sustainability

Article
Improving Centrifugal Compressor Performance by
Optimizing the Design of Impellers Using Genetic
Algorithm and Computational Fluid
Dynamics Methods
Mohammad Omidi 1 , Shu-Jie Liu 1, *, Soheil Mohtaram 2 , Hui-Tian Lu 3 and
Hong-Chao Zhang 1,4
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China;
insp.omidi@yahoo.com (M.O.); hong-chao.zhang@ttu.edu (Z.H.-C.)
2 Institute of Soft Matter Mechanics, College of Mechanics and Materials, Hohai University,
Nanjing 210098, China; soheilmohtaram@gmail.com
3 Department of Construction & Operations Management, South Dakota State University,
Brookings, SD 57007, USA; huitian.lu@sdstate.edu
4 Department of Industrial Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
* Correspondence: liushujie@dlut.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-411-84709302




Received: 2 September 2019; Accepted: 27 September 2019; Published: 30 September 2019


Abstract: It has always been important to study the development and improvement of the design of
turbomachines, owing to the numerous uses of turbomachines and their high energy consumption.
Accordingly, optimizing turbomachine performance is crucial for sustainable development. The design
of impellers significantly affects the performance of centrifugal compressors. Numerous models
and design methods proposed for this subject area, however, old and based on the 1D scheme.
The present article developed a hybrid optimization model based on genetic algorithms (GA) and a
3D simulation of compressors to examine the certain parameters such as blade angle at leading and
trailing edges and the starting point of splitter blades. New impeller design is proposed to optimize
the base compressor. The contribution of this paper includes the automatic creation of generations for
achieving the optimal design and designing splitter blades using a novel method. The present study
concludes with presenting a new, more efficient, and stable design.

Keywords: genetic algorithm (GA); optimization; computational fluid dynamics (CFD); centrifugal
compressor

1. Introduction
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ) are the main cause of climate change.
Decreasing these emissions to prevent global warming is of crucial importance. Simultaneously the
energy industry, traffic, and numerous forms of transportation all emit significant amounts of CO2 . [1].
Turbomachines, including centrifugal compressors and pumps, consume a huge amount of energy
in the world, both directly and indirectly [2,3]. Turbomachinery is a part of everyday life [4]. They are
of central importance in various ways such as aeronautics, petrochemical processing, generation of
power, refrigeration, etc. They contribute to compressors, turbochargers, pumps, turbines, and other
integral equipment [4]. When applied to a wide variety of uses, even miniscule changes in efficiency
and design can yield massive benefits [5]. Sustainable development will, to a certain degree, depend
upon the performance improvement of turbomachinery.

Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409; doi:10.3390/su11195409 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 2 of 18

One of the most important problems with using these machines is their damping and extremely
high rates of energy loss compared to other types of machines. However, due to the fluidity of the
output of these machines, as well as their relatively uncomplicated design and process system, they
are still far superior to other types of compressors used.
The impeller is the most important part of a turbomachine, as it plays a critical role in fluid
processing, and it has therefore constantly been redesigned, optimized, and restudied over time.
However, centrifugal impellers have many limitations that still need to be improved upon with
redesign. Blades on the compressor impeller have always had the most significant impact on the
efficiency and performance of these machine parts.
Many available resources have adopted different approaches to design impellers in centrifugal
compressors [6,7]. An impeller is the rotary component of centrifugal compressors that consists
of blades, which are geometrically complex due to their profile, and their flow pattern is 3D with
secondary flows [8]. Given the different design parameters and flow aspects, studying impellers
in centrifugal compressors is crucial. Making efforts to optimize the design of impeller as a key
component is crucial given that the performance of compressors highly depends on its design [9].
Research suggests that impeller contribution to losses is significant compared to other components of a
centrifugal compressor [7]. Proposing efficiency enhancement methods is therefore of great importance
in this area.
The method proposed by Swine to change the impeller design [10,11], namely trimming, begins
with a scratch design of impeller and proceeds to make it more delicate. This process can affect
the boundaries of impellers in different directions. The direction of correction in their study was
axial, radial, and stream-wise. [12] optimized compressors by redefining the curve at the hub and
shroud and changing control points in the Bezier polynomial, achieving a 0.6% improvement in the
pressure ratio and 1.4% improvement in efficiency. Breaking the shape and number of impellers
constitutes the general secondary methods for optimizing impellers. According to this method, [13]
investigated the effect of inserting two splitter blades between the main blades rather than relying on
the typical setup, and could increase the mass flow rate and even efficiency and the pressure ratio.
Moreover, [14] conducted an experimental study on this subject. Improvements in the performance of
compressors were also reported in the literature [15], by experimentally testing impellers. [16] proposed
an optimization method by changing the shape of blades, while considering the instability margin of
the compressor, and found the inlet angle of the impeller to exert significant effects on the compressor
efficiency. Given that the outer radius and width of the outlet contribute to instability, the shape of
blades remained unchanged. [17] argued that the leading edge of sonic compressors could create shock
waves when placed in an area greater than Mach one, negatively affecting splitter blades. This problem
was solved by moving the starting point of the splitter forward and out of this area. [18] also proposed
an optimization method for enhancing the efficiency of centrifugal compressors, which involved using
the same profile for the primary and splitter blades and changing the initial profile using the Bezier
polynomial points. The results suggested an efficiency increase of about 2.5%. Moreover, [19] specified
certain parameters for the objective function, including pressure ratio, efficiency and thrust, and
changed the impeller profile from the hub to shroud, resulting in incredible improvements, including
an efficiency increase of 4.5% and a pressure ratio increase of 16%. Investigating the effect of exit
pressure pulsation on the performance and stability limit of a turbocharger centrifugal compressor, [20]
showed that the presence of a volume in the system exerts the most significant effect on the surge
margin of the compressor under unsteady conditions. Optimizing the aerodynamic design of the
impellers of a centrifugal compressor using an inverse method based on the meridional viscous flow
analysis [21] resulted in performance improvements and suppression of flow separations on the suction
surfaces in the optimal design cases.
The present optimization scheme specifies the changes in parameters using the computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) data that correct the differences for the next steps. CFD has been widely used in
the compressor designs, and there are many design considerations that need to be addressed during the
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 3 of 18

