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Perfectionism, Depression,
Loneliness, and Life
Satisfaction: A Study of
High School Students in
Hong Kong

Article in The Counseling Psychologist · July 2008

DOI: 10.1177/0011000008315975

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 The Counseling Psychologist
Volume 37 Number 2
February 2009 249-274
© 2009 Sage Publications
Perfectionism, Depression, 10.1177/0011000008315975
http://tcp.sagepub.com
Loneliness, and Life hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com

Satisfaction
A Study of High School Students in Hong Kong
Kenneth T. Wang
Pennsylvania State University
Mantak Yuen
University of Hong Kong, China
Robert B. Slaney
Pennsylvania State University

This study investigates the cross-cultural construct validity of perfectionism

using the Chinese translation of the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS-R;
Slaney, Mobley, Trippi, Ashby, & Johnson, 1996) with 509 Chinese high
school students from Hong Kong. The factor structure of the Chinese APS-R
and correlations between the APS-R subscales and measures of Depression,
Satisfaction with Life, and Loneliness are examined. Participants are grouped
into three clusters—adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists and nonperfec-
tionists. A comparison of group means revealed that adaptive perfectionists
reported higher Satisfaction with Life scores and lower Depression scores
than the other two groups. This sample of Chinese students also reported
higher Discrepancy scores compared to U.S. students’ scores in previous
studies. Similarities and differences in comparison to previous studies using
U.S. participants are examined. Finally, the limitations of this study and
implications for future research with Chinese participants are discussed.

D uring the past two decades, the construct of perfectionism has received
increasing attention in the psychological literature. This literature

The Division 17 logo denotes that this article has been approved for continuing education
credit. To access the CE test, please visit http://per-ce.net/ce/tcp.php.
Author’s Note: This study was in part supported by the Faculty Research Fund, Faculty of
Education, University of Hong Kong. The authors would like to thank the teachers, principals,
and students of the participant schools for their support to the project. The authors would also
like to thank Pui-Wa Lei for providing statistical consultancy. Correspondence regarding this
paper should be directed to Kenneth T. Wang at the Counseling Center, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 206 Student Services Building, 610 E. John Street, Champaign, IL 61820;
e-mail:ktwang@uiuc.edu. Copies of the Chinese version of the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised
are obtainable from Mantak Yuen; e-mail: mtyuen@hkucc.hku.hk.
249

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250 The Counseling Psychologist

has paid particular attention to the relationship between perfectionism and

measures of mental health, such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders,
obsessive-compulsive disorder, dysfunctional attitudes, and substance abuse
(see Blatt, 1995; Shafran & Mansell, 2001).
Although the literature has focused more on the negative impact of per-
fectionism on mental health, a positive aspect of perfectionism has also
been identified through factor analytic studies (e.g., Suddarth & Slaney,
2001) of multidimensional perfectionism scales (Frost, Marten, Lahart, &
Rosenblate, 1990; Hewitt & Flett, 1991; Slaney, Mobley, Trippi, Ashby, &
Johnson, 1996). Slaney, Rice, Mobley, Trippi, and Ashby (2001) surveyed
dictionary definitions of perfectionism and concluded that there were two
core features of perfectionism: one was the “extreme or excessive striving
for perfection” and the other was “a disposition to regard anything short of
perfection as unacceptable” (p. 131). Based on these two definitions, high
standards and discrepancy were used as the two essential dimensions of
perfectionism in developing the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS-R;
Slaney et al., 1996). Possessing high standards has been viewed as a posi-
tive aspect of perfectionism, which is positively related to having higher
self-esteem (Ashby & Rice, 2002). In contrast, perceiving a discrepancy
between one’s perceived standards and actual performance has been viewed
as a negative aspect of perfectionism and associated with higher levels of
depression and lower self-esteem (Ashby & Rice, 2002).

Ethnic Group Comparisons on Perfectionism

A number of scholars have noted that the vast majority of published
studies on perfectionism have used majority samples from U.S. universities
(Flett, Greene, & Hewitt, 2004; Grzegorek, Slaney, Franze, & Rice, 2004;
Mobley, Slaney, & Rice, 2005; Slaney, Rice, & Ashby, 2002). Mobley et al.
(2005) referred to a cultural divide in the perfectionism literature that
sharply constrains generalizing beyond European American university
students. Three studies (Castro & Rice, 2003; Chang, 1998; Kawamura,
Frost, & Harmatz, 2002) were located that compared different ethnic
groups on the subscales of the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale
(FMPS; Frost et al., 1990). Their results showed that Asian Americans had
significantly higher scores on several of the FMPS subscales that are
viewed as negative aspects of perfectionism, such as Concern Over
Mistakes, Doubts About Actions, Parental Criticism, and Parental
Expectations, compared with Caucasians (Castro & Rice, 2003; Chang,
1998; Kawamura et al., 2002) and African Americans (Castro & Rice,
2003). There were, however, no significant differences on the Personal

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 251

Standards subscale, which is viewed as a positive aspect of perfectionism

(Castro & Rice, 2003; Chang, 1998; Kawamura et al., 2002). These results
tentatively suggest that Asian Americans may suffer more from the delete-
rious aspects of perfectionism than do other ethnic groups. Additional stud-
ies of perfectionism that investigate its relevance for diverse ethnic, racial,
and cultural groups are clearly needed. There has also been a call for the
counseling psychology field to move beyond examining diverse cultures
within the United States toward an international perspective (Leong &
Blustein, 2000).
Internationalizing counseling psychology has been proposed as a way to
better serve the mental health needs of an increasingly diverse U.S. society
(Leong & Ponterotto, 2003). In terms of relevant cultural groups, the total
population of Chinese in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong is over 1.3 billion
and approximates a fifth of the world’s population (Population Reference
Bureau, 2003). Not only does the Chinese population represent the largest
Asian ethnic group in the United States, but Chinese students also constitute
the largest number of international students enrolled in U.S. universities. Data
from the Institute of International Education (2003) indicated that over 17%
of the international students enrolled in U.S. universities in the 2002-2003
academic year were Chinese, either from China, Taiwan, or Hong Kong.

