern rural Tarai
• Central rural Tarai
11
Box 1.5 : Living Standards Surveys of Nepal, 1995/96-2010/11
NLSS 1995/96 NLSS 2003/04 NLSS 2010/11
Domain of study Area based on geographic and ecological regions
Frame List of wards; number of List of wards; number of List of wards; number of
households in each households in each households in each
ward (1991) ward (2001) ward (2001); based on
the NLFS-II.
12
13
CHAPTER 2
15
2.2 Housing and household Number of rooms, area of dwelling and
facilities housing plot: The degree of crowding in
a household is measured by the number
(Table 2.2) of persons per habitable area or number
of rooms. Density of occupancy in terms
Housing primarily concerns with the
of the area of dwelling is another measure
accommodation in a dwelling or a
of the adequacy of housing. Area of
housing unit. Well being of the population
housing plot consists of the land on which
in general depends upon the “quality and
the dwelling is located.
quantity of housing facilities” available in
the country. Housing features included in Overall, average number of rooms per
the survey are: ownership, construction household is 4.6 and average surface
materials, dwelling size and access to area of dwelling is 605 square feet.
utilities and amenities such as electricity, Average area of housing plot is estimated
piped water, cooking fuel, use of iodized to be 1625 sq. ft. in the country.
salt and sanitary facilities.
Construction materials of outer walls:
Occupancy status: Occupancy status About one half of the households (48
refers to the juridical aspects under which percent) are living in the housing units
the households are occupying the walled by mud-bonded bricks/stones.
residence. Housing occupants are Households residing in the housing units
broadly categorized into owner, renter, with outer walls made of other
rent-free and others. A majority of the construction materials include “cement
households own the housing units in bonded bricks/stones and concrete” (26
which they are residing. 90 percent of the percent), "wood and tree branches" (24
households reside in their own housing percent), and “others” (2 percent).
units, 8 percent are renters (pay rent) and
2 percent live on rent-free housing units. Materials for roofing: About 30 percent
of households in Nepal are living in the
buildings and structures roofed over with
16
tile or slate. Households residing in depend on covered well (39 percent),
housing units with more durable roofing open well (7 percent) and other unreliable
materials like galvanized sheet and sources like river and spring water (10
concrete are 28 and 20 percent, percent).
respectively. On the other hand, the
Access to household utilities and
proportion of households residing in
amenities: On the whole, 70 percent of
housing units roofed with straw/thatch is
the households have access to electricity
18 percent. Roughly 3 percent of the total
in their dwellings. Roughly 13 percent of
households in the country are housed in
the households have access to telephone
living structures using “other” roofing
facility.
materials (earth, mud, wood, plank, etc.).
About 19 percent of the households have
Foundation of the building: The
access to sanitary (sewerage) system in
construction materials of the foundation
the country. Access to garbage disposal
provide an indicator for the structural
facility is worse than the sanitary system.
acceptability of the buildings. This is
Only 10 percent of the households in
related to the safety and well being of the
Nepal have garbage collection/disposal
occupants.
facility. Overall, 56 percent of households
Almost one in two (49 percent) have access to latrine facilities. Other
households is residing in building or households have no proper latrine
structure with foundation made of mud facilities and they are bound to defecate
bonded bricks/stones. Percentages of in open places.
households residing in buildings with
Main fuel used for cooking : Firewood
foundations made up of more durable
is the primary fuel used for cooking food
construction materials like cement
in most part of the country. Overall, 64
bonded bricks/stones and concrete pillars
percent of households use firewood as
are 14 and 13 percent respectively. About
their main source of cooking fuel. Other
21 percent of the total households in the
fuels used for cooking are: LPG (18
country are living in houses whose
percent), cow-dung/leaves (14 percent),
foundation is made of wooden pillars.
and kerosene (less than one percent) and
About 3 percent of the total households in
“other” fuel (4 percent).
the country are living in structures whose
underground base is made of “other” Households that use and collect
construction materials (earth, mud, wood, firewood: About 84 percent of the
etc.). households in the country use firewood
for cooking and other heating purposes.
Drinking water supply: Overall, nearly
Around 77 percent of these firewood-user
45 percent households have access to
households collect it themselves.
piped water almost half of which have
private connections. The piped water is Place of firewood collection : Overall,
considered as a source of safe water. The 65 percent of households rely on forest
remaining 55 percent of households for the collection of their firewood:
17
community managed forest (44 percent) households use rock salt, followed by
and government forest (21 percent). The powder salt (18 percent).
increase in the share of community
Around 72 percent of households use salt
managed as firewood collection place
having the recommended level of
over the last fifteen years is a direct
iodization. 20 percent of households use
consequence of increase in community
salt that contains less than 15 ppm of
ownership of forests in the country. Other
iodine. The remaining 8 percent use salt
places of firewood collection include own
that have no iodine at all.
land (24 percent) and unspecified places
(11 percent). Comparative summary : Over the last
15 years, the proportion of households
Stove used for cooking : Type of stove
residing in their own housing units has
used for cooking is related to the issue of
decreased from 94 percent to 90 percent.
indoor pollution and the quality of life.
The proportion of renters, on the other
More than one half (52 percent) of the
hand, has increased from 2 to 8 percent
households in the country use mud-stove
during the same period.
for cooking purposes, followed by
kerosene/gas stove (21 percent), open Average size of dwelling has remained
fire-place (22 percent), and smokeless constant compared with the NLSS-I. The
stove (3 percent). average area of housing plot, however,
has increased from 1337 sq. ft in 1995/96
Fodder collection : Roughly, 70 percent
(NLSS-I) to 1625 sq. ft in 2010/11 (NLSS-
of country’s households collect fodder for
III).
their livestock. Around 57 percent of
these households collect their fodder from The proportion of households occupying
their own land, followed by forest (23 housing units with cement-bonded outer
percent). The share of community walls, and concrete or galvanized sheet
managed forest is 17 percent. 20 roof have increased between these two
percent of households get their fodder periods (1995/96 – 2010/11). However,
from other unspecified places. household's access to piped water has
not changed in the last 7 years.
Use of iodized salt : Iodine deficiency is
associated with several health disorders – Household’s access to electricity and
mental retardation, risks of stillbirth and telephone has significantly increased in
miscarriage, and incidence of goiter. the last 15 years. Access to electricity and
Iodization of salt is a key strategy for telephone has increased from 14 to 70
achieving the goal of eliminating iodine percent and from 1 to 13 percent
deficiency. The recommended level of respectively.
iodization is 15 parts per million (ppm) or
more. Overall, 56 percent of households now
have toilet/latrine facility in their own
About 59 percent of households use dwellings, compared to 22 percent in
pocket salt recommended by the 1995/96.
government. About 22 percent of the
18
2.3 Access to facilities post but only 34 percent of households
can reach to public hospital/PHC within
(Table 2.3) this time. Access to private health
facilities is better compared with that of
NLSS-III has gathered data on Nepali
the government health facilities.
households’ access to different facilities
(altogether 24 facilities). Some of these Bus stop: Bus is the most common
facilities are covered here. Households’ means of long-distance travel in the
access to a certain facility is measured in country. According to the survey, 66
terms of time taken for one-way travel to percent of households are within 30
that facility, irrespective of transport mode minutes of reach to the nearest bus stop.
(foot or vehicle). The shorter is the time For more than one-fifth of households it
taken by a household to reach a facility, takes one hour or more, and for 10
the higher is the degree of access to the percent of households, it takes more than
facility. 3 hours to reach the nearest bus stop.
21
Educational status: For the survey, School attendance and mean years of
educational status is categorized into - schooling: About 55 percent of adult
never attended school, attended school in population (aged 15 years and above)
the past, and currently attending school. attended school (either in the past or
Overall, the proportion of population 6 currently). For this group, the mean years
years and over that “never attended” of schooling is estimated to be 8.1 years.
school is larger than that “attended school 70 percent of adult males ever attended
in the past” but smaller than “currently school while this figure is only 43 percent
attending” category (34, 28 and 38 for adult females. However, there is no
percent respectively). significant gender gap in mean years of
schooling.
With respect to the educational status,
females are comparatively more Net attendance ratio (NAR): is related
disadvantaged than their male counter to the number of students in the specified
parts. For instance, never-attendance rate age group who are currently attending
is 23 percent for male population school. For example, the primary school
compared to 44 percent for females, attendance ratio is the percentage of
“attended school” in the past rate is 36 children of primary school age that are
percent for males whereas this rate is attending primary or secondary school.
only 22 percent for female population and Children of primary school age currently
current-attendance rates are 41 percent attending primary or secondary school
and 34 percent for males and females are included in the numerator and all
respectively. children of primary school age are
included in the denominator.