designing process [22,23]. From a mathematical perspective, this scheme determines the direction and
value of the gradient of parameters. Artificial neural network [18] and GA were used for this analysis.
GA uses mechanisms such as mutation and cross-over to produce new generations of compressors [24].
This algorithm produces different versions of a compressor in different generations, and decides on
terminating certain generations and refining others based on simulation results.
Due to the secondary flows in the impellers of centrifugal compressor splitter blades, the situation
is not the same as that of the main blades. The flow does not match with splitter blades and this leads
to performance loss in the compressors. To mitigate this loss, compressor blades should be redesigned.
In this project, the changes in geometry of blade flow regimes will be analyzed. If the target is a specific
compressor, this modification is limited to the impellers; otherwise, it may be necessary to change
other parts, as well.
The same constraints used in previous studies with the same profile for the main and splitter
blades were not used in the present research. A wider range of parameters was therefore explored
when optimizing the compressor design. Two different base methods are generally used for compressor
optimization. The trimming method makes small changes in the design parameters of impellers and
monitors the effect of these changes on the overall performance of compressors while focusing on
parameters such as Bezier points. This method is usually based on a constrained range of parameters,
and is efficient in terms of computational burden, although its results are user-dependent given the
need for a manual search in the computational domain of optimization.
The second method investigates major changes made in the blade shape and number and the
beginning and end points of splitters. This method usually automatically examines parameters and a
wide range of designs including a higher number of parameters compared to the trimming method.
An optimization algorithm is integrated into this method to search in the domain of solutions and show
the direction of steps towards an optimized system. In addition, given the mathematical algorithm
behind optimizations, the results are unpredictable and the computational burden is heavier than that
of the first method.

2. Optimization Procedure
Genetic algorithm is a method for optimizing a function called the objective or fitness function on
a domain. The value of the objective function is calculated at randomly selected points of the domain.
Each set of points form a generation, and the first generation is randomly selected from the domain.
The best members of every generation with the highest objective function values can be included in the
next generation. Generation members are therefore gradually improved, and this process continues
until an arbitrary condition stops the algorithm.
Optimization begins with current blades of a compressor and repeatedly alters the impeller and
checks the performance to achieve a better design. A code was therefore developed and an automatic
process was designed. This process begins with the base compressor and is slightly modified by GA.
The performance of this altered compressor is examined by simulating the flow using CFD methods,
which guides GA to find the optimization direction and create a new generation. At each step, GA tests
certain pre-defined geometrical design parameters of the compressor for the steps ahead. This chain of
actions leads to creating different generations of the compressor. Performance is improved through
generations until GA reaches the terminating point. The code helps manage this process by connecting
GA to the CFD code for conducting simulations and transmitting data between the two algorithms.
Although this method suits a multi-parameter system such as a compressor, flow simulations requiring
many calculations make the whole process large, costly, and very time consuming in a way that the
optimization approximately takes six days of the CPU time. The number of iterations is limited in
CFD modelling depending on the accuracy needed and the amount of calculation allowed. However,
the process termination is not enforced in GA as the algorithm automatically stops the calculations if it
finds out that no further improvements in performance can be achieved.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 4 of 18

Figure 1 shows the efficiency optimization process of the best efficiency point (BEP) in the optimized
compressor as well as some generations. The minor improvement observed in one generation is due
to the similarity of all the designs belonging to that generation; nevertheless, mutation, as a GA tool,
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11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
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creates a new totally different generation between two generations.

The efficiency (%)

Figure 1. The (%) optimizationprocess.
process.
Figure 1. The efficiency
efficiency (%) optimization
optimization process.

Variations
Variations in blade profiles should be expressed as multiple interpolations, which can be modified
Variations in in blade
blade profiles
profiles should
should bebe expressed
expressed as as multiple
multiple interpolations,
interpolations, which
which cancan be
be
by changing
modified control points used by this optimization method. To create these interpolations, a 3D
modified by by changing
changing control
control points
points used
used by by this
this optimization
optimization method.
method. To To create
create these
these
model of the impellermodel
interpolations, was developed in which the impeller waswhich divided into separate parts, and each
interpolations, aa 3D
3D model of of the
the impeller
impeller was
was developed
developed in in which thethe impeller
impeller was
was divided
divided into
into
part was brokenand
separate into points and estimated with an andappropriate interpolation. The difficulty of grid
separate parts,
parts, and each
each part
part was
was broken
broken into
into points
points and estimated
estimated with
with an
an appropriate
appropriate interpolation.
interpolation.
generation
The is that
The difficulty
difficulty of it
of gridmust
grid suit different
generation
generation is designs
is that
that it
it must
mustof suit
compressors
suit different and
different impellers
designs
designs of with different
of compressors
compressors andgeometries,
and impellers
impellers
which
with need special
different treatment.
geometries, Figure
which need 2 shows
special the 3D
treatment. model of
Figure the
2 impeller.
with different geometries, which need special treatment. Figure 2 shows the 3D model of the impeller.
shows the 3D model of the impeller.