Perfectionism Studies with Chinese Populations

Three studies were located that studied perfectionism with Chinese par-
ticipants (Cheng, 2001; Cheng, Chong, & Wong, 1999; Zi, 2003); they all
used the same Chinese translation of the FMPS to measure perfectionism.
Cheng et al. (1999) recruited 947 adolescents from Hong Kong and exam-
ined the factor structure of the Chinese FMPS. Five of the six original fac-
tors emerged; the parental criticism factor was not found. In addition,
Cheng et al. found that concern over mistakes and doubts about action were
most strongly related to depression and self-esteem in this Chinese sample.
Cheng (2001) examined the relationship between perfectionism, life stress,
problem solving, and depressive symptoms among university students from
Hong Kong. Perfectionism was found to be a moderator between life stress
and depressive symptoms; it made participants more vulnerable to depres-
sive symptoms in the presence of life stress.
Zi (2003) studied Chinese graduate students from China and the United
States by using cluster analysis with the FMPS and found four clusters of
perfectionists. Past studies using U.S. participants with the FMPS found
three clusters: healthy and dysfunctional perfectionists and nonperfectionists

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252 The Counseling Psychologist

(Parker, 1997; Rice & Mirzadeh, 2000). Studies that used the APS-R also
found three similar clusters of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists and
nonperfectionists (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Mobley et al., 2005; Rice &
Slaney, 2002). Zi’s first three groups mirrored the groups found in U.S.
samples. He labeled his fourth group as subhealthy perfectionists because
this group of participants’ scores on the Neurosis subscale of the NEO Five
Factor Inventory (J. Yang, 1996) were lower than the scores for the dys-
functional perfectionists but higher than those of the healthy and nonperfec-
tionists. The subhealthy perfectionists rated parental expectations and
parental criticism as high as did the dysfunctional (maladaptive) perfection-
ists. However, the subhealthy perfectionists’ scores on personal standards
and organization were almost as low as the scores for nonperfectionists.

Discrepancy Dimension of Perfectionism and Chinese Culture

Zi’s (2003) study raises the interesting possibility of a fourth group of
Chinese perfectionists with elevated scores on the Parental Criticism and
Parental Expectations scales and low scores on Personal Standards and
Organization. More important, Zi’s results point to the centrality of the fam-
ily and parenting in the culture of China. In Chinese culture, the family is
typically perceived as more important than the individual (Ho & Chiu, 1994;
K. S. Yang, 1997). According to Confucian philosophy, filial piety is the
prime guiding principle of socialization practices (Shek & Chan, 1999).
There is a traditional saying that “among hundreds of behaviors, filial piety
is the most important one” (bai xing xiao wei xian). Devotion to parents is
highly valued, and roles inside the family extend to relationships outside the
family (K. S. Yang, 1997). The behavior of a Chinese child reflects on the
reputation and honor of the entire family. Parents emphasize their children’s
obligations toward the family, and failure to meet these obligations may
result in a loss of face (tiu lien). There is a widely held perception that
Chinese parents use shaming or the threat of loss of face as a principle tech-
nique for controlling children’s behaviors (Yeh & Hwang, 1999). By pro-
voking feelings of shame, parents, intentionally or unintentionally, socialize
their children to adopt culturally desirable values (Fung, Lieber, & Leung,
2003). This shaming process focuses on discrepancies that exist between the
behaviors the parents expect of the child and the child’s actual behaviors.
The discrepancy between the expected and actual behaviors of children
that occurs in shaming seems reminiscent of the discrepancy that is the
defining negative aspect of perfectionism in the APS-R. In the APS-R, dis-
crepancy is defined as the perceived difference between the standards one

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 253

has set and one’s actual performance; it is measured by the Discrepancy sub-
scale. The other APS-R subscales are High Standards, measuring the stan-
dards one sets for performance; and Order, a tendency to value a sense of
order and organization. Past studies using the APS-R have found that ele-
vated scores on the Discrepancy subscale discriminate maladaptive from
adaptive perfectionists (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice & Slaney, 2002). For
Chinese participants, the hypothesis is that the emphasis on meeting the
standards or expectations of the family will lead to perceived discrepancies
in performance that will be reflected in scores on the Discrepancy scale of
the APS-R. The apparent relevance of the construct of discrepancy for
Chinese participants provides a strong rationale for using the APS-R in gen-
eral, and its Discrepancy scale, in particular, to measure perfectionism in
Chinese participants. In addition, the APS-R addresses the essential nature
of perfectionism, whereas the FMPS subscales have been criticized as
addressing the causes (parental criticism and parental expectations) or the
results of perfectionism (concern over mistakes and doubts about actions)
rather than its core definitions (Bieling, Israeli, Smith, & Antony, 2004;
Shafran, Cooper & Fairburn, 2002; Slaney et al., 2001).
This study will sample high school students from Hong Kong. High
schools in Hong Kong are strongly oriented toward academic achievement.
The personal–social development and achievement motivation of Hong
Kong high school students have been a major concern (Yuen et al., 2006). In
Hong Kong, less than 20% of the high school students are able to gain access
to university degree programs. Findings using university students would be
constrained in generalizing to younger, less academically talented high
school students. The present study would permit the exploration of perfec-
tionism, mental health variables, and academic performance among high
school students.