Reasons for not attending school:
This question refers to all members (6-24 Overall NARs are 69, 27 and 15 percent
years of age) of the household who have for primary, lower secondary and
never attended any school. Respondents secondary schooling level respectively.
are asked to provide the main reason for The NARs for girls are higher than that for
not attending any school. boys in primary and secondary levels but
in higher levels NARs are slightly lower
Overall, 9 percent of the relevant
for girls compared with that of boys.
population never attended school. Among
these never-attendees, 30 percent Disparities across consumption quintiles
attributed the primary reason to "parents are very noticeable at higher levels of
did not want". Other reasons included schooling than primary level.
"help needed at home" (26 percent), “not
Type of school attended: Overall, 72
willing to attend” (17 percent), “too
percent of currently school/college
expensive” (7 percent), “too young” (7
enrolled populations attend
percent), “disable” (3 percent), “school far
government/community schools.
way” (3 percent) and “other” reasons
Participation rate in private schools
including “no school” (7 percent).
stands at 27 percent in Nepal.
22
Reason for dropouts: 25 percent of 55 percent in 2010/11. For these “ever
these dropouts cite “poor academic attendees”, the mean years of schooling
progress” while 22 percent report “help went up from 7.0 to 8.1 between these
needed at home” as the primary reason two periods.
for leaving school. 17 percent leave
In NLSS-III, net attendance rates for girls
school because of “moving away” with the
are higher than that for boys in primary
family. Other reasons are “parent did not
and secondary levels of schooling but in
want” (7 percent) and “too expensive” (6
higher levels NARs are slightly lower for
percent).
girls compared with that of boys.
Comparative summary: Almost all
Past two surveys (NLSS-I and NLSS-II)
education indicators show a very
tabulated net enrollment rates (NERs)
noticeable improvement between 1995/96
instead of NAR. NER is the ratio of the
and 2010/11. Overall literacy rate of
total number of students in the “correct-
population (6 years and above) has
age” group and enrolled in school at a
increased by some 23-percentage points.
given level of education to the total
This increase is higher for females (27
number of children in the age group
points) compared with males (20 points).
specified for that level. NER is usually
Adult literacy rate has increased higher than NAR. Primary school NER
significantly during the same period of 15 increased from 57 percent to 78 percent,
years. Overall adult literacy rate has lower secondary school NER from 19 to
increased from 36 percent in 1995/96 to 42 and secondary school NER from 9 to
56 in 2010/11. Female adult literacy rate 28 between NLSS-I and NLSS-II.
has increased by some 25 percentage
Private school participation rate has gone
points during this period.
up from 9 percent to 27 percent in the
Proportion of population aged 15 years past 15 years (between NLSS-I and
and above that ever attended school was NLSS-III).
34 percent in 1995/96 which increased to
23
2.5 Health services and or in his/her physical system and as such
he/she experiences difficulty in carrying
HIV/AIDS
out daily activities normally or in
(Table 2.5) participating fully in social life due to the
existing physical, social, and cultural
Access to health services is critical to
environment.
individual well-being. Health related
information included in the survey are: The survey includes these types of
disability, chronic and acute illnesses, disabilities – physical, visual, hearing,
health facility types, consultations and hearing and seeing, speaking, mental and
expenditures, HIV/AIDS and child multiple disabilities.
immunization.
Overall, about 4 percent of population has
Disability: Disability is a physical or some kind of “disability”. Disability rates
mental condition of a person who has for males and females are 4 percent and
some problems in any part of his/her body 3 percent respectively.
24
Of all persons with some kind of disability, fever (24 percent). Diarrhea makes up
29 percent are physically disabled, 22 for 16 percent of all acute cases and
percent have vision related disability, 23 physical injury accounts for another 5
percent have hearing related disability, 2 percent of illnesses.
percent have vision/hearing related
Health consultations by practitioner
disability, 9 percent speech related
type : 69 percent of people with an acute
disability, 7 percent are mentally disable
illness reported to have consulted some
and 7 percent have multiple disability.
kind of medical practitioner in the country:
Chronic illness: Chronic illness is a 28 percent consulted paramedic, followed
long-term suffering. The survey includes by doctor (24 percent), pharmacists (16
the following chronic illnesses: cancer, percent), traditional and others (1
asthma, heart disease, diabetes, kidney percent).
problem, epilepsy, respiratory problem,
Health consultations by facility type :
cirrhosis of liver, H/L blood pressure, drug
About 63 percent of visitors with acute
abuse, occupational illness (disability to
illnesses go to private health institutions
do any kind of work caused by spine or
and the remaining go to government
leg fracture etc. that occurred while in
institutions. Of all facilities in the country,
work).
pharmacy is attended by majority of sick
Overall incidence of chronic illness is 12 people (25 percent). Others facilities
percent. Of chronically ill people, 30 attended are sub-health post (13
percent reported gastrointestinal percent), hospital/public health center (14
problems, 15 percent rheumatism, 11 percent), health post (8 percent), private
percent H/L blood pressure, 10 percent hospital (5 percent) and others (7
asthma, 6 percent heart conditions, 5 percent).
percent diabetes, 3 percent respiratory
Health expenditures: On average, total
problems, and 1 percent reported
cost of the last consultation of acute
epilepsy. The proportion of asthma is
illness within last 30 days at a
higher among females (13 percent) than
government health facility is slightly
among males (9 percent).
higher than that at a private health
Acute illness: For the survey, acute institution: Rs. 1,167 at government
illness and injuries are defined as health institution and Rs. 1,010 at private
sickness (other than chronic illness) and institution. Disaggregating the total cost,
injuries within last 30 days at the time of except for the cost of medicine, other
enumeration. People are asked whether costs are lower in private institutions than
they were ill or not within last 30 days. in government facilities.
Four main sources of knowledge about In the last 15 years, the incidence of
HIV/AIDS as reported by the respondents chronic illness increased from 6 percent
are: radio (39 percent), textbooks (28 in 1995/96 to 12 percent in 2010/11.
percent), friends/relatives (13 percent), Incidence of acute illness, on the other,
television (11 percent), health workers (5 increased from 9 percent in 1995/96 to 20
percent), newspapers/pamphlets (4 percent in 2010/11. In all the three
percent), and other sources (1 percent). rounds, the majority of acute illness cases
are fever. The proportion of diarrhea
26
episodes in acute cases has decreased from NRs. 698 to NRs. 1167 (an increase
marginally during the same period. of 67 percent). The total nominal cost of
treatment in private health facilities
The proportion of "not consulted" in acute
increased from NRs. 662 to NRs. 1010
illnesses has decreased slightly over this
(an increase of 53 percent).
period. In the last 7 years (between
2003/04 and 2010/11), the total nominal The proportion of fully immunized children
cost of treatment of acute illness in has increased remarkably during the last
government health facilities increased 15 years.
27
2.6 Maternity and family Place of delivery and birth attendants :
Babies delivered in safe and clean
planning
environment can reduce the health risk of
(Table 2.6) mothers and children. Majority of birth
deliveries (67 percent) take place at
Fertility is one of the determinants of size homes, followed by 32 percent at
and structure of population in a country. It hospitals or primary health facilities. 58
is related to maternity, mother-child health percent of the total births are assisted by
and family planning. The maternity health "family members/neighbors", followed by
and family planning are interrelated, and "health practitioners" (33 percent), and
they together have an impact on the traditional birth attendant, TBA (7
quality of life. percent).
Children ever born: The number of Prenatal and postnatal care : Pre-natal
children ever born (or parity) affects the as well as post-natal care is important for
socio-economic condition of the people in the survival and well-being of both the
the country. The parity data indicates how mother and the child. Of all women giving
average family size varies across age live-birth (during the past 36 months) in
groups. Family size and poverty are the country, 78 percent receive some kind
positively associated. of pre-natal care. Of these, 84 percent of
pregnant women receive pre-natal care
Children ever born include all children
from government health facilities while the
born alive during the life time of the
remaining 16 percent receive from private
women concerned up to the survey date.
health facilities.
The measure becomes useful when the
age group of women considered is On the whole, about 20 percent of women
specified. who give live births receive postnatal
care. Of these, 78 percent visit
Overall, the mean number of the children
government health facility for postnatal
ever born per woman (45-49 years) is
estimated to be 4.2. care, the remaining 22 percent visit
private health facility.