Figure 2. Three-dimensional (3D)/Meshing model of impeller.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional (3D)/Meshing
(3D)/Meshing model
model of
of impeller.
impeller.
Different designs of each compressor are analyzed by simulating the flow field through all of the
Different
machines usingdesigns
Different a commercial
designs of
of each
each compressor
code. The BEPare
compressor analyzed
of the
are by
by simulating
base compressor
analyzed makes
simulating the
theupflow field
field through
the operating
flow all
all of
conditions
through of
the
for machines
this using
simulation, a
and commercial
the code.
comparisons The
are BEP of
therefore the
validbase
for compressor
this point.
the machines using a commercial code. The BEP of the base compressor makes up the operating makes up the operating
conditions for
for this
The design
conditions loop
this simulation, and
and the
for the impeller
simulation, comparisons
the forming
comparisons are
are therefore
therefore valid
the optimization valid for
method this
this point.
forbased on GA analyzes the
point.
The
The design
parameters of flow
design loop for
field,
loop the
the impeller
forincluding forming
pressure
impeller ratio,the
forming optimization
efficiency
the and Y+,
optimization method
as the based
method based on
inputs intoGA
on GA theanalyzes the
optimization
analyzes the
parameters
code, to createofnewflow field,
designs including
[25]. pressure ratio, efficiency and
parameters of flow field, including pressure ratio, efficiency and Y+, as the inputs into the Y+, as the inputs into the
optimization
optimization code,
code, to to create
create new
new designs
designs [25].
[25].
GA
GA seeks
seeks toto minimize
minimize or or maximize
maximize the the objective
objective function
function as as aa combination
combination of of performance
performance
parameters
parameters of the compressor, including pressure ratio and efficiency. The weight of each parameter
of the compressor, including pressure ratio and efficiency. The weight of each parameter
in
in this
this function
function depends
depends on on the
the design
design objectives.
objectives. Given
Given thatthat pressure
pressure ratio
ratio can
can bebe increased
increased using
using
simpler
simpler methods
methods such such as as increasing
increasing the
the compressor
compressor diameter
diameter compared
compared to to efficiency
efficiency improvement
improvement
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 5 of 18

GA seeks to minimize or maximize the objective function as a combination of performance

parameters of the compressor, including pressure ratio and efficiency. The weight of each parameter in
this function depends on the design objectives. Given that pressure ratio can be increased using simpler
methods such as increasing the compressor diameter compared to efficiency improvement methods,
maximizing efficiency
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FORis more
PEER emphasized in literature when optimizing centrifugal compressors.
REVIEW 5 of 18
Only one or a number of operating points can be considered in optimizations. Although the second
methods,
method maximizing
cited is not veryefficiency
popular, itisimproves
more emphasized
the performance in literature when optimizing
of a compressor compared to centrifugal
the base
compressors. Only one or a number of operating points can be considered in optimizations.
design in the whole range of operation conditions rather than in a single operating point. Equation (1) Although
the second
shows method
the mass flowcited is not efficiency:
averaged very popular, it improves the performance of a compressor compared
to the base design in the whole range of operation conditions rather than in a single operating point.
R m. 2 .
Equation (1) shows the mass flow averaged efficiency:
m
. η dm
φ = 1− . 1 . (1)
m2 − m 𝜂 1𝑑𝑚
𝜙 =1− (1)
𝑚 −𝑚 .
where φ is the objective function, η is the efficiency and m represents the mass flow rate of the
where 𝜙 is and
compressor the objective
the indices function,
show the 𝜂 maximum
is the efficiency and 𝑚 represents
and minimum operating the mass
points of flow rate of the
the compressor.
compressor
This functionand the indices
indicates that the show the maximum
parameter that will and minimumand
be optimized operating
is a masspoints of the compressor.
flow averaged efficiency
This
in function
overall working indicates
pointsthat
of thethecompressor
parameterinthatone will be optimized
rotational speed. and is a mass flow averaged
efficiency in overall
Variables shouldworking points of
be determined inthe
thecompressor
optimization in to
one rotational
specify speed.of freedom associated
the degree
with Variables should be
the optimization determinedThe
parameters. in the optimization
higher the number to specify the degree
of parameters of freedom
selected, associated
the longer the
with the optimization
calculation duration and parameters.
the heavierThe the higher the number
data processing of Moreover,
load. parameterscertain
selected, the longer
variables the
that did
calculation
not duration
significantly and thetoheavier
contribute the were
the results data processing
selected at load. Moreover,
the following certain
points for variables that did
the optimization,
not significantly
Figure 3 shows the contribute
schematictoofthe theresults wereoptimization
following selected at the following points for the optimization,
variables:
Figure 3 shows the schematic of the following optimization variables:
• The initial point of the blades in the hub profile
• • initial
the The initial
point of point
the of the blades
blades in the in the hub profile
mid-span profile
• • the initial point of the blades in
the initial point of the blades in the tip profilethe mid-span profile
• the initial point of the blades in the tip profile
• peripheral angle specifying the splitter position versus the main blades
• peripheral angle specifying the splitter position versus the main blades

Figure 3. Schematic of the optimization variables.

Figure 3. Schematic of the optimization variables.
Certain constraints should be applied on these parameters to design a real optimized compressor,
Certain
otherwise the constraints
optimizationshould
process bewill
applied
create on these parameters
non-physical designs. to
Thedesign a realofoptimized
initial point blades is
limited between the initial and ending of the main blades and the peripheral angle initial
compressor, otherwise the optimization process will create non-physical designs. The betweenpoint
twoof
blades is limited
sequential blades. between the initial and ending of the main blades and the peripheral angle between
two sequential
Equation (2) blades.
presents the mathematical model of the problem.
Equation (2) presents the mathematical model of the problem.
Objective
Objectivefunction(Φ) = f= (a,
function(Φ) f (a,b,b,c, c,d)d) (2)
(2)
Given the method selected for the optimization, a scheme is designed for achieving the goal. The
optimization method involves an iterative process, and the optimization algorithm includes several
steps as follows:
(1) Making curves for blades
 Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 6 of 18

Given the method selected for the optimization, a scheme is designed for achieving the goal.
The optimization method involves an iterative process, and the optimization algorithm includes several
steps as follows:

(1) Making curves for blades

(2) Developing 3D models of the new impeller
(3) Creating
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new impeller 6 of 18
(4) Simulating the flow field of the impeller
(5) Analyzing
(5) Analyzing the the
flowflow
fieldfield
and and proposing
proposing new new curves
curves basedbased on simulations
on flow flow simulations
(6) Repeating
(6) Repeating the the process
process

2.1.
2.1.Step
Step1 1
Foroptimization
For optimizationofofthe
theblade,
blade,its
its geometry
geometry should be expressed
expressedusing
usinginterpolations,
interpolations,which
whichcan
can
bebe modified
modified by
bychanging control
changing pointspoints
control used by the optimization
used method to create
by the optimization methodthesetointerpolations.
create these
The 3D modelThe
interpolations. of the
3Dimpeller
model ofdescribed earlier
the impeller divides earlier
described the impeller into
divides theseparate
impellerparts,
into and each parts,
separate part
is broken into certain points and estimated with an appropriate interpolation.
and each part is broken into certain points and estimated with an appropriate interpolation.