The Present Study

There are four goals for this study. The first goal is to examine the factor
structure of responses of Chinese high school students from Hong Kong to a
Chinese translation of the APS-R. The second goal is to examine whether the
data replicate the three groups typically found among U.S. participants
(Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice & Slaney, 2002) or mirror Zi’s (2003) four
groups of perfectionists. If these clusters are replicated, the third research
question will examine whether the participants in these clusters differ in pre-
dictable ways on measures of psychological functioning. The dependent vari-
ables chosen as particularly relevant to high school students were the

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254 The Counseling Psychologist

following: Depression, Loneliness, Satisfaction with Life, and Academic

Achievement. Depression has been a commonly used mental health indicator
in comparing different groups of perfectionists (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice
& Dellwo, 2002; Rice & Mirzadeh, 2000; Rice & Slaney, 2002). Satisfaction
with Life is an overall appraisal of one’s subjective well-being that has been
used in past perfectionism studies with adolescents (Gilman, Ashby, Sverko,
Florell, & Varjas, 2005). Loneliness and Academic Achievement are central
interpersonal and achievement aspects in adolescents’ lives. We hypothesized
that maladaptive perfectionists would report significantly higher scores on
Depression and Loneliness and significantly lower scores on Satisfaction with
Life as compared to adaptive perfectionists and nonperfectionists. In terms of
academic achievement, we did not specify any hypothesis because past findings
with U.S. participants have been inconsistent. Some studies found no signifi-
cant group differences on reported grade point averages (GPAs) (Mobley et al.,
2005; Rice & Slaney, 2002); one study found both groups of perfectionists to
have significantly higher reported GPAs than the nonperfectionist group
(Grzegorek et al., 2004); and another study found adaptive perfectionists to
report significantly higher GPAs than the maladaptive and nonperfectionist
groups (Rice & Slaney, 2002). Finally, the last goal of the study is to exam-
ine the discrepancy levels. We hypothesized that Hong Kong high school
students would have higher discrepancy levels based on the assumption that
shaming is used more frequently in the Chinese population. This study will
provide an important knowledge base and a useful assessment instrument for
counseling practitioners to implement comprehensive school counseling and
guidance programs in Hong Kong high schools (Gysbers, 2000). Data analy-
ses included the following: (a) exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses
of the APS-R scale items, (b) correlations between the study variables, (c) a
cluster analysis based on the APS-R, and (d) analyses of variance between
clusters using the dependent variables.

Method

Participants
The participants were 509 high school students from Hong Kong, 309
(61%) males and 199 (39%) females (1 participant did not indicate gender).
The age of the participants ranged from 14 to 21 (M = 16.6, SD = 1.37).
Participants were from 16 different classes among four schools. Thirty-nine
percent were in 10th grade, 15% were in 11th grade, 35% were in 12th
grade, and 11% were in 13th grade.1 Eighty-two percent of the participants

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 255

were born in Hong Kong. The majority of participants (72%) were from
coeducational schools, while 28% were from all-male schools. Half of the
participants (51%) were from schools where instruction was in Chinese,
while the other half were from schools where instruction was in English.2
The highest educational levels of participants’ fathers and mothers, respec-
tively, were the following: In the sample, 32% and 39% had a primary or
less education, 33% and 30% had a middle school education, 26% and 23%
had a high school education, and 9% and 8% had some college education.
The culture in Hong Kong high schools is virtually monoethnic.

Procedures
Approval to collect data was secured through the schools’ principals.
Letters of consent were also sent to parents of students in classes that were
randomly selected for the study. All students in the classes participated in the
study with no extra credit or compensation. The survey questionnaires were
administered in Chinese by classroom teachers during class periods. The
students were instructed to complete the questionnaire individually.
Participants were informed that the purpose of the study was to investigate
adolescent development, there were no right or wrong answers, and all analy-
ses were on group data. The questionnaires were completed within 35 min-
utes. Following completion, the participants were thanked for their
participation.

Instruments
APS-R (Slaney et al., 1996). The APS-R is made up of three subscales:
High Standards (7 items), Order (4 items), and Discrepancy (12 items). The
High Standards subscale measures the possession of high standards for
achievement and performance. The Order subscale measures a preference
for neatness and orderliness. The Discrepancy subscale measures the degree
to which the respondents perceive themselves as failing to meet their
standards for performance. Participants respond to a 7-point Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Exploratory
and confirmatory factor analyses have supported the three factor structure
(Slaney et al., 2001; Suddarth & Slaney, 2001). Structure coefficients ranged
from .49 to .85. Cronbach’s coefficient alphas were .92 for Discrepancy, .85
for High Standards, and .86 for Order. Data in support of the concurrent and
discriminant validity of the scores derived from APS-R subscales provide a
promising nomological network of relationships (Ashby & Kottman, 1996;
LoCicero & Ashby, 2000; Rice, Ashby, & Slaney, 1998; Rice & Slaney,

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256 The Counseling Psychologist

2002; Slaney et al., 2002; Slaney et al., 2001; Suddarth & Slaney, 2001). The
APS-R was translated into Chinese by the second author of the present study
and back-translated by an independent translator to ensure that the meanings
of the Chinese version were clear. Where clarity was questioned, items were
modified and reexamined. This Chinese version of the APS-R was also used
in a sample of 273 Taiwanese college students and the Cronbach’s coeffi-
cient alphas were .88 for Discrepancy, .82 for High Standards, and .68 for
Order (Wang, Slaney, & Rice, 2007).

Center for Epidemiological Studies–Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff,

1977). The CES-D consists of 20 items and 4 subscales. Respondents report
the frequency with which they experienced each scale item during the pre-
vious week using a 4-point Likert-type scale that ranges from 1 = rarely or
none of the time to 4 = most or all of the time. The total score derived from
the measure was used in the present study. Higher total scores represent
more depression. The reliabilities for the total CES-D scores have ranged
from .89 to .90 (Breslau, 1985; Radloff, 1977). Cronbach’s alphas for the
Chinese CES-D scores were both .90 in a sample of 240 Hong Kong sec-
ondary school students (Wong, Stewart, Hoa, Raob, & Lam, 2005) and a
sample of 79 Chinese students in Belgium (Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens, &
Soenens, 2005). The validity of the Chinese CES-D has been supported by its
positive relationships with anxiety symptoms, unpleasant family relationships,
and life stress (Wong et al., 2005). However, studies have also shown that the
four factors of the CES-D have not been as separable among Chinese
Americans (Ying, 1988) and Hong Kong adolescents (Wong et al., 2005)
compared to past U.S. samples. A Chinese version of the CES-D
(C. K. Cheung & Bagley, 1998; Robinson, Shaver, Wrightsman, 1990/1997)
was used in the current study. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for the scale was
.83 for husbands and .82 for wives in a Chinese couples sample in Hong Kong
(C. K. Cheung & Bagley, 1998), using this Chinese version of the CES-D.