Total fertility : Total fertility rate (TFR)
indicates number of children a woman is Knowledge and use of family planning:
Knowledge of family planning methods is
likely to have at the end of her production
a “precursor” to use of contraception.
period given the current age schedule of
About 83 percent of married woman (15-
fertility and if they are not subject to
49 years) know about at least one of the
mortality. It is expressed as children per
woman. family planning methods, 54 percent have
ever used it and 39 percent are currently
TFR for Nepal (calculated by indirect using some form of planning method.
method) is estimated at 3.4. The
corresponding figure obtained by direct Source of knowledge about family
method of estimation is 2.7. planning methods: Knowing source of
knowledge about family planning is
28
important for implementing an effective Reasons for not using family planning
family planning program. Among the methods: Knowledge of reasons why
different sources of knowledge about women are not using family planning
family planning, radio is the most methods is critical to designing effective
common medium of information. The programs for quality services. Among
majority of women, 32 percent, report current non-users of family planning
radio as the source of information about methods, major reasons reported are as
family planning methods, followed by follows: "husband away home" (32
friends/relatives (27 percent), health percent), followed by "want more
workers (18 percent), textbooks (8 children" (28 percent), “scared of side
percent), husband (7 percent), television effects" (16 percent), and "husband
(7 percent), and newspaper/poster (1 opposed” (3 percent) and “religious
percent). reasons" (2 percent).
29
Final decision making by women is the estimation) has declined from 5.1 to 3.4
highest on “household food purchases”. during the same period.
On the whole, about 28 percent of women
The proportion of the women (15-49
make sole decisions about food
years) who have knowledge of at least
purchases. Other household decisions on
one family planning method has
which more women have their final say
increased by some 23 percentage points
compared with their husbands are:
to 83 percent in 2010/11. On the other
“obtaining health care for self”, "obtaining
hand, the proportion of married couples
health care during pregnancy", "obtaining
using some form of family planning
health care for children", "how many
methods has increased from 15 to 39 in
children to have", “spending on major
the last 15 years. The proportion of
household items”, “choice of family
women receiving prenatal and postnatal
planning methods”, “which crops to grow”,
care has increased by 21 and 6
and “use of remittances received”.
percentage points respectively in the last
Comparative summary: The mean 7 years.
number of children ever born per 45-49
Women’s final say in household decision
year old woman has decreased from 5.3
making is more common to food
in 1995/96 to 4.2 in 2010/11 and total
purchases.
fertility rate (by indirect method of
30
2.7 Migration and absentees A person whose birth place is not same
as his/her current place of residence is
(Table 2.7) considered as a migrant in this survey.
Migration : Migration in general refers to For a person who migrated several times,
geographical or spatial mobility between only the last movement is considered.
"one geographical unit and another". It Internal migrants were asked whether
involves a change of place of residence they had moved from urban or rural areas
from the "place of origin" to the "place of to the present place of residence. In
destination". One who migrates is a NLSS 1995/96, only household heads
migrant. were asked about migration. However, in
the later two surveys all of the household
The unit of migration defined in this
members 5 years and older were asked
survey is village development committee
about migration.
(VDC) or municipality within the country.
31
Status of migrated population : Of the the country respectively. Slightly more
total population aged 5 years and above, than one third of the youth population
37 percent have migrated from other aged 15-29 years and about one fourth in
places (VDC, municipality or outside the the age group 30 – 34 years are away
country) to their current place of from home as compared to people in
residence. Migration rate for males and other age groups.
females is 21 and 50 percent
27 percent of the people 5 years and over
respectively.
are absent from home due to work related
Origin of migration : Origin of migration reasons, 21 percent for study, 20 percent
refers to the previous place of usual due to family reasons and the rest due to
residence from where the migrant has other reasons.
moved to the present place (destination).
Status of children away from home :
Overall, out of every 100 migrants in the
11 percent (including absentee abroad) of
country, 81 have come from rural areas, 7
children (0-14 years) are absent from
from urban areas and 12 from abroad.
home (13 percent are males and 9
Reason for migration : Among migrants, percent are females). Most of the children
a majority (79 percent) attributed the (59 percent) are absent due to “family
reason of migration to "family reasons" reasons” followed by “for study” (31
(including marriage and dependency). percent) and “for work” (less than one
This is followed by "easier life style" (7 percent).
percent), “education and training” (5
Comparative summary : The proportion
percent), and "looking for job" (4 percent).
of migrant population has not changed in
Absentee population : In this survey, an the last 7 years (between 2003/04 and
absentee is defined as an individual who 2010/11). In both of rounds, the rate of
is considered by the household as one of migration for females (about 50 percent)
its members but who is excluded from the is considerably higher than for males
survey’s definition of household (about 21 percent).
membership because of his/her
Movement from the urban areas has
prolonged absence (being away from the
slightly increased from 6 percent in
household for more than 6 months out of
2003/04 to 7 percent in 2010/11.
the last 12 months, or being expected to
Similarly, movements from abroad have
be away for more than 6 months). The
slightly increased from 12 percent to 13
definition covers absentees in both within
percent during the same period.
the country and abroad.
The proportion of migrants reporting
Status of absentee population : Almost
“family reasons” as the primary reason of
20 percent of the total population
their migration slightly increased from 75
(including absentees abroad) of all ages
percent in 2003/04 to 79 percent in
are absent or away from home. Out of the
2010/11. Similarly the reason of migration
total absentee population about 57 and
as “for education and training” slightly
43 percent are residing within and outside
32
increased from 3 to 5 percent. On the Proportion of people who migrated
other, the proportion of migrants reporting “looking for job” decreased from 7 percent
the reason as “for easier life style” to 4 percent.
decreased from 12 percent to 7 percent.
34
proportion of agricultural households About 33 percent of farmers use bins and
cultivating main paddy is 72 percent, containers for grain storage. Only one
wheat 57 percent, summer maize 64 percent of the farm households owns a
percent and millet 38 percent. Similarly, tractor or a power tiller. Similarly, one
27 percent of households cultivate percent of farmers own a thresher.
soybean, 31 percent lentil, 53 percent Around 7 percent of farmer households
winter-potato, 39 percent mustard, 36 own a pumping set.
percent onions, 41 percent garlic, 72
Livestock raising : Livestock constitutes
percent winter-vegetables and 69 percent
an integral part of Nepalese agriculture
cultivate summer-vegetables.
system; majority of agricultural
Improved seeds: Improved seeds are households keep livestock. Roughly two-
also known as “high-yielding varieties” or third of the agricultural households keeps
“high-response varieties”. Overall, only a cattle on their holding. 48 percent
small portion of farmers use improved households have buffalo, 65 percent have
seeds in cereal crops. On average, about goat or sheep, 54 percent have poultry
one-third of households growing winter and 12 percent agricultural households
potato use improved seeds followed by have piggeries.
summer vegetable growers (26 percent),
The average number of cattle, buffalo,
winter vegetable growers (16 percent),
goat, goat-sheep and poultry on the
main paddy growers (15 percent), wheat
holding are 1.8, 0.9, 2.8, 3.0 and 4.2
growers (13 percent), and summer maize
respectively.
growers (9 percent).
Comparative summary : Compared to
Chemical fertilizers : Chemical fertilizers
1995/96, the percentage of agricultural
are fertilizers prepared from inorganic
households having land has decreased in
materials manufactured through an
2010/11. Similarly, average size of
industrial process. The percentage of
agriculture land and number of the
growers using fertilizers is the highest for
parcels per holding has decreased in the
main paddy (70 percent). Other crop
last 15 years. The area of irrigated land,
growers using chemical fertilizers are:
on the other hand, has increased during
wheat (52 percent), summer maize (36
the same period.
percent), winter potato (31 percent),
summer vegetables (8 percent), and Average farm size in the country is
winter vegetables (4 percent). decreasing over the years. Between
1995/96 and 2010/11, the number of
Agricultural equipments: A large
households operating less than 0.5
majority of farmers still use locally made
hectares of land has increased by 13
agricultural tools. Mechanization of
percentage points. Number of holdings
agriculture in the country is at a very low
operating 2 ha or more has decreased
stage. About 52 percent of farmers own
from 13 percent in 1995/96 to 4 percent in
the most basic equipment - a plough or
2010/11. Average size of farm is
improved type of plough (bikase halo).
decreasing in the country, over the years.