2.2.Step
2.2. Step2 2
The 3D model of the impeller was developed in Bladegen, which uses a file specifying all the
The 3D model of the impeller was developed in Bladegen, which uses a file specifying all the
impeller details. The optimization method alters this file to change the impeller geometry. Bladegen is
impeller details. The optimization method alters this file to change the impeller geometry. Bladegen
a professional software used for designing turbo machines. It has special sections for radial impellers,
is a professional software used for designing turbo machines. It has special sections for radial
axial turbines and compressors, IGV, vanned diffusers, etc. A design of profiles, blades, and flow
impellers, axial turbines and compressors, IGV, vanned diffusers, etc. A design of profiles, blades,
channels in the compressor is developed with this software (Figure 4).
and flow channels in the compressor is developed with this software (Figure 4).

Figure 4. A design of profiles, blades, and flow channels in the compressor is developed with the
Figure 4. A design of profiles, blades, and flow channels in the compressor is developed with the
Bladegen software.
Bladegen software.
2.3. Step 3
2.3. Step 3
The grid generation method associated with compressors involves some difficulty in this step.
The grid
A method andgeneration
controls aremethod
requiredassociated withwith
to create grids compressors involves
a good quality some difficulty
for different compressor in this step.
designs.
AEvery
method and controls
geometric designare required
of an impellertorequires
create grids
specialwith a good Meshing
treatment. quality for differentis compressor
procedure one of the
designs. Every geometric
most important steps of 3Ddesign of an impeller requires special treatment. Meshing procedure is one
analysis.
of the Amost important
reliable meshing steps of 3D analysis.
is sufficiently fine-grained in the areas with sharp gradients. Determining the
dimensions
A reliableof meshing
work is very important infine-grained
is sufficiently turbomachines because
in the areasthe results
with sharpwillgradients.
not provide converge
Determining
if the meshes are too large, and the computational time will increase sharply if
the dimensions of work is very important in turbomachines because the results will not provide the meshes are too small.
convergeTherefore, mesh size
if the meshes areselection
too large,needs
and tothestrike a balance between
computational time willtheincrease
accuracy of the solution
sharply and
if the meshes
the computational
are too small. time; this step brings about a trial-and-error process. The meshing of flow domains
is a Therefore,
tricky procedure in turbo
mesh size machines
selection needsbecause
to strike ofathe edgesbetween
balance of bladesthe
andaccuracy
corners inof channel of flow.
the solution and
the computational time; this step brings about a trial-and-error process. The meshing of flow domains
is a tricky procedure in turbo machines because of the edges of blades and corners in channel of flow.
Figure 5 shows the meshing of flow domain in TurboGrid. TurboGrid is especially useful for this
procedure as it finds inlets and outlets of flow and, gathering information regarding the blades,
builds a fine mesh proportional to each place of the domains.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 7 of 18

Figure 5 shows the meshing of flow domain in TurboGrid. TurboGrid is especially useful for this
procedure as it finds inlets and outlets of flow and, gathering information regarding the blades, builds
a fine mesh proportional to each place of the domains.
The efficiency and the pressure ratio do not change significantly after a certain number of meshing,
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meshes 7 of 18
grow smaller, they suggest that the meshing computation is optimal.

Figure
Figure 5. Meshing
Meshing of
of flow
flow domain,
domain, TurboGrid
TurboGrid software.

The total
total number
numberof ofgrid
gridnodes
nodesisismore
morethan 1,250,000
than that
1,250,000 created
that by the
created structured
by the method,
structured and
method,
the nearest
and nodes
the nearest to the
nodes towalls are 20
the walls aremicrometers far. So,
20 micrometers far.the
So, maximum
the maximumy+ of
y+the
of walls is around
the walls 30.
is around
30.
2.4. Step 4
2.4. Step
The4compressor can be analyzed by simulating the flow field throughout the whole machine.
CFX was
The the software used
compressor can be in this simulation
analyzed [26]. Flowthe
by simulating modelling
flow fieldis anthroughout
important partthe of 3D simulation.
whole machine.
The CFX is an ANSYS module for fluid simulation, yet its core
CFX was the software used in this simulation [26]. Flow modelling is an important part of 3D is designed for turbomachines,
therefore it is
simulation. The easier
CFXtoisconnect
an ANSYS the rotary
module parts
for andfluidstationary
simulation, parts yetofits
compressors than other
core is designed for
fluid-modelling therefore
turbomachines, modules. it is easier to connect the rotary parts and stationary parts of compressors
than There is a BEP for the modules.
other fluid-modelling base compressor design, and optimization is usually performed at this
point;There
nevertheless,
is a BEP the for present
the baseresearch
compressorconsidered
design,optimization
and optimizationin the whole operating
is usually rangeat
performed ofthis
the
compressor at the nominal speed. [27–29] have shown the code validation
point; nevertheless, the present research considered optimization in the whole operating range of the for turbomachine flows.
The main
compressor goal
at the of 3D speed.
nominal modelling is tohave
[27–29] observe
shown details
the codeof the flow. Simplifications
validation for turbomachine areflows.
rare in
this method,
The mainand goaloutcomes
of 3D modellingare therefore realistic details
is to observe and close to actual
of the conditions. In are
flow. Simplifications 3D rare
modelling,
in this
phenomena such as backflow, vortexes, and turbulence are present
method, and outcomes are therefore realistic and close to actual conditions. In 3D modelling, that would be absent in 1D and 2D
models. One of the main criteria in 3D modelling is the geometry of
phenomena such as backflow, vortexes, and turbulence are present that would be absent in 1D and the flow domain.
An appropriate
2D models. One of the grid
main is the key to
criteria in an
3D effective
modelling and is accurate
the geometrymodelling
of the of flow.
flow Grids of domain
domain.
determine
An appropriate grid is the key to an effective and accurate modelling of flow. Gridsisof
the cost of computation and some basic errors of modelling. The shape of grids important
domain
especially atthe
determine regions
cost near the walls. Theand
of computation complex
somegeometry
basic errors of turbo machines makes
of modelling. grid generation
The shape of grids allis
the more important. Grid generation for rotary components will be done
important especially at regions near the walls. The complex geometry of turbo machines makes grid by structured methods, and
this choice renders
generation the process
all the more important. moreGridefficient except for
generation in regions such as volute,
rotary components willwhere a non-symmetric
be done by structured
unstructured
methods, andgrid
this is suitable.
choice renders the process more efficient except in regions such as volute, where a
The following
non-symmetric are important
unstructured gridaspects which deserve attention in the simulation:
is suitable.
For connection of different parts, the
The following are important aspects which deserve Transient Rotor-Stator
attentionandinFrozen-Rotor
the simulation: Simulation method
will be
Forused. This method
connection saves details
of different parts, the of flow and works
Transient not onlyand
Rotor-Stator on averaged
Frozen-Rotorflow Simulation
properties.
The frozen-rotor simulation is applied to attain a steady state
method will be used. This method saves details of flow and works not only on averaged solution for various parts of the machine.
flow
To be specific,
properties. Thethe equipment’s
frozen-rotor geometryisdoes
simulation not to
applied change
attainthroughout
a steady state thesolution
interface,for
and the condition
various parts of
is steady.
the machine. To be specific, the equipment’s geometry does not change throughout the interface, and
the condition is steady.
• Flow is steady.
• The turbulence method is SST(Menter’s Shear Stress Transport) [30]. This model is designed
to obtain the ultimate accuracy in predicting the onset and division of mass flow under
adverse pressure gradients. This model has both high performance in observing near-wall
flows and secondary flows. The results of computations with this model show significant
improvement in flow separation. The high performance of this model has been shown in
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 8 of 18