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Pavot & Diener, 1993). The SWLS is a
five-item instrument measuring satisfaction with the respondent’s life as a
whole. Items are rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Higher scores reflect greater life satisfaction.
Cronbach’s coefficient alphas for the SWLS have ranged from .79 to .89 (Pavot
& Diener, 1993). Test–retest reliabilities were .82 over 2 months (Diener,
Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) and .54 over 4 years (Magnus, Diener, Fujita,
& Pavot, 1993). Construct validity of the SWLS has been supported by conver-
gence of the SWLS with numerous measures of subjective well-being and life

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 257

satisfaction (Diener et al., 1985; Pavot, Diener, Colvin, & Sandvik, 1991). In
Gilman and Huebner’s (2000) review, the SWLS was the only unidimensional
life satisfaction measure that had been administrated to adolescents across
nations. Internal consistencies of SWLS scores ranged from .71 to .82 for
samples of Chinese participants from Hong Kong (Sachs, 2003; Shek, 1998) and
.67 for a sample of 1,156 participants from China (Leung & Leung, 1992).
Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for the scale was .63 for husbands and .61 for wives
in a Chinese couples sample in Hong Kong (C. K. Cheung & Bagley, 1998). The
construct validity of the Chinese SWLS was supported by its positive correla-
tion with a one-item satisfaction measure (Leung & Leung, 1992) and measures
of proactive attitude, self-efficacy, and internal locus of control (Sachs, 2003).
The Chinese SWLS also had negative relationships with measures of family dif-
ficulties (Leung & Leung, 1992; Shek, 1998). The SWLS was translated into
Chinese3 by the second author of the present study and back-translated by an
independent translator. Items were reexamined and modified to ensure that the
meanings of the Chinese version were comparable to the original version.

UCLA Loneliness Scale–Version 3 (Russell & Cutrona, 1988). The

UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3) consists of 20 items measuring loneli-
ness on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = never to 4 = always.
Higher scores reflect greater loneliness. The scale appears to be reliable
with coefficient alphas ranging from .89 to .94 and a test-retest correlation
of .73 over 12 months (Russell, 1996). Construct validity was supported by
significant relationships with other measures of loneliness, health, and
well-being. Internal consistencies of the Chinese UCLA Loneliness Scale
scores were .85 for a sample of 153 Chinese undergraduate participants
(Liu, 2004). The construct validity of the Chinese UCLA Loneliness Scale
was supported by positive correlations with another measure of social lone-
liness. A Chinese translation of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3;
Robinson et al., 1990/1997) was used in this study.

Academic achievement. Self-reported Chinese, English, and math grades

on a public standardized exam, the Hong Kong Certificate of Education
Examination (HKCEE), were collected to measure academic performance.
Participants in 12th and 13th grades were asked to report the actual grades
they received when they graduated from 11th grade. Participants in 10th
and 11th grades were asked to predict their grades for that exam. A com-
parison of grade differences in grade levels showed that 10th graders’ pre-
dicted grades were significantly higher than the predicted grades of 11th
graders and the reported actual grades of 12th and 13th graders.

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258 The Counseling Psychologist

Results

Exploratory Factor Analysis

For factor analyses, participants were randomly divided into two
approximately equal groups. Group 1 consisted of 260 participants, and
Group 2 consisted of the remaining 249 participants. In terms of sample
sizes, a 5 to 10 subjects-to-variables ratio is recommended (Bryant &
Yarnold, 1995) and a sample size of 200 is viewed as adequate (Tabachnick
& Fidell, 2001). Group 1 was used to conduct an exploratory factor analy-
sis on the APS-R. A principle-axis factor analysis was performed on the
23 items of the APS-R. Bartlett’s test of sphericity was large (2372.32;
p < .001), indicating that the items shared common factors. The Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .86. Parallel analysis was
conducted to determine the number of factors. By calculating the eigenval-
ues based on random data, criteria are created to judge the randomness of
the empirically determined eigenvalues. The number of meaningful factors
to use is determined by the number of factors in the empirical data that have
eigenvalues exceeding those generated by random data. A three-factor solu-
tion was indicated because the fourth factor in this sample had an eigen-
value of 1.20, which was lower than the eigenvalue of the fourth factor
(1.35) generated from random data. The three-factor solution is also in line
with theoretical expectations and past research. A three-factor solution with
a promax rotation was conducted, and the results are presented in Table 1.
The three factors accounted for 50.11% of the variance before rotation.
Twenty-two out of the 23 items (91%) had the highest loadings on their cor-
responding factors. Three items (3, 6, and 7) failed to achieve loadings
above .40 on any factor and one item (23) had a cross-loading over .30 on
a second factor. After excluding these four items, Factor 1 consisted of 9 of
the 12 Discrepancy subscale items and was given that label. Factor 2,
labeled as High Standards, consisted of the 7 items in that subscale. Factor
3 consisted of three Order subscale items and was labeled accordingly.
Among the three items that were dropped, Item 7 of the Order subscale had
a misleading translation. The Chinese word for things that refers to events
was used rather than the one that refers to objects for the statement “I think
things should be put away in their place.” The other three items that were
dropped are Item 3 “I often feel frustrated because I can’t meet my goals,”
Item 6 “My best just never seems to be good enough for me,” and Item 23
“I often feel disappointment after completing a task because I know I could
have done better.” Adjusted APS-R subscale scores were computed with the
19 items that achieved loadings above .40 on their corresponding factors
without significant cross-loading.
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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 259