35
The percentage of the households with vegetables have increased in the last 15
owned agricultural land has remained years.
almost same while the percentage of
The proportion of the winter vegetable
holders operating rented-in land only has
growers using chemical fertilizers has
slightly increased.
decreased in 2010/11, while the
In the last 15 years, the percentage of proportion has increased in other major
paddy, wheat, summer maize and millet crops.
growers have decreased. However, the
The proportion of households with
percent of farmers growing winter potato
livestock or poultry has decreased
and winter vegetables have increased.
between 1995/96 and 2010/11. Similarly
The percent of growers using improved the average number of head of livestock
seeds in paddy, wheat, maize, potato and per holding has gone down.
36
2.9 Consumption The richest ten percent of the population
consumes more than 9-fold of what the
(Table 2.9) poorest ten percent of the population
consumes. Further, bottom quintile
Consumption is one of the widely used
accounts for 8 percent of consumption
monetary indicators of well-being, the
while the top quintile accounts for more
other one being the income. Consumption
than 45 percent.
aggregates in brief are presented in the
following. Household consumption by expenditure
category - On average, 62 percent of
Total annual household consumption
household consumption is spent on food
(TC) is computed as the sum of the
expenditures in the country. Share of
following sub-aggregates, all of which are
housing consumption is 11 percent, that
in annual nominal household values:
of education is 5 percent and the rest is
Total consumption accounted for by other non-food items.
37
38
2.10 Income Nominal per capita annual income of the
poorest 10 percent of population is Rs.
(Table 2.10) 6,222, whereas that of the richest 10
percent is Rs. 164,401 (more than twenty-
Income, as defined in this survey,
six fold). In nominal terms, the bottom 80
measures the flow of resources in a
percent of the population earns 44
household in the past 12 months. It
percent of total income while the richest
intends to capture the flow of resources
twenty percent earns 56 percent of total
which enables the household to achieve
income.
its living standards.
Comparative summary: In nominal
The main components of this measure
terms, average household income grew
are: crop income, non-crop farm income,
by more than 363 percent from 1995/96
reported valuation of housing
to 2010/11 (Rs. 43,732 versus Rs.
consumption of own dwelling, income
202,374). During the same period, per
from wage employment, income from
capita income increased from Rs. 7,690
non-farm enterprises, income from
to Rs. 41,659 (an increase by 442
remittances, rental income and income
percent).
from other sources. Each component is
itself an aggregation over a number of The gap between the rich and the poor
possible revenues and costs. has further widened. During the last 15
years, nominal income of the poorest 10
Level, source and distribution of
percent increased by 375 percent while
income: Nominal mean and median
that for the richest 10 percent of
annual household incomes for the country
population is 512 percent.
in 2010/11 are Rs. 202,374 and Rs.
127,281 respectively. Nominal mean and Another significant change in the past 15
median per capita incomes are Rs. years is the composition of income
41,659 and Rs. 25,093 respectively. sources: the share of farm income in total
income has declined from 61 percent to
Overall, share of nonfarm income in all
28 percent while that of non-farm income
household income is 37 percent, and
increased from 22 to 37 percent and that
farm income is 28 percent, share of
of other sources including remittances
remittances is 17 percent and share of
has increased from 16 to 35 percent.
own production consumption is 16
percent.
39
40
2.11 Employment status unemployment rate is 2.2 percent.
Participation rate among males is higher
(Table 2.11) than that for females, and so is the
unemployment rate.
Activity status refers to whether a person
(aged 5 years and above) is economically Underemployment : Underemployment
active or not active. There are two ways refers to visible underemployment, where
to measure a person’s activity status – a person may have jobs but suffers from
currently active and usually active. The partial lack of work. A person is
concept of “currently active” or “labour underemployed if he or she would like to
force” is used to measure activity status in work longer hours, but is prevented from
relation to a reference period of one doing so for economic reasons. In the
week, while the concept of “usually past seven days, 32 percent of employed
active” is used to measure a person’s workers worked for less than 20 hours,
activity status over a period of 12 months. and 22 percent persons worked for only
20-39 hours.
A person is defined as “currently
employed” if he or she is either employed Main sector of employment : The sector
for at least one hour during the previous with majority of working hours in the past
seven days, or has a job attachment (if seven days is considered to be the main
temporarily absent from work), or is sector. When hours are equally divided
available to work (if work could be found). between two or more sectors, his/her
On the other hand, a person is “currently main activity in the past 12 months is
unemployed” if he or she did not work considered to be the main sector.
during the last seven days but was
looking for work, was waiting to hear from Share of wage in agriculture sector is 3
a perspective employer or to start a new percent while the share of non-agriculture
job or could not find work or did not know wage is 13 percent. Self-employment in
how to look for work. Others who did not agriculture takes 61 percent of employed
work in the past seven days or did not persons while the non-agriculture
look for work for reasons other than listed accounts for 13 percent. Remaining 11
above are classified as “currently percent goes to extended economic work
inactive”. The labour force comprises all sector.
those who are currently employed or
Incidence of child labour (5-14 years
unemployed.
old): According to the NLSS III, 52
Activity and unemployment rates: percent of children are attending school
Overall, 78 percent of 10 years and older but not working, 38 percent are attending
individuals are currently employed 2 school and working, 4 percent are
percent unemployed and remaining 20 working only, and the remaining 5 percent
percent are economically inactive. are idle. The proportion of children who
are working only is higher for 10-14 year
Labor force participation rate for 10 years olds and for females.
and above is 80 percent while the
41
Approximately, 72 percent of children During the last 15 years, overall
work less than 20 hours a week while 20 unemployment rate has decreased from
percent work for 20-39 hours, and 8 4.9 percent in 1995/96 to 2.2 percent in
percent of them work for 40 and more 2010/11. Unemployment rate among 15-
hours per week. Share of children 24 year olds has decreased from 7
working for more than 40 hours per week percent to about 4 percent. The rate for
is higher for 10-14 year olds and for those among 10-14 year olds have
females. significantly dropped from 8 percent to
about one percent during the same
Distribution of main sector of child
period.
employment shows that 74 percent of
children are in agriculture self- The proportions of employed persons
employment sector. Extended economic working 20-39 hours and those working
work employs 20 percent of working 40 hours and more have decreased over
children while wage employment and self the last fifteen years while the proportion
employment in non-agriculture sector employed working less than 20 hours per
have one and 4 percent share week has increased.
respectively.
Distribution of main sector of employment
Comparative summary: Proportion of indicates that the share of agriculture,
currently employed has increased from both in wage and self employment has
67 percent in 1995/96 to 78 percent in decreased from 1995/96 to 2010/11 while
2010/11. Share of unemployed has self employment in non-agriculture sector
decreased slightly from some 3 percent to has not changed much. Share of
2 percent during the same period. And extended economic work has increased
the population classified as inactive has slightly from 9 percent in 2003/04 to 11
decreased by some 10 percentage points percent in 2010/11.
in the same period. Labor force
participation rate has increased while
unemployment rate has decreased.
42
2.12 Wage employment Wage employment by main sector:
Agriculture and non-agriculture are the
(Table 2.12) two main sectors of wage employment.
Agriculture constitutes 35 percent of the
In wage employment job, an employee
wage employment. There is a large
receives wages and salaries for the time
gender gap in the employment by the
worked. The remuneration may be in
main sector: 76 percent of male wage
cash or in kind (such as payment in food)
earners are in non-agriculture while only
or in both. Wage employment jobs are
45 percent of female wage earners are in
those which provide remuneration not
this sector.
directly dependent on the revenue of the
unit for which the person works.
43
Non-agriculture wage employment by gender differences in daily wages. The
industry: Construction (37 percent), difference is higher in non-agriculture
personal services (25 percent) and sector compared with the agriculture
manufacturing (17 percent) are the three sector.
main industries that take up wage
Comparative summary : In the last 15
employment in non-agriculture in the
years, there have been remarkable
country. Transport and trade come next.
changes in wage employment by sector.
By gender, most males are in
Share of wage earners in agriculture
construction (40 percent) while most
sector has decreased from 53 percent in
females are in personal services (42
1995/96 to 35 percent in 2010/11 while
percent).
share in non-agriculture has increased
Basis of wage payment: Mode of from 47 percent to 65 percent during the
payment to employees may be on a daily same period.
basis or on a longer term basis or on a
Among non-agriculture industries, there is
lump sum contract basis. The
concentration of wage earners in
overwhelming majority of wage workers in
manufacturing, construction and personal
agriculture sector receive their wages on
service in all the rounds of the survey.
a daily basis. 97 percent of wage workers
The share of construction in 2010/11 has
in agriculture sector are paid on a daily
increased relative to 1995/96 while that of
basis. Non-agriculture sector, however,
manufacturing has decreased.
shows a different story. One half of its
workers are paid on a daily basis. While In the last 15 years, the mode of payment
slightly larger share of female workers are to wage earners in agriculture sector has
paid on a daily basis in agriculture sector, remained almost the same, while percent
slightly smaller share of females seem to of wage payees on daily basis in non-
be paid on a daily basis in non- agriculture has gone down by some 15
agriculture. percentage points.