• Flow is steady.
• The turbulence method is SST(Menter’s Shear Stress Transport) [30]. This model is designed to
obtain the ultimate accuracy in predicting the onset and division of mass flow under adverse
pressure gradients. This model has both high performance in observing near-wall flows and
secondary flows. The results of computations with this model show significant improvement in
flow separation. The high performance of this model has been shown in several validation studies.
SST also recommended simulating the boundary layer with high accuracy [31–33].
• The effects of turbulence were modeled using the standard k-ε turbulence model. To make the
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
simulation time economical, wall function is used to resolve the wall flows. It has merits of k-ε
and k-ω near and far from the walls.
• The effects of turbulence were modeled using the standard k-ε turbulence model. To make
the simulation time economical, wall function is used to resolve the wall flows. It has merits
Boundary conditions at the inlet are temperature and static pressure of air, and at the outlet is
of k-ε and k-𝜔 near and far from the walls.
mass flow. At the inlet boundary, various forms of boundary condition may be applied. For instance,
Boundary conditions at the inlet are temperature and static pressure of air, and at the outlet is mass
one may specify the mass flow rate (velocity) or total pressure. For the majority of computational cases,
flow. At the inlet boundary, various forms of boundary condition may be applied. For instance, one
the may
massspecify
flow ratethe is specified
mass over
flow rate the whole
(velocity) inletpressure.
or total face of theForimpeller. An approximate
the majority of computationalmass flow of
cases,
0.287 kg/s is yielded as the average inlet velocity, while the measured state pressure
the mass flow rate is specified over the whole inlet face of the impeller. An approximate mass flow is applied as an
average value
of 0.287 kg/sover the volute’s
is yielded outlet area.
as the average In order while
inlet velocity, for thethe
computations
measured state to pressure
assess the performance
is applied as
parameter
an averageeffectively, total the
value over pressure is applied
volute’s at theIninlet.
outlet area. orderThe forimpeller is turning with
the computations a rotational
to assess the
speed of 92 k rev/min
performance while
parameter the volute
effectively, andpressure
total diffuserisare both at
applied stationary.
the inlet. The impeller is turning with
a Following
rotational speed
figuresofshow
92 k rev/min whileof
some results the
thevolute
CFD and diffuser are
simulation. both 6stationary.
Figures and 7 show the 3D numerical
simulationFollowing
results figures show some results
of the centrifugal of the for
compressor CFD simulation.
the efficiencyFigure 6 and Figure
and pressure ratio.7 show
Figurethe 3D
8 shows
the numerical
results of CFDsimulation resultsfor
calculations of the
the compressor
centrifugal compressor for the efficiency and pressure ratio.
with streamlines.
Figure 8 shows the results of CFD calculations for the compressor with streamlines.

0.85

0.8
60
70
0.75
Efficiency

0.7

0.65

0.6

0.55

0.5
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Mass Parameter

Figure6.6.Efficiency
Figure Efficiency (%) by 3D
(%) by 3Dsimulation.
simulation.
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1.8
1.8
1.75
1.75
1.7 60
1.7 60
70
1.65 70
1.65
1.6
Ratio

1.6
PressureRatio

1.55
1.55
1.5
Pressure

1.5
1.45
1.45
1.4
1.4
1.35
1.35
1.3
1.3
1.25
1.25
1.2
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
1.2 Mass Parameter
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Mass Parameter
Figure 7. Pressure ratio by 3D simulation.
Figure 7. Pressure ratio by 3D simulation.
Figure 7. Pressure ratio by 3D simulation.

Figure 8. Streamlines in 3D simulation.

Figure 8. Streamlines in 3D simulation.

Any time one must calculate transient interaction effects at a sliding-frame change interface, a
Any time one must calculate transient interaction effects at a sliding-frame change interface, a
transient rotor simulation may beFigure
transient rotor simulation may be
utilized. Such simulations
8. Streamlines
utilized.
are inherently always transient, as they
in 3D simulation.
Such simulations are inherently always transient, as they
never attain a static condition. This is because the components on each side of a transient sliding
Any time one must calculate transient interaction effects at a sliding-frame change interface, a
transient rotor simulation may be utilized. Such simulations are inherently always transient, as they
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 10 of 18

interface are always in relative motion with respect to each other. In a transient, sliding interface,
pitch change is handled in the same way as are frozen rotor interfaces: According to the degree of
pitch change across the interface, profiles in the pitch-wise direction are compressed or stretched.
An increasing change of pitch will bring about rapid decreases of accuracy in computation, as is the
case with the frozen-rotor condition.