Table 1
Summary of Pattern Matrix for Principle Axis Factoring and
Promax Rotation of Almost Perfect Scale–Revised Scores
Factor loading

Item 1 2 3

APS-R 20 [d] .81 –.14 –.04

APS-R 16 [d] .77 –.10 .04
APS-R 19 [d] .73 –.11 .08
APS-R 21 [d] .70 –.14 –.02
APS-R 13 [d] .62 .12 –.13
APS-R 9 [d] .57 –.12 .16
APS-R 11 [d] .56 .25 –.02
APS-R 17 [d] .49 .24 –.12
APS-R 15 [d] .46 .27 .09
APS-R 23 [d]b .41 .33 –.09
APS-R 6 [d]a .37 .36 .05
APS-R 7 [o]a .25 –.05 .19
APS-R 8 [hs] –.15 .87 –.05
APS-R 12 [hs] .02 .79 –.06
APS-R 1 [hs] –.29 .72 .15
APS-R 22 [hs] .03 .71 –.11
APS-R 14 [hs] .13 .54 –.01
APS-R 18 [hs] –.10 .54 .18
APS-R 5 [hs] .04 .50 .02
APS-R 3 [d]a .33 .37 .15
APS-R 10 [o] .05 .04 .70
APS-R 2 [o] –.13 .04 .70
APS-R 4 [o] .18 –.01 .69
Factor correlations
Factor 1 —
Factor 2 .36 —
Factor 3 -.14 .32 —

Note: [d] = Discrepancy; [hs] = High Standards; [o] = Order; Boldface indicates highest
factor loadings.
a. These items did not achieve a .40 loading on any factor and were excluded when summing
subscale scores.
b. This item cross-loaded on Factors 1 and 2 (with a loading over .30 on Factor 2) and was also
excluded from subscales scores.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted with Group 2 scores to exam-
ine the measurement qualities of the APS-R adjusted according to the princi-
ple-axis factor analysis. The LISREL 8.72 program (Jöreskog & Sörbom,

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260 The Counseling Psychologist

2005) was used to complete this analysis. Covariance matrices were analyzed
and maximum likelihood was the estimation method. Following guidelines
from Kline (2005), model fit was assessed by three indices: the comparative
fit index (CFI), the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR, the aver-
age difference in residuals based on comparing the observed covariance with
the covariance explained by the model), and the root-mean-square error of
approximation (RMSEA). The general guideline of the CFI is that either a
minimum of .90 (Byrne, 1998) or .95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999) is interpreted as
an acceptable fit of the data to the model. RMSEA values less than .05 are sug-
gestive of a close fit, between .05 and .08 a fair fit, between .08 and .10 a
mediocre fit, and above .10 a poor fit (MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara,
1996). SRMR values of .08 or less are desired (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Although
adequacy of model fit was examined, the primary purpose of this analysis
was to examine the item-to-factor structure coefficients and between-factor
correlations.
The confirmatory factor analysis model constrained the nine APS-R items
tapping the Discrepancy subscale to load onto the Discrepancy factor, the seven
High Standards items to load onto the High Standards factor, and the remain-
ing three Order items to load onto the Order factor. The factors were permitted
to correlate with one another. Structure coefficients for the Discrepancy factor
ranged from .53 to .82. Coefficients for High Standards ranged from .53 to .88,
and for Order ranged from .67 to .77 (see Figure 1). These coefficients provided
support for the convergent validity of the APS-R items. The correlations
between the factors were .24 (Discrepancy and High Standards), –.16
(Discrepancy and Order), and .48 (High Standards and Order). The fit statistics
for this model were χ2 (149, N = 233) = 730.04, p < .001, CFI = .93, SRMR =
.12, RMSEA = .09 (90% Confidence Interval .08 to .10). Based on the general
guidelines, the SRMR did not support the model, and the CFI and RMSEA
indices indicated a promising but less than ideal fit.

Descriptive Statistics
Univariate ANOVAs were conducted on all subscales by gender. The only
significant difference was on the UCLA Loneliness Scale by gender (p < .001)
after Bonferroni adjustment of the critical p value to .004 (.05/12) to control
for familywise error rate. Therefore, the UCLA Loneliness Scale was sepa-
rated by gender for further analyses, while the combined sample was used for
the other subscales.
The means, standard deviations, and reliabilities of the adjusted APS-R sub-
scales, CES-D, SWLS, and UCLA Loneliness Scale are presented in Table 2.

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 261

Figure 1
Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Almost Perfect
Scale–Revised Adjusted Subscale Scores

Note: s = high standards items; o = order items; d = discrepancy items.

The internal consistency coefficient alphas for these scales were in accordance
with the previous published norms with the exception of the APS-R Order sub-
scale. The intercorrelations between the subscales of the measures used in this
study were separated by gender and shown in Table 3. The only significant dif-
ference between genders was that the correlation between Discrepancy and

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262 The Counseling Psychologist

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics
Measure M SD alpha

High Standards 33.41 6.73 0.84

Ordera 13.81 3.18 0.73
Discrepancya 39.61 8.73 0.86
Depression 40.91 9.67 0.88
Satisfaction with Life 21.32 6.29 0.89
UCLA Loneliness 45.98 8.67 0.90
UCLA Loneliness (male) 47.41 8.74 0.89
UCLA Loneliness (female) 43.73 8.12 0.89

a. The Almost Perfect Scale–Revised Order and Discrepancy subscales were adjusted accord-
ing to the factor analysis results.