Daily wage rates: Overall, average Average nominal daily wage has
nominal daily wages in agriculture are Rs. increased by 323 percent in agriculture
170 in total, Rs 117 in cash and Rs. 65 in- and by 255 percent in non-agriculture
kind. Non-agriculture average daily wages sector in the past 15 years. The rate of
are Rs 263 in total, Rs 219 in cash and increase for male workers is higher than
Rs 91 in-kind. There are noticeable that for females in both sectors.
44
2.13 Nonfarm economic activities non-farm activities. Distribution of
enterprises by industry type is as follows:
(Table 2.13) 36 percent in trade, 35 percent in
manufacturing, 17 percent in services and
Here, non-farm economic activities of
the remaining 12 percent in other types of
households are covered. A household is
industries.
said to be operating a non-farm enterprise
if any member of that household reports Ownership, registration and hired
to be “self-employed in a non-agricultural labour: The majority of enterprises (95
activity”. percent) are owned by individual
households. Roughly one-fifth of
Non-farm enterprises and their
enterprises have formal registration. 17
distribution by industry : 35 percent of
percent of enterprises employ hired labor
sample households have some kind of
45
in their non-farm economic activities. One Ownership of the enterprises slightly
third of all enterprises employ just a single decreased during the last 15 years. The
hired worker, while one half of them proportion of households operating
employ 2-9 workers and 17 percent registered nonfarm enterprises, on the
employ 10 or more workers. other hand, increased from 12 to 20
percent.
Revenues and expenditures: Mean net
revenues in nominal terms is estimated at In nominal terms, per enterprise gross -
Rs. 127,003 and mean expenditure on revenues and expenditures have
wages is estimated at Rs. 31,573 and on increased more than four times in the last
capital expenditure is Rs. 16,852. 15 years while net revenues have
increased more than 5 times during the
Duration of operation: More than three-
same period.
fourths of enterprises are 3 years or older
in the country. Months of operation The proportion of enterprises operating
indicates seasonality of enterprises. On for less than one year slightly increased,
the whole, 69 percent of enterprises that of those operating 3-5 years
operate for 10-12 months. About one- decreased from 26 to 19 percent, and
tenth of them operate for 3 months or proportion operating for more than 5
less. years increased from 50 to 53 percent
during the same period.
Comparative summary: Between
1995/96 and 2010/11, the proportion of Share of enterprises operating for more
households operating non-farm than 9 months in one year increased from
enterprises has increased from 24 to 35 54 percent in 1995/96 to 69 percent in
percent. 2010/11. The share of enterprises
operating for less than 3 months in a
During the last 15 years, the proportion of
year, on the other hand, decreased from
manufacturing enterprises has increased
16 percent to 11 percent during the same
from 30 to 35 percent, services
period.
enterprises from 14 to 17 percent. The
proportion of trade enterprises, however,
has decreased from 52 percent in
1995/96 to 36 percent in 2010/11.
46
2.14 Remittances and remittances (58 percent) come from
within the country, and 19 percent from
transfer income
India and 23 percent from other countries.
(Table 2.14)
Size of remittance by source:
Remittance in the survey is defined as a According to NLSS-III, the total amount of
transfer in cash or kind sent or received remittance in the country is estimated at
by the household over the last 12 months Rs 259 billion in nominal terms. Internal
preceding the interview. Remittances flow source accounts for 20 percent of this
in and out of the country. All incomes amount. Saudi Arabia and Qatar together
transferred from a single source account for 26 percent, Malaysia 8
(individual/household) are counted as one percent, India 11 percent, and the
remittance. remaining is accounted by other
countries.
Remittances received by households :
The proportion of households that receive Means of transferring remittance : Of
remittances are 56 percent in Nepal. The the total remittances, 77 percent of
average income transfer in the form of remittances are transferred by person, 19
remittance is Rs 80,436 (in nominal percent via financial institution and 2
terms) per recipient household. Per capita percent via Hundi and 2 percent from
nominal remittance of whole population other means.
stands at NRs. 9,245.
Remittance share in income: A
Number of remittance by source: significant proportion of household
Remittances flow from internal and income comes from remittances earnings
external sources. A majority of
47
in Nepal. Total share of remittances in the increased from 23 percent in 1995/96 to
household income is about 31 percent. about 56 percent in 2010/11 and the
share of remittances in income received
Use of remittance received : 79 percent
by households increased from about 27
of the total remittance received by the
percent to about 31 percent during the
household is used for daily consumption
same period. However, the share of
while 7 percent is used for loans
remittances received from India has
repayment. Other uses are – household
decreased significantly by 22 percentage
property and education (4 percent each),
points indicating an increase in percent of
and capital formation (2 percent).
other countries.
Comparative summary: Percent of
households receiving remittance has
48
Years of borrowing: More than 70 Due to the prevailing social structure in
percent of all loans are borrowed within the country, there is a gender gap in
one year preceding the survey date. 21 household decision making. In NLSS-III,
percent of loans are borrowed one year the subjective judgment of male
ago and the remaining from earlier years. respondents is gathered regarding their
degree of participation in daily household
Purpose of loan: The purposes of taking
decision making. There are 15 specified
loans are categorized as: business and
topics for which status of decision making
farm use, household consumption and
is sought.
other personal use. Overall, 43 percent of
total loans are borrowed for personal Percent of respondent involved in the final
uses, 31 percent for household decision regarding “self health care” (35
consumption and 26 percent for business percent) followed by “taking loans” (30
or farm use. percent) and “use of loans” (27 percent).
Proportion of men’s sole involvement in
Collateral for loan : Loans can be issued
the final decision making is the lowest
either with or without any collateral.
regarding the decision on “desired
Collateral is defined as “assets pledged
number of children” and on “obtaining
as security for a loan of money”.
women’s personal health care”.
Collateral is also used to cover
“guarantee provided for the purchase of Comparative summary: The percentage
goods and services’. of the households having total and
outstanding loans both have increased by
80 percent of all household loans in the
roughly 4 percentage points each in
country are borrowed without collateral
2010/11 compared to 1995/96.
and 20 percent with collateral.
Interestingly, 51 percent of loans By source of loans, the percentage taking
borrowed from banks/financial institutions loans from banks/financial institutions has
are without collaterals. increased from 16 percent to 20 percent,
and that of from moneylenders have
Average amount of loan : The average
decreased from about 40 percent to
amount “per loan” is Rs. 105,939,
about 15 percent; instead, such
average “per household with positive
percentage increased from 41 percent to
amount” is Rs. 165,919 and “per capita”
51 percent with respect to
amount for all population is Rs. 22,240 in
relatives/friends/neighbors.
nominal terms.
While by purpose of loans, share of
Household decisions: This part is
business or farm work and that of
related to the role of male household
household consumption have decreased
head or spouse of female household
from 29 to 26 percent and from 49 to 31
head in decision making about specific
percent respectively, share of loans for
aspects of family life.
other personal uses has increased 22
percent to 43 percent during the same
period of 15 years.
49
The proportion of loans received without Per capita nominal borrowing has
collateral has slightly increased in the last increased by some 208 percent in the last
15 years from 75 percent in 1995/96 to 80 7 years (between 2003/04 and 2010/11)
percent in 2010/11. The proportion of loan
with land/house collateral, on the other
hand, has decreased from 17 percent to
12 percent during the same period.
.
50
Clothing : In the country, 17 percent of last 30 days previous to the date of
households perceive their clothing for enumeration”.
their household members to be
About 8 percent of the households
inadequate while 82 percent perceive it
reported that they could not afford to eat
as just adequate.
what they normally eat at any time during
Health care : Overall, 18 percent of the past 30 days from the day of
households perceive their health care to enumeration. Average number of days
be less than adequate while 79 percent of during which the households experienced
them report that it is just adequate. food shortages (over the last 30 days
from the date of interview) is 6 days.