2.5. Step 5
The design loop for impeller forming the final optimization method based on GA analyzes
different impeller designs and creates new curves by investigating flow field parameters, including
pressure ratio, efficiency, and Y+, as the inputs into the optimization method.

3. Base Compressor
The optimized turbocharger compressor consisted of six main blades and six splitter blades
with a basic compressor geometry. In simple terms, the turbine and subsequently the compressor
spins as long as the air compressor wheel spins and compressed air rotates the turbine. The BEP of
this compressor is associated with a speed of 92k rpm and an approximate mass flow of 0.287 kg/s.
The nominal pressure ratio of this compressor was approximately 2.2 and its nominal efficiency was
78%. Table 1 displays the compressor’s specification.

Table 1. Compressor’s specs.

Value Parameters
2.25 Nominal pressure ratio
0.28 Nominal mass flow (kg/s)
92,000 Nominal rpm
288 Inlet temperature (K)
101 Inlet pressure (KPA)
78% Nominal efficiency
0.63 Ratio of relative velocities
22 Inlet diameter at hub (cm)
54 Inlet diameter at shroud (cm)
6+6 Number of full and splitter blades
38 Back swept angle (degree)
55 Lean angle (degree)
0.33 Ratio of axial length to diameter

No inlet guide vane (IGV) was present at the inlet of GT4082, although its blades were complex
with splitters. The structure was therefore too complicated to be studied and improved.

4. Validating the Results

The accuracy and validity of the simulation method was investigated by considering the results
of a reliable published article with the most details of the input parameters of the present simulation.
The simulation results were compared with those obtained from the cited study. The 3D simulation of
the domain was conducted without simplifying the flow. The domain simulated in the optimization
process contained the inlet, the impeller, the diffuser, and the volute.
Figures 9 and 10 show this evaluation in which the results of an experimental study associated
with the original geometry and a speed of 70 k rpm were used. These results were found to correctly
simulate the compressor behavior and to be accurate with a maximum margin of error of 4.2% [14].
Sustainability 2019,11,
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.
.
Figure9.
Figure 9. This
This is
is aa comparison of efficiency
comparison of (%) accuracy
efficiency (%) accuracy results
results in
in the
the simulation
simulation with
with those
those associated
associated
Figure
with 9.reliable
the This is aexperimental
comparison of efficiency
study. Mass (%) accuracy
flow (kg/s). results in the simulation with those associated
with the reliable experimental study. Mass flow (kg/s).
with the reliable experimental study. Mass flow (kg/s).

.
.
Figure 10. This is a comparison of pressure ratio accuracy results in the simulation with those associated
Figure 10. This is a comparison of pressure ratio accuracy results in the simulation with those
with the reliable experimental study. Mass f low (kg/s).
Figure 10. with
associated This the
is areliable
comparison of pressure
experimental study.ratio
Massaccuracy results in the simulation with those
f low (kg/s).
associated with the
5. Results and Discussion reliable experimental study. Mass f low (kg/s).
5. Results and Discussion
The results
5. Results obtained from running the optimization method indicate that the splitter blades
and Discussion
should The
be results obtained
shortened and thefrom
sloperunning the optimization
of the leading edge should method indicate
be increased that the
to improve thesplitter blades
performance.
shouldTheberesults obtained
shortened and from
the running
slope of the
the optimization
leading edge method
should indicate
be that
increasedtheto
Further investigations designed new blades which start at the middle of the hub, while their locationsplitter
improveblades
the
should
was be
performance. shortened
fixed alongFurther and the slope
investigations
a 30% length of the hub of the
designed leading
newdesign.
in the base edge
blades The should
which be
start at
leading increased
thein
edge middle to improve
of the design
the optimal hub, whilethe
has
performance.
atheir location
40-degree Further
upward investigations
was fixed
angle,along
whileait30% designed
length
is quite new
of the
radial blades
withhub which
in the
a zero start
base
angle at the
design.
in the middle
base The of the
leading
design. hub, while
edge result
Geometry in the
their location
optimal design was
hasfixed
a along
40-degree a 30%
upwardlength of
angle,
of the first optimization can be seen in Figure 11. the
whilehub
it in
is the
quite base design.
radial with The
a leading
zero angle edge
in theinbase
the
optimal design has a 40-degree upward angle, while it is quite
design. Geometry result of the first optimization can be seen in Figure 11.radial with a zero angle in the base
design. Geometry result of the first optimization can be seen in Figure 11.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 12 of 18
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Figure 11.
Figure Geometryresult
11. Geometry result of
of the
the first
first optimization.
optimization.

Figure 12
Figure 12 shows
shows variations
variations in
in efficiency
efficiency versus
versus mass
mass flow
flow rate. The new
rate. The new impeller
impeller is
is observed
observed to
to
have a higher isentropic efficiency at higher mass flows. The maximum efficiency of the impeller
have a higher isentropic efficiency at higher mass flows. The maximum efficiency of the impeller was was
also found
also found toto be
be approximately
approximately 2%2% more
more than
than that
that of
of the
the base
base design.
design.