Table 3
Intercorrelations Between Study Variables (Separated by Gender)
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 High Standards — .31* .21* –.02 .14 –.01

2 Order .35* — –.05 –.22* .28* –.12
3 Discrepancy .31* –.05 — .40* –.13 .28*
4 Depression –.01 –.20* .49* — –.31* .54*
5 Satisfaction with Life .12 .23* –.29* –.43* — –.26*
6 UCLA Loneliness –.08 –.11 .37* .59* –.39* —

Note: Correlations for male participants are displayed on the lower diagonal, while correla-
tions for female participants are displayed on the upper diagonal.
*p < .001, two-tailed.

Satisfaction with Life was significant at the .001 level for male participants but
not for female participants. The Order scores correlated positively with
Satisfaction with Life and negatively with Depression. The Discrepancy scores
correlated positively with Depression and Loneliness scores.

Cluster Analysis
Cluster analysis was used to empirically identify groups of perfection-
ists and nonperfectionists based on the participants’ scores on the APS-R.
A two-step procedure involving both hierarchical and nonhierarchical
analyses was performed following the approach of other researchers in

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 263

Figure 2
Almost Perfect Scale–Revised Subscale Scores by Cluster Groups

studies of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists (Grzegorek et al., 2004;

Parker, 1997; Rice & Mirzadeh, 2000; Rice & Slaney, 2002). Decision
making regarding the number of clusters followed the guidelines from Hair
and Black (2000).
The first step in conducting the hierarchical cluster analysis used Ward’s
linkage method with the squared Euclidian distance measure. Standardized
scores of the High Standards, Order, and Discrepancy subscales were used
as variables in the analysis. An increase of the agglomeration coefficient by
37% occurred in the step when the solution decreased from three to two
clusters. Large increases indicated that the two clusters joined at that step
resulted in a joint cluster that was markedly less homogeneous (Hair &
Black, 2000). Thus, a three-cluster solution was chosen.
A nonhierarchical k-means cluster analysis was conducted using a three-
cluster solution. The centroids or standardized High Standards, Order, and
Discrepancy subscale means of the clusters from the previous step were used
as the starting points in the k-means analysis. A three-cluster k-means solu-
tion converged in seven iterations. The three-cluster k-means analysis placed
146 participants in the first cluster (29%; 78 men, 67 women, 1 missing

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264 The Counseling Psychologist

gender information), 167 participants in the second cluster (33%; 102 men,
65 women), and 196 participants in the third cluster (38%; 129 men, 67
women). There were no statistically significant differences based on gender
distribution across the three groups, χ2 (2, N = 508) = 5.06, p = .08.
To determine the labels of each cluster group, means of nonstandardized
High Standards, Order, and Discrepancy scores of the APS-R were com-
puted and compared between groups. In past U.S. studies (Grzegorek et al.,
2004; Rice & Slaney, 2002), adaptive perfectionists were identified as hav-
ing high scores on High Standards and Order but low scores on Discrepancy,
because High Standards and Order are the positive aspects of perfectionism
and Discrepancy is the negative aspect of perfectionism. Maladaptive per-
fectionists scored high on all three APS-R subscales, and nonperfectionists
scored low on all three subscales (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice & Slaney,
2002). The cluster analysis results for this study of Hong Kong participants
are presented in Figure 2. Participants in the first cluster had the second
highest scores on the High Standards subscale, highest scores on the Order
subscale, and the lowest scores on the Discrepancy subscale, and were
labeled as adaptive perfectionists. Participants in the second cluster had sig-
nificantly higher High Standards and Discrepancy scores than the two other
clusters and the second highest scores on the Order subscale; they appeared
to be maladaptive perfectionists. The third cluster’s participants had the low-
est scores on the High Standards and Order subscales. Their Discrepancy
scores were significantly lower than the maladaptive perfectionists’ scores
but higher than the adaptive perfectionists’ scores. This group of participants
was labeled as nonperfectionists.

Analyses of Variances
A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with the cluster mem-
bership as the between-subjects factor to determine if there were significant
differences among adaptive perfectionists, maladaptive perfectionists, and
nonperfectionists on their scores for depression, satisfaction with life, and
loneliness. The multivariate effect was statistically significant, Wilks’s Λ = .17,
F (10, 1004) = 142.21, p < .001, η2 = .58. Univariate ANOVAs revealed sta-
tistically significant differences between clusters for all the dependent vari-
ables, except for UCLA Loneliness scores of female participants. Effect sizes
(η2) for the statistically significant mean differences ranged from .03 to .52.
These results, along with the Tukey B post hoc comparisons, are presented in
Table 4. The adaptive perfectionists reported significantly greater Satisfaction
With Life scores and significantly lower Depression scores compared to the
maladaptive and nonperfectionists. In terms of loneliness, a 2 × 3 ANOVA was

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 265

Table 4
Means and Standard Deviations by Cluster Groups
Adaptive Maladaptive Non-
Perfectionists Perfectionists Perfectionists
n = 146 n = 167 n = 196

Subscale M SD M SD M SD F η2

High Standards 34.49a 5.42 38.65b 5.04 28.14c 4.71 201.85 0.44
Order 16.17a 1.96 14.89b 2.73 11.13c 2.17 225.47 0.47
Discrepancy 31.70a 5.47 47.69b 6.09 38.62c 6.40 276.58 0.52
Depression 36.09a 8.17 43.18b 10.06 42.56b 9.14 28.29 0.10
Satisfaction with Life 23.90a 5.47 20.73b 6.45 19.89b 6.18 19.37 0.07
UCLA Loneliness (male) 42.94a 7.91 49.30b 8.83 48.63b 8.25 15.11 0.09
UCLA Loneliness (female) 41.71 7.28 44.82 9.03 44.69 7.69 3.21 0.03

Note: All univariate F tests were significant at p < .001, except for UCLA Loneliness-female
(p = .043). F tests were based on df = 2, 506. Values with differing subscripts indicate signif-
icant within-row mean score differences between the clusters of perfectionists, using Tukey B
post hoc comparisons significant at p < .05.