Schooling : 16 percent of households in
the country report that schooling for their Steps taken to alleviate food shortage:
children is less than adequate, 70 percent The households facing food scarcity were
report to be just adequate, 1 percent think asked to report as many of the given
more than adequate and 13 percent say it coping strategies as they have adopted
is “not applicable” for them (i.e., they don’t during such periods. During the period of
have school-age children). food shortages, households are “forced to
adopt coping strategies such as skipping
Income : About a half of households
meals, eating less for each meal, or
indicate that their income is less than
eating cheaper food, etc.” Most of the
adequate and about the same proportion
households that experienced food
says it is just adequate. Incidence of
shortages tried to overcome the situation
income inadequacy is much higher than
by resorting to "borrowing the food or
any of the consumption items, implying
money" (68 percent). About 51 percent
the tendency of respondents to be less
relied on less expensive or less preferred
content with their income than with their
foods, 57 percent purchased food on
consumption.
credit, 42 percent cut their sizes of meals,
Household food security: Here, and 33 percent reduced the frequency of
household food security refers to the meals in a day.
situation where all members of the
Comparative summary: The percentage
household have enough food or enough
of the households reporting "less than
resources to buy food.
adequate" food consumption, housing,
NLSS-III for the first time sought clothing, health care, schooling and total
information on “whether household income has decreased in 2010/11
members could not afford to eat what compared to 1995/96 while that reporting
they normally eat at any time during the “just adequate” has increased in all
cases.
51
2.17 Government facilities Drinking water : Overall, 20 percent of
households say drinking water facility is
(Table 2.17) “good”, while 55 percent report “fair” and
the remaining 24 percent say it is “bad”.
In the NLSS-III, households using
government facilities (such as education, Electricity: Electricity is the most
health, electricity, drinking water, road, inadequate facility as perceived by
telephone and post offices) are asked to households. The proportions of user
rate them as "good" or "fair" or "bad". households reporting government
The ratings are based on subjective supplied electricity facility as "good", "fair"
judgment of respondents. and "bad" are 13, 46 and 41 percents
respectively.
Health : Overall, only 12 percent of
households who use government health Road : Overall, 12 percent of households
facility rate the facility to be “good”, 71 say drinking water facility is “good”, while
percent report "fair" and 17 percent deem 55 percent say “fair” and the remaining 33
it is "bad". In other words, 17 percent of percent say “bad”.
government health facility users rate the
government services as poor. Post office: Among the user households,
6 percent rate the post office facility as
Education: 73 percent of user "good", 83 percent rate as "fair" and 11
households think that government-run percent rate as "bad".
education facility to be "fair". The facility is
“bad” for 11 percent of these households Telephone: 9 percent of user households
and it is “good” for 16 percent of user say that government provided telephone
households. facility is “bad”, while 18 percent think it is
“good”.
52
Comparative summary : According to facilities "fair" is highest in the post office
NLSS-III, a majority of the households (83 percent each). Among the
perceive almost all government facilities households self reporting facilities as
as "fair". The percent of the households “bad”, the highest percent is for electricity
reporting good and bad is reverse. (42 percent). Respondents are more
Among the households self reporting dissatisfied compared with the last 7
facilities as “good”, the highest percent is years from 2003/04 with the two facilities
for drinking water (20 percent), while the – electricity (18 versus 42 percent), and
proportion of households reporting the drinking water (23 versus 25 percent).
54
2.19 Panel households their place of residence. Whereabouts of
the remaining 44 percent is unknown.
The panel sample of the NLSS-III is
composed of all households visited by the Amongst the migrated households, 93
NLSS-II in 100 of its primary sampling percent had moved within the country and
units (PSUs). Fifty of them were taken 7 percent to other countries.
from the cross-sectional component of the
Among the panel households that were
NLSS-II, and the remaining fifty from its
tracked and enumerated, the household
panel component. In other words one half
composition has changed over the years.
of the NLSS-III panel households are the
33 percent of the previous household
households visited for the first time by the
members are no more members of the
NLSS-II, whereas the other half of the
present households (i.e. the panel
households are the households visited by
households tracked and enumerated in
both the NLSS-I and the NLSS-II.
the NLSS-III). The reported reasons for
The information collected include the this are: death (12 percent), household
tracking of households visited in the split into two or more households (25
1995/96 survey (NLSS-I) and 2003/04 percent), moved away from home in
survey (NLSS-II); household composition search of work (25 percent), moved away
in those two surveys; and a comparison due to marriage (20 percent), moved
between the current and the then away from home to study (11 percent),
household members. and other unknown reasons (7 percent)
56
Table 2.2: Summary statistics of housing characteristics, 1995/96 - 2010/11
57
Nepal Living Standards Survey
Description 1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Percentage of households using fuel (for cooking)
Wood 67.7 69.1 64.4
Cow dung/leaves/branches 25.8 15.7 13.6
LPG 1.0 8.2 17.7
Kerosene 4.6 4.7 0.5
Other fuels 0.8 2.3 3.8
Percent of households using firewood 76.7 83.7 83.7
Percent of firewood user households collecting 84.3 87.8 76.9
firewood
58
Table 2.3: Summary statistics of access to facilities, 1995/96 - 2010/11
59
Table 2.4: Summary statistics of literacy and education, 1995/96 – 2010/11
Percent of population (6-24 22.3 49.8 36.3 11.9 30.1 21.2 4.8 12.0 8.7
years) who have never
attended school
Reason for not attending any school (percentage of population 6-24 years who have never attended
school)
Too expensive 25.0 17.6 19.8 26.6 16.5 19.3 6.8 7.5 7.3
Too far 3.8 4.0 3.9 3.5 2.4 2.7 3.7 2.8 3.1
Help needed at home 19.0 21.4 20.7 15.1 22.2 20.3 13.5 29.6 25.5
Parents did not want 16.8 35.5 29.9 17.8 38.4 32.8 14.5 35.3 30.0
Not willing to attend 16.9 7.9 10.6 19.4 10.5 12.9 30.5 12.7 17.2
Disable - - - - - - 8.3 1.7 3.4
Too young - - - - - - 13.7 4.9 7.2
Other reasons 18.6 13.6 15.1 17.7 9.9 12.1 9.1 5.4 6.4
Percent of population 15 50.2 19.1 33.9 61.2 32.6 45.8 69.6 42.9 54.6
years and above who ever
attended school
Mean years of schooling 7.1 6.8 7.0 7.6 7.4 7.5 8.2 8.0 8.1
60
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Description
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
Reason for leaving school (who attended school in the past), (percentage)
61
Table 2.5: Summary statistics of health services and HIV/AIDS, 1995/96 - 2010/11
Percent of population reporting 5.9 7.0 6.5 5.4 5.4 5.4 9.9 13.3 11.7
chronic illness
Percentage of chronic illness type
Heart conditions - - - 7.3 11.8 9.6 5.0 5.8 5.5
Respiratory - - - 8.4 6.0 7.2 3.8 2.3 2.9
Asthma - - - 24.5 21.9 23.1 12.7 8.7 10.3
Epilepsy - - - 3.1 3.5 3.3 1.4 1.2 1.3
Cancer - - - 0.6 1.3 1.0 0 0.3 0.2
Diabetes - - - 6.6 4.6 5.6 6.5 3.5 4.7
Kidney/liver problem - - - 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.1 1.0 1.4
Rheumatism - - - - - - 13.0 15.9 14.8
Gynecological problems - - - - - - - 7.4 4.5
Occupational illness - - - 2.9 1.2 2.0 0.8 0.2 0.5
H/l blood pressure - - - 12.6 11.9 12.2 11.0 10.6 10.8
Gastrointestinal problems - - - - - - 28.6 30.1 29.5
Other illness - - - 31.2 35.0 33.1 15.0 12.9 13.7
Percent of population reporting - - 9.0 12.8 13.2 13.0 20.2 20.2 20.2
acute illness
Percentage of acute illness type
Diarrhea 16.6 17.4 17.0 13.1 9.9 11.4 15.2 15.8 15.5
Dysentery 1.8 1.7 1.7
Respiratory 4.7 5.6 5.2 8.9 6.5 7.7 2.7 2.1 2.4
Malaria 1.7 0.9 1.3
Cold/fever 31.0 30.1 30.5
45.5 42.1 43.7 42.9 39.7 41.2
Other fever 24.1 23.1 23.5
Skin disease 27.3 32.0 29.7 - - - 1.8 2.2 2.0
Physical injury 6.0 2.9 4.4 5.9 3.8 4.8 6.1 3.8 4.9
Other illness - - - 29.1 40.1 34.9 15.5 20.4 18.1
62
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Description
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
Consultation to health practitioner by type of health practitioner (percentage)
Doctor 35.6 34.0 34.8 26.0 26.1 26.0 23.9 25.0 24.5
Paramedic 26.7 23.5 25.0 36.9 35.5 36.1 28.5 27.4 27.9
Kaviraj/Baidya 1.1 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.4 0.3
Pharmacist - - - - - - 16.7 14.4 15.5
Traditional healer 4.5 7.0 5.8 3.3 2.8 3.1 1.1 1.3 1.2
Not consulted 33.2 35.6 34.4 32.7 35.0 33.9 29.5 31.5 30.6
Percent of population (10 years - - - 64.9 51.1 57.6 64.9 54.2 58.9
and above) who have heard of
HIV/AIDS
63
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Description
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
Avoid sex with the person
- - - - - - 16.0 15.4 15.7
having many sex partners
Avoid sex with drug users - - - - - - 13.4 10.6 12.0
Avoid blood transfusion - - - - - - 26.4 25.4 25.9
Avoid use of needles (injection) - - - - - - 27.7 26.1 26.9
Avoid use of blade - - - - - - 14.5 13.6 14.0
Other measures - - - - - - 10.4 10.7 10.6
Do not know - - - - - - 15.5 21.3 18.4
Expenditure on treatment during the last consultation in government health facility (NRs.)