Comparing theefficiency
Figure 12. Comparing efficiency (%) of
of the optimized
optimized design and
and base design
design.
Figure
Figure 12.
12. Comparing the
the efficiency (%)
(%) of the
the optimized design base design..
design and base
As may be seen from the performance curve in Figure 12, the new impeller has a higher isentropic
As
As may
may be be seen
seen from
from the
the performance
performance curve
curve inin Figure
Figure 12,
12, the
the new
new impeller
impeller has
has aa higher
higher
efficiency at higher mass flows. The maximum efficiency of the impeller was also found to be
isentropic
isentropic efficiency at higher mass flows. The maximum efficiency of the impeller was also found to
efficiency at higher mass flows. The maximum efficiency of the impeller was also found to
approximately 2% more than that of the base design, while the pressure ratio [34], of the optimal design
be
be approximately
approximately 2% 2% more
more than
than that
that of
of the
the base
base design,
design, while
while the
the pressure
pressure ratio
ratio [34],
[34], of
of the
the optimal
optimal
dropped by about 0.02%, which is negligible compared to the enhancement of efficiency. The pressure
design
design dropped
dropped by by about
about 0.02%,
0.02%, which
which isis negligible
negligible compared
compared to to the
the enhancement
enhancement of of efficiency.
efficiency. The
The
ratio of the compressor can therefore be assumed to remain constant while efficiency was improved
pressure ratio of the compressor can therefore be assumed to remain constant while
pressure ratio of the compressor can therefore be assumed to remain constant while efficiency was efficiency was
to a relatively favorable value. Figure 13 compares pressure ratios and efficiencies for the new and
improved
improved to to aa relatively
relatively favorable
favorable value.
value. Figure
Figure 13
13 compares
compares pressure
pressure ratios
ratios and
and efficiencies
efficiencies for
for the
the
base designs.
new
new and
and base
base designs.
designs.
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Figure 13.
Figure13.
Figure Comparing
13.Comparing efficiency
Comparingefficiency for
efficiencyfor the
forthe optimized
theoptimized design
optimizeddesign and
designand base
basedesign.
andbase design.
design.

The flow
The flow field
field in
flow field in the
the hubhub and and shroud
shroud was was investigated
investigated to to find
to find the
find the reason
the reason
reason forfor the
for the increase
the increase
increase inin
in
The in the hub and shroud was investigated
efficiency.
efficiency. The
The Y+Y+ on
on the
the walls
walls was
was not
notallowed
allowed to to
exceed
exceed30 30to maintain
to maintain the the
numerical
numerical accuracy of the
accuracy of
efficiency. The Y+ on the walls was not allowed to exceed 30 to maintain the numerical accuracy of
boundary
theboundary
boundary layerlayer
flowflow
in the insimulation
thesimulation
simulationof this part.
ofthis
thispart.
part.
the layer flow in the of
According
According to
to Figure
Figure 14,
14, aa minor
minor shift
shift is
is observed
observed in the
in the
the hubhub
hub inin the
in the beginning
the beginning
beginning of of the
of the blades,
the blades,
blades,
According to Figure 14, a minor shift is observed in
followed
followedby by changes
bychanges
changesin in the
inthe flow
theflow field
flowfield compared
fieldcompared
comparedto to the
tothe base
thebase design.
basedesign. Although
design.Although
Althoughthe the flow
theflow path
flowpath is smooth
pathisissmooth
smooth
followed
enough
enough in
in the
thecompressor
compressor inlet,
inlet,it it
does
doesnotnotfollow
follow thethe
blades
bladesbutbutseparates
separates fromfrom themthem
in theinmiddle
the due
middle
enough in the compressor inlet, it does not follow the blades but separates from them in the middle
to thetohub
due profile
thehub and the
hubprofile
profile andCoriolis
theCoriolis forces.
Coriolis At this
forces. point,
Atthis splitter
thispoint,
point, blades
splitter face aface
blades flow flow
with with
a negative and
due to the and the forces. At splitter blades face aaflow with aanegative
negative
large incident
andlarge angle
largeincident followed
incidentangle
anglefollowed by
followedby a decrease
byaadecreasein
decreaseinefficiency of
inefficiency the
efficiencyof compressor,
ofthethecompressor, suggesting
compressor,suggesting the
suggestingthemajor effect
themajor
major
and
of this of
effect part
thisonpart
efficiency.
on This issue
efficiency. This was
issue resolved
was in the second
resolved in the impeller
second by shortening
impeller by the blade
shortening the in the
blade
effect of this part on efficiency. This issue was resolved in the second impeller by shortening the blade
optimal
in the design and
the optimal
optimal lowering
design the efficiency
and lowering
lowering drop by preventing
the efficiency
efficiency drop by by the flow fromthe
preventing sharply encountering
flow from
from sharply
sharply
in design and the drop preventing the flow
the blade.
encounteringthe theblade.
blade.
encountering

..
Figure 14. Comparing streamlines around impeller blades at hub. (left: Optimal; right: Base).
Figure14.
Figure 14.Comparing
Comparingstreamlines
streamlinesaround
aroundimpeller
impellerblades
bladesat
athub.
hub.(left:
(left:Optimal;
Optimal;right:
right:Base).
Base).
The shroud of the impeller can be investigated similarly. Figure 15 shows the streamlines about
Theshroud
The shroud
the shroud. ofthe
of theimpeller
Turbulence impeller
is canbe
much lower
can be investigated
ininvestigated similarly.
this section and Figure
the blade
similarly. 15shows
shows
positions
Figure 15 thecause
do not
the streamlines about
a majorabout
streamlines drop
the
whereshroud. Turbulence
new blades
the shroud. is
face a is
Turbulence much
smoother lower in this section and the blade positions do not cause
flow.in this section and the blade positions do not cause a major
much lower a major
dropwhere
drop wherenew
newblades
bladesface
faceaasmoother
smootherflow.
flow.
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Figure 15.Comparing
Figure15. Comparingstreamlines
streamlinesaround
around impeller
impeller at shroud. (left:
(left:Optimal;
Optimal;right: Base).
right:Base).
Figure 15. Comparing streamlines around impeller at shroud. (left: Optimal; right: Base).
InIngeneral,
general,thethedecrease
decrease inin the
the total
total length of the blades blades causes
causesan anefficiency
efficiencyimprovement
improvementbyby
In general, the decrease in the total length of the blades causes an efficiency improvement by
reducing
reducingenergy
energywaste,
waste, while
whilereducing
reducing thethe
area associated
area associatedwith thethe
with blades
bladesandand
therefore reducing
therefore both
reducing
reducing energy waste, while reducing the area associated with the blades and therefore reducing
the energy
both transfer
the energy from the
transfer fromblade to thetoflow
the blade and and
the flow the pressure ratio.
the pressure Simulation
ratio. Simulationresults suggest
results the
suggest
both the energy transfer from the blade to the flow and the pressure ratio. Simulation results suggest
simultaneous
the simultaneouspresence of both
presence thesethese
of both effects, i.e., increasing
effects, efficiency
i.e., increasing is accompanied
efficiency is accompanied by aby
minor drop
a minor
the simultaneous presence of both these effects, i.e., increasing efficiency is accompanied by a minor
indrop in the pressure
the pressure ratio. ratio.
drop in the pressure ratio.
Investigationofofthe
Investigation theperformance
performanceofofthe the compressor’sstall
compressor’s stall and
and choke
choke is is also
also important.
important. Counters
Counters for
Investigation of the performance of the compressor’s stall and choke is also important. Counters
forrelative
the the relative
Mach Mach number
number areare shown
shown to to examinethe
examine theperformance
performance of of the compressor
compressornear nearthe
the
for the relative
chokingsituation.
Mach number are shown to examine the performance of the compressor near the
situation.
choking
choking situation.
Figure 16shows
showsthatthatthe
themaximum
maximum Mach numbers
Figure 16 numbers emergeemergenear
nearthetheshroud
shroudsection
sectionwhere
wherechoke
choke
Figure
initiates. In 16 shows
this thata the
section, maximum
shock wave Mach between
starting numberstwo emerge
bladesnear the shroud
restricts the section
mass flow.where choke
initiates. In this section, a shock wave starting between two blades restricts the mass flow.
initiates. In this section, a shock wave starting between two blades restricts the mass flow.