conducted, and there was no interaction effect between gender and perfec-
tionist groups. Male adaptive perfectionists reported significantly lower scores
than the other two groups, whereas there were no significant group differences
among female participants. There were no significant differences on
Depression, UCLA loneliness, and Satisfaction with Life scores between mal-
adaptive perfectionists and nonperfectionists.
Group comparisons on academic achievements only included data from
12th-grade and 13th-grade students because the HKCEE are taken after fin-
ishing 11th grade. However, based on univariate ANOVAs, no significant
group differences were found for the HKCEE Chinese (F2, 224 = .77),
English (F2, 225 = .86), and math (F2, 220 = .18) subjects among adaptive, mal-
adaptive, and nonperfectionists.
A comparison of APS-R subscale scores between Hong Kong high
school students and a sample of 273 U.S. undergraduate students (Grzegorek
et al., 2004) revealed that the overall mean for Discrepancy (Hong Kong =
4.40; United States = 3.51) was higher for the Hong Kong students, whereas
the High Standards (Hong Kong = 4.77; United States = 5.62) and Order
scores (Hong Kong = 4.60; United States = 4.96) were lower. In addition, we
examined the three APS-R subscale means in terms of their deviation score
from the overall APS-R mean. In the Hong Kong sample, the deviation
scores were .20, .03, and –.17 for High Standards, Order, and Discrepancy,
respectively. For the U.S. sample, the deviation scores for High Standards,
Order, and Discrepancy were 1.21, .55, and –.89, respectively.

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266 The Counseling Psychologist

Discussion

The results of the principle-axis and confirmatory factor analyses provided

qualified support for the adequacy of the factor structure of the Chinese
APS-R for Hong Kong high school students. With the exception of four
items, the loadings were similar to the results found in Slaney et al. (2001).
However, an interesting difference appeared in the correlations between
APS-R subscales. The High Standards and Discrepancy subscale scores
had a statistically significant correlation of .27 (.31 for males and .21 for
females) in this sample, whereas the correlations of the two subscale scores
ranged from –.13 to .05 in U.S. samples (Grzegorek et al, 2004; Slaney et al.,
2001). This suggests that for Chinese high school students, Discrepancy
scores are more highly related to High Standards scores compared with
U.S. samples. This higher correlation, if replicated, could possibly reflect a
cultural difference in the construct of perfectionism. This relates to the
question of whether there is a mediating variable between High Standards
and Discrepancy scores, such as actual performance. In other words, is the
level of discrepancy dependent on one’s actual or perceived performance
against one’s standards? If so, how much do these two dimensions reflect
the construct of perfectionism from a Western perspective? Does discrep-
ancy, therefore, reflect less of “a disposition to regard anything short of per-
fection as unacceptable” or rather a subjective view of how one has
performed against one’s standards? Another explanation of this higher cor-
relation between Discrepancy and High Standards scores is that discrep-
ancy may be viewed as less negative in the Chinese culture, which is
reflected in the comparisons of cluster groups. In the Chinese culture where
modesty is valued and shaming is used as a way to socialize children, dis-
crepancy could be viewed in two ways. Discrepancy can still be viewed as
being negative but more acceptable as part of the culture. It could also be
seen as not negative at all, but rather as a coping method or a strategy to
improve oneself.
The results of the cluster analysis yielded important similarities to past
studies as well as an important difference from those studies. Results compar-
ing adaptive and maladaptive perfectionists and nonperfectionists partially
replicated previous studies with U.S. participants (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice
& Slaney, 2002). Adaptive perfectionists appeared to be psychologically health-
ier than both the maladaptive perfectionists and nonperfectionists. Overall,
adaptive perfectionists reported significantly higher scores on Satisfaction with
Life and significantly lower scores on Depression and Loneliness than the two

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 267

other groups. These results support the notion that perfectionism, to a cer-
tain degree, is a relevant construct among Hong Kong high school students.
Inconsistent with our hypotheses, although the maladaptive perfectionists
had significantly higher Discrepancy scale scores than nonperfectionists,
there were no significant differences between maladaptive perfectionists and
nonperfectionists on the dependent variables. In past studies with U.S. par-
ticipants, maladaptive perfectionists had significantly higher scores on
depression and other negative psychological indicators than nonperfection-
ists did (Grzegorek et al., 2004; Rice & Slaney, 2002). However, there were
no significant differences between maladaptive perfectionists and nonper-
fectionists on depression, loneliness, and satisfaction with life in this sample
of Hong Kong participants. This suggests two possibilities. First, perfec-
tionism may be perceived less negatively in Chinese culture. A related pos-
sibility is that discrepancy is ingrained in Chinese culture to the point that
nonperfectionists, even though they do not have high standards, still have
relatively high Discrepancy scores. It is also possible that Discrepancy may
reflect the societal values in this collectivistic culture. As for Hong Kong
Chinese high school students, there seem to be high external expectations to
excel on academic performance and moral behaviors.
The APS-R subscale scores’ correlations with Depression, Satisfaction
with Life, and Loneliness scores revealed that these scores were more highly
related to Order and Discrepancy than to High Standards. Order scores were
positively related to Satisfaction with Life scores and negatively related to
Depression scores. This pattern of intercorrelations differs from past U.S.
results (Grzegorek et al, 2004; Slaney et al., 2001) in which correlations
between dependent variables and High Standards have typically been higher.
It may be that Order is simply a more clearly positive variable than High
Standards for these Chinese students in Hong Kong. Whether future studies
will replicate this finding is unclear. Discrepancy scores were directly
related to Depression and Loneliness scores, while inversely related to
Satisfaction with Life scores. These results are consistent with past U.S.
studies in which Discrepancy correlated negatively with positive mental
health indicators and positively with measures of anxiety and depression.
That the Chinese have higher degrees of discrepancy is at least consistent
with the possibility that these scores are related to the frequent use of sham-
ing by parents in this culture. This higher mean discrepancy score could also
reflect the Chinese appreciation of humility (Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, 1995)
as studies on Chinese high school adolescents showed that they reported rel-
atively humble views on their abilities to perform on various life tasks (e.g.,
Yuen & Furnham, 2005; Yuen et al., 2005). In both samples, the High