Diagnostic cost - - - 83 114 99 230 379 312
Medicine cost - - - 547 530 538 655 776 722
Travel cost - - - 70 54 61 134 132 133
Total cost - - - 699 697 698 1,019 1,286 1,167
Expenditure on treatment during the last consultation in private health facility (NRs.)
Diagnostic cost - - - 114 157 136 212 172 191
Medicine cost - - - 441 488 465 811 690 748
Travel cost - - - 64 59 62 72 69 70
Total cost - - - 619 704 662 1,095 931 1,010
64
Table 2.6: Summary statistics of maternity and family planning, 1995/96 - 2010/11
Average number of children ever born to women (45 -49 5.3 4.8 4.2
years)
Total fertility rate 5.1 3.6 3.4
Place of birth delivery (percentage)
Home - 84.0 67.1
Primary health facility - 1.5 5.7
Government hospital/Private hospital - 13.9 25.9
Other places - 0.6 1.3
Prenatal care
Percent of pregnant woman receiving prenatal checkup - 57.1 78.1
Percent of pregnant woman receiving prenatal checkup -
at government health facility 86.0 84.2
Percent of pregnant woman receiving prenatal checkup -
at private health facility 14.0 15.8
Percent of couples who have ever used family planning 20.4 45.9 54.1
methods
Percent of couples who are currently using family 14.8 38.3 39.1
planning methods
65
Nepal Living Standards
Description Survey
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Source of getting family planning methods (percentage)
Public health facility - 60.3 47.4
Private health facility - 6.4 10.5
Pharmacy - 8.9 31.1
Voluntary sterilization camp - 19.4
Health workers - 3.6 9.9
Other sources - 1.5 1.1
66
Table 2.7: Summary statistics of migration and absentees, 2003/04 - 2010/11
67
Table 2.8: Summary statistics of agriculture, 1995/96 - 2010/11
68
Nepal Living Standards Survey
Description
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Summer vegetables 35.6 60.8 68.8
Winter vegetables - 62.7 72.1
Onions - 26.9 35.6
Garlic - 34.5 41.3
Soy bean - 24.3 27.3
Lentil - 32.1 30.8
69
Table 2.9: Summary statistics of consumption expenditure, 1995/96 - 2010/11
70
Table 2.10: Summary statistics of household income, 1995/96 - 2010/11
71
Table 2.11: Summary statistics of employment status of population, 1995/96-
2010/11
Participation rate 75.2 66.4 70.6 80.4 74.4 77.2 80.9 79.4 80.1
Unemployment rate 5.6 4.1 4.9 3.9 3.6 3.8 3.2 1.5 2.2
Unemployment rate by age group
10 – 14 years - - 7.9 2.4 4.4 3.4 1.7 0.7 1.1
15 – 24 years - - 7.3 6.7 5.5 6.0 5.2 2.4 3.6
25 – 44 years - - 4.0 3.9 3.4 3.6 4.1 1.6 2.6
45 years and above - - 2.4 2.2 1.4 1.8 1.6 0.9 1.3
All - - 4.9 3.9 3.6 3.8 3.2 1.5 2.2
72
Table 2.12: Summary statistics of wage employment, 1995/96 - 2010/11
73
Table 2.13: Summary statistics of non-farm economic activities, 1995/96 - 2010/11
Percentage of enterprises
Manufacturing 29.9 30.8 35.4
Trade 52.1 31.7 36.1
Services 14.3 29.2 16.6
Others 3.7 8.4 11.7
74
Table 2.14: Summary statistics of remittances and transfer income, 1995/96 –
2010/11
Means of transfer
Financial institution - 6.0 18.9
Hundi - 1.9 2.5
Person - 78.4 76.6
Other - 13.8 2.0
75
Table 2.15: Summary statistics of household loans, 1995/96 - 2010/11
76
Nepal Living Standards Survey
Description
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Average amount of loan borrowed (NRs.) - 33,891 105,939
Percent of household head or spouse of female household head who takes the final
decision regarding
Up to what grade sending children to school/ - - 23.7
collage
In which school/collage the children send - - 22.0
Accessing health care for self - - 34.6
Accessing health care during pregnancy - - 9.9
How many children to have - - 8.9
Which contraceptive method use - - 11.3
Accessing health care for children - - 16.1
Spending on food - - 17.3
Spending on major household items - - 20.7
Selling household assets - - 25.0
Which crops to grow - - 18.7
To take loans - - 29.8
How to use loans - - 26.6
To migrate for employ - - 19.8
How to use remittance - - 19.4
77
Table 2.16: Summary statistics of adequacy of consumption, 1995/96 - 2010/11
78
Nepal Living Standards Survey
Description
1995/96 2003/04 2010/11
Percentage of households reporting total
income by degree of adequacy
Less than adequate 72.6 67.0 48.6
Just adequate 26.4 32.0 49.6
More than adequate 0.8 1.0 1.4
Not applicable 0.3 0.1 0.5
79
Table 2.17: Summary statistics of government facilities, 2003/04 - 2010/11
Nepal Living
Standards Survey
Description
2003/04 2010/11
Perception on government health facilities (percentage of households reporting)
Good 13.9 12.2
Fair 64.2 71.0
Bad 22.0 16.8
80
Table 2.18: Summary statistics of nutritional status of children, 2010/11
Weight-for-height (Wasting)
Percent of wasted children 14.1 13.3 13.7
Percent of severely wasted children 3.7 2.7 3.2
Weight-for-age (Underweight)
Percent of underweight children 29.6 32.7 31.1
Percent of severely underweight children 6.6 8.9 7.7
81
REFERENCES
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 1987. Population Monograph of Nepal. Kathmandu,
Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics.
CBS. 1996. Nepal Living Standards Survey Report 1996: Main Findings, Volume One.
Kathmandu, Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics.
CBS. 1996. Nepal Living Standards Survey Report 1996: Main Findings, Volume Two.
Kathmandu, Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics.
CBS. 1999. Report on the Nepal Labour Force Survey, 1998/99. Kathmandu, Nepal:
Central Bureau of Statistics.
CBS. 2004. Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2003/04: Statistical Report, Volume One.
Kathmandu, Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics.
CBS. 2004. Nepal Living Standards Survey, 2003/04: Statistical Report, Volume Two.
Kathmandu, Nepal: Central Bureau of Statistics.
CBS. 2009. Report on the Nepal Labour Force Survey, 2008. Kathmandu, Nepal:
Central Bureau of Statistics.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 2005. A System of
Integrated Agricultural Censuses and Surveys, Volume 1, World Programme for the
Census of Agriculture, 2010/11, FAO Statistical Development Series, 11. Rome: Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Ministry of Health and Population (MOHP), New ERA, and Macro International Inc.,
2007. Nepal Demographic Health Survey 2006. Kathmandu, Nepal: Ministry of Health
and Population, New ERA, and Macro International Inc.
United Nations. 2008. Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing
Censuses, Revision 2, Statistical Papers, Series M No. 67/Rev. 2 (ST/ESA/STAT/SER
M/67/Rev.2). New York: Statistics Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
United Nations.
82
ANNEXES
Table A1: An overview of household questionnaires of NLSS, 1995/96 - 2010/11
83
Table A2: Household questionnaire of the 2010/11 Nepal Living Standards Survey
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
Cover Household ID, name and address of the household head, GPS coordinates of the
page location, and certification of enumerator and supervisor.
Section 0 Survey information
Enumeration details (date of interview and replacement details and certification of
supervisor); household information; data entry details (date of data entry and
certification by supervisor).
Section 1 Household roster
Demographic characteristics (including name, sex, age, relationship to the
household head, birth place, marital status for persons aged 10 years or over, and
caste/ethnicity), and identification of household members, and parents of
household members (whether living in the same household and educational
status).
Section 2 Housing
Type of dwelling occupied by the household, housing expenses, utilities and
amenities and use of iodized salt in the household.
Section 3 Access to facilities
Distance to the various (24) public facilities and services, mode of transport and
travel time required to reach the facility.
Section 4 Migration (for all household members aged 5 years and over)
First time in migration to the place of enumeration, out migration over the past five
years.
Section 5 Food expenses and home production (during past 12 months and past 7 days)
Consumption of foods (over a typical month)- home production, food purchased
and food received in kind, and consumption of foods (during past 7 days from the
day of enumeration)- home production, food purchased and food received in kind.
Section 6 Non food expenditure and inventory of durable goods (over a period of 12
months)
Expenditure of frequent non food items and infrequent non food items, inventory of
durable goods, and own account production of goods).
Section 7 Education (for all members aged 3 years and over)
Literacy status, level of education, past enrollment and current enrollment.
Section 8 Health
Disability and chronic illness (for all members), illness and injuries during past 30
days, not able to work due to illness (for members aged 5 years and over),
knowledge of HIV/AIDS, immunization of children.
Section 9 Marriage and maternity history
Maternity history (for all ever married women aged 15-49 years who have given
live birth), pre and post natal care (for all women with a child aged 3 years or less),
family planning (for all currently married women aged 15-49 years), and household
decision (for spouse of the male household head or female household head).
Section 10 Jobs and time use
Time use (for all household members aged 5 years or older) – total number of
hours spent during the past seven days in economic activities, extended economic
(home based) activities and non-work activities (household chores); and jobs
during the past 12 months, the past 7 days and sector of employment (for all
household members aged 5 years and older).
84
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
Section 11 Unemployment and under employment
Unemployment i.e., not working; underemployment i.e., working less than 40
hours per week (for all household members aged 5 years or over).
Section 12 Wage jobs
Wage employment in agriculture and outside agriculture wage paid daily, long term
or contract basis (for all household members aged 5 years or over).
Section 13 Farming and livestock
Land holding and farming activities (land owned, land
sharecropped/rented/mortgaged-in, increase/decrease in holding area), production
and use of crops, expenditure on agricultural input (including seeds/seedlings,
fertilizers, pesticides, and hired labour), earnings/expenditure of farming, inventory
of livestock on holding, earnings/expenditure of livestock, ownership of farming
assets and access to extension services.
Section 14 Non-agricultural enterprises/activities
Self employed in non-agricultural enterprise and activities by type and operation of
enterprises, and income and expenditure of the enterprises.
Section 15 Credit and savings
Borrowing and outstanding loans (borrower, source, amount, period and
collateral); lending and outstanding loans (borrower, source, amount, period and
collateral); other assets (land, property and other fixed assets); and household
decisions (for male household head or spouse of the male household head).
Section 16 Absentees information
Demographic characteristics of the absentee, main reason of leaving home;
employment and remittances received from absentees (sector of absentee’s
employment, medium of remittances, total amount and use of remittances
received).
Section 17 Other remittances
Remittances and transfer-income sent (demographic characteristics of the
recipient, work activity of the recipient, total amount sent and medium of transfer);
remittances and transfer-income received (demographic characteristics of the
donor, work activity of the donor, total amount received, main use of remittances
received and medium of transfer).
Section 18 Transfers, social assistance and other income
Amount received under different social assistance programmes (amount expected
and amount actually received under the programmes), benefits in-kind, benefits
from public work activities, and income from all other sources not covered
elsewhere in the questionnaire.
Section 19 Adequacy of consumption and government facilities
Household’s perception on their standards of living and the standards of
government facilities/services that the household is using; household food security
and steps taken to alleviate food shortage.
Section 20 Anthropometrics and breastfeeding practices
Exact age of the child, measurement of height and weight of children of age 59
months or less, exclusive breast feeding (for child of age less than 6 months), and
duration of breastfeeding.
Section 21 Panel sample household tracking
Household composition in 1995/96 or 2003/04, present household composition,
reason of changes in the household composition, current status (not the household
member).
85
Table A3: Community questionnaires of the 2010/11 Nepal Living Standards
Survey
86
Table A4: Major additions and modifications to the household questionnaire
(Compared with the NLSS-II )
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
Cover page New question on GPS coordinates - the latitude and longitude of the enumerated
household.
Information on household’s identification expanded to include telephone number
of the household head/member.
Section 0 Modifications of several question wordings and formatting.
Section 1 Answer categories of question on marital status expanded to include remarriage
and married- multiple spouse.
Question on birth places of parents dropped.
Questions on work activities and employment/underemployment dropped. These
information included in detail in section 10 (jobs and time use) and section 11
(unemployment and underemployment).
Section 2 Question on main flooring material dropped.
Questions added on: main material of the foundation of the building, hours of
drinking water supply, and hours of electricity load shedding.
New Part D: Iodized salt – questions on the type of salt used in cooking and
quantity of iodine present in the salt used in cooking.
Answer categories of questions on – main source of drinking water, main source
of lighting and collection of firewood modified and expanded.
Section 3 List of facilities increased (to 24).
Questions on: distance to the facility from the house, use of the facility during
past 12 months and frequency of use added.
Section 4 Section modified and expanded to cover information on the first in-migration to
the present place of residence, and out-migration over the past 5 years.
Section 5 Section divided into two parts – food expenses and home production during a
typical month and past 7 days.
New questions on household’s expenditure on food and home production during
past 7 days – quantity, price and source (household production, purchase and
received in kind) of food consumed during past 7 days.
Section 6 List of durable goods expanded (to include petro-max, telephone, pager and
computer printer).
Section 7 New question added on refusal to admit into any educational institute (including
reason and type of institute).
New questions on: number of times appeared in the SLC examination, number of
days the school was opened, private tuition, and scholarship.
Answer categories of some of the questions modified and some other answer
categories expanded.
Section 8 New question on disability.
Answer categories of question on chronic illness expanded.
New questions on: expenses of the treatment of chronic illness, reason of not
visiting health professional for treatment of injuries, perception on causes of
HIV/AIDS transmission, and immunization for hepatitis B.
87
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
Section 9 New questions on: reason of not visiting a health facility for pre- and post natal
visits to a health facility.
Answer categories of questions on family planning methods used expanded.
New Part D: Household decisions – new questions on involvement of female
household head or spouse of male household head in major household decision
making.
Section 10 New section: Jobs and time use – some of the questions included are from the
NLSS-II (section 1).
Information on economic activity, extended economic activity and household
chores, jobs during the past 12 months.
Section 11 New section: Unemployment and underemployment – (some of the questions
from section 1 of the NLSS-II are merged in this section).
Section 12 New question on type of production or services (with the NSIC code).
Section 13 New question on place of getting fertilizers.
Section 14 New question on main problems in the enterprises.
Section 15 Answer categories of question on purpose of credit expanded to include for going
abroad.
New Part D: Household decisions – new questions on involvement of male
household head or spouse of female household head in major household
decision making.
Section 16 New questions on: absentees, and main use of remittances received.
Section 17 New questions on: medium of remittances and transfer-income sent and main
use of remittances and transfer-income received.
Section 18 New questions on social assistance: cash transfer (allowances for senior citizens,
widows, disables, endangered ethnic groups, martyrs’ family, conflict affected
people and maternity allowance).
Benefits in kind (public food distribution system, nutrition programme for mother
and child), and benefits through public work programme (food for work, and rural
infrastructure development programme).
Section 19 New questions on: food security and measures of coping with the household food
insecurity.
Section 20 New section: Anthropometrics – weight and height measurement of all children
59 months or under, and breastfeeding practices.
Section 21 Data compared with those of the 1995/96 and 2003/04 survey data.
88
Table A5: Field teams of the 2010/11 Nepal Living Standards Survey
Team
Districts Covered
Number Name
89