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268 The Counseling Psychologist

Standards and Order deviation scores were positive, whereas those for
Discrepancy were negative. Compared to the U.S. sample, Hong Kong
participants may have tended to give less extreme responses. Differences in
response style may offer another possible explanation for the higher
Discrepancy scores in the Hong Kong students. However, even though there
is a higher level of discrepancy among the Chinese, the results still show that
Discrepancy scores are negatively related to Satisfaction with Life while
positively related to depression and loneliness. This is consistent with find-
ings on self-discrepancy and depressive experiences among Chinese adoles-
cents in Hong Kong (S. K. Cheung, 1997).
The results of this study have potential clinical implications. First,
Discrepancy scores correlate positively with psychological distress as in
previous studies with U.S. participants (Slaney et al., 2002). In contrast,
High Standards scores were not significantly correlated with measures of
psychological distress. Therefore, when treating a Chinese client with per-
fectionistic features, one should carefully discern between Discrepancy and
High Standards. Treatment should focus on improving the client’s satisfac-
tion with his or her performance or, stated another way, lowering the
Discrepancy scores. For example, providing an unconditional accepting
therapeutic environment could be a way to model healthy acceptance of
one’s discrepancy. Having High Standards per se should not be seen as a
problem. Second, therapists should seek to understand the source of the
client’s Discrepancy when treating Chinese clients who are maladaptive
perfectionists. High Discrepancy scores in Chinese clients may be related
to familial beliefs and practices that are deeply ingrained. Exploring the ori-
gins of a client’s Discrepancy score within a cultural context may decrease
a client’s sense of feeling pathologized.
This study has several limitations. First, a translated item of the APS-R
was misleading, which influenced the internal consistency of the Order
subscale. The misuse of adequate wording was not detected through the
back-translation process. A comparison of independent translations
(Mallinckrodt & Wang, 2004) could have possibly detected the misuse of
wording issue. Second, although cluster analysis has been used in past stud-
ies to classify participants, it involves researcher judgments that may lead
to a possible lack of precision. Third, most of the measures used in this
study were developed from concepts and theories based in Western culture.
In the course of translation, the reliability and validity of the original mea-
sures may be influenced by linguistic limitations. Even with careful and
accurate translations, they might not measure the same constructs in
another culture with the same precise meaning. Fourth, the sample was

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 Wang et al. / Perfectionism In Hong Kong 269

restricted to high school students in Hong Kong, thus limiting generaliz-

ability across the Chinese population.
Overall, the elevated level of Discrepancy scores among this sample of
Hong Kong high school students raises interesting questions for future
research, assuming replication. It would be interesting to investigate the
higher Discrepancy scores in Chinese participants. Areas of study may
include the collectivistic culture and parenting styles of the Chinese that
have been influenced by Confucianism. Given that the APS-R was devel-
oped from an individualistic, Western perspective, it would be interesting to
explore perfectionism based on how an individual perceives important oth-
ers’ views. In other words, a scale could be developed to examine the stan-
dards that a particular important other (i.e., parent or teacher) is perceived
as having. In fact, an APS–Family scale (Methikalam, Slaney, & Wang,
2005) is being developed to measure the relevance of the perceived perfec-
tionism of an individual’s family. Future studies might also be designed
to examine possible mediating variables between High Standards and
Discrepancy to further explore the higher correlations between these two
variables in this Chinese population. Another explanation for the differ-
ences between this Hong Kong high school student sample and past U.S.
college student samples could be related to age and developmental differ-
ences. Therefore, future studies could incorporate Chinese college students
or adults. Finally, Hong Kong students may have been influenced by unique
bicultural societal factors due to being governed by the United Kingdom for
a century and recently united with mainland China. To better understand the
Chinese cultural factors, future studies might also study Chinese partici-
pants from China, Taiwan, or Singapore and Chinese Americans to com-
pare similarities and differences across these populations.

Notes
1. The 13th grade is the final year of 2-year preuniversity courses.
2. The questionnaire was administered in Chinese in both English and Chinese language
schools.
3. In Hong Kong, there are about 100 English-language secondary schools and 400
Chinese-language secondary schools. The English-language secondary schools tend to attract
students with higher academic ability who are able to benefit from using English as the
medium of instruction in their classrooms.
4. Permission was obtained from Ed Diener to translate the Satisfaction with Life Scale
into Chinese.

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270 The Counseling Psychologist

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Kenneth T. Wang received his PhD in counseling psychology from Penn State University in
2007. He obtained a master's degree in clinical psychology from Wheaton College. He is
from Taiwan and his research interests include perfectionism and multiculturalism with an
emphasis on Chinese and Asian-American psychology. He is currently a clinical counselor in
the Counseling Center at the University of Illinois-Urbana-Champaign.

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274 The Counseling Psychologist

Mantak Yuen is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong
Kong. He is a registered psychologist in Hong Kong and a chartered psychologist in Britain.
His professional interests are in the areas of social-cognitive theory, school counseling, life
career development, talented youth, children with learning difficulties, and assessment. Since
August 2001, he has led a research team examining life-skills development and connectedness
among children and youth in relation to school counseling programs.

Robert B. Slaney is a professor of counseling psychology in the department of Counselor

Education, Counseling Psychology and Rehabilitation Studies at Penn State University. He
received his PhD from the Ohio State University in 1973. His primary research interests
involve the study of perfectionism. He retired from Penn State at the end of Spring semester
2008 and has continued his general private practice with particular interests in men's issue,
couples counseling, Asian-Indian clients, and PTSD, with a focus on returning Iraq veterans.

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