Figure 16. Mach number near the blades of the optimal impeller. (left: Shroud, center: Midspan and
Figure
right: 16. Mach number near the blades of the optimal impeller. (left: Shroud, center: Midspan and
Hub).
right: Hub).
Figure 16. Mach number near the blades of the optimal impeller. (left: Shroud, center: Midspan and
Further studies show that this section, at the throat of the impeller, has a minimum area, and
right: Hub).
can beFurther studies
identified show
in the thatconditions.
other this section, The
at theshock
throatwave
of thegrows
impeller,
andhas a minimum
entirely area,the
occupies andthroat
can
be identified
and compressor in
Further studiesthe
chokesother
show conditions.
thatan
with this The shock
section,inatthe
increase wave grows
thecompressor
throat of themass and entirely
impeller,
flow.has occupies
a minimum
Given the throat
that thisarea,
shock andand
can
wave
becompressor
identified chokes
in the with an
other increase inThe
conditions. the shock
compressor
wave mass
grows flow.
and Given thatoccupies
entirely this shockthewave does
throat
does not emerge in the splitter area, modifying the leading edge does not make any changes in and
the
not emerge in the splitter area, modifying the leading edge does not make any changes in the
compressor choke.
compressor chokes with an increase in the compressor mass flow. Given that this shock wave does
compressor choke.
not emerge in the splitter
The compressor shouldarea, modifying using
be simulated the leading
low massedgeflowsdoes to
notinvestigate
make any the changes in the
stall in the
The compressor should be simulated using low mass flows to investigate the stall in the new
compressor
new compressor.choke.
compressor.
The compressor
Figure 17 shows high should be simulated
turbulence using lowflow
and disturbed massfields
flowsintothe
investigate
shrouds of the stalldesigns
both in the new
and
Figure 17 shows high turbulence and disturbed flow fields in the shrouds of both designs and
compressor.flow paths from the inlet to the outlet. Given the low mass flow and momentum, the fixed
inconsistent
inconsistent flow paths from the inlet to the outlet. Given the low mass flow and momentum, the
wallsFigure
of the 17 shows
volute high turbulence
significantly andflow.
affect the disturbed flowfield
The flow fields in the
shows shrouds
that of both
the mass flowdesigns and
cannot exit
fixed walls of the volute significantly affect the flow. The flow field shows that the mass flow cannot
inconsistent
properly, flow
which pathsblockage
causes from theand inlet to the outlet. Given the low mass flow and momentum, the
instability.
exit properly, which causes blockage and instability.
fixed walls of the volute significantly affect the flow. The flow field shows that the mass flow cannot
exit properly, which causes blockage and instability.
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Figure 17. Streamlines around blades for optimal (up) and base design (down). (left: Shroud, center:
Midspan and right: Hub).
Figure 17. Streamlines around blades for optimal (up) and base design (down). (left: Shroud, center:
Midspan and right: Hub).
Fewer disturbances are observed in the mid-span section and a continuous flow appears from the
inlet to the outlet of the impeller. Furthermore, a large eddy flow takes a lot of space of the section,
Fewer disturbances are observed in the mid-span section and a continuous flow appears from
although a correct flow angle is still observed in the impeller inlet and outlet.
the inlet to the outlet of the impeller. Furthermore, a large eddy flow takes a lot of space of the section,
Major differences can be observed in the stall behavior [35] of the base and optimal designs in the
although a correct flow angle is still observed in the impeller inlet and outlet.
hub. The most regular flow is observed in the hub section of the base design with separations, whereas
Major differences can be observed in the stall behavior [35] of the base and optimal designs in
in the optimal blades, the separation is postponed and the splitters present better conditions.
the hub. The most regular flow is observed in the hub section of the base design with separations,
Tests showed that decreasing mass flow causes the mid-span and the hub quickly to become
whereas in the optimal blades, the separation is postponed and the splitters present better conditions.
disturbed, which leads to blockage. This information can be used to create a pattern for predicting the
Tests showed that decreasing mass flow causes the mid-span and the hub quickly to become
stall and surge of compressor. Simulations suggest a 7% postponement in the surge of mass flow in the
disturbed, which leads to blockage. This information can be used to create a pattern for predicting
optimal compressor.
the stall and surge of compressor. Simulations suggest a 7% postponement in the surge of mass flow
in
6. the optimal compressor.
Conclusions
The present article proposed a novel approach for optimizing the impellers of centrifugal
6. Conclusions
compressors by creating and simulating different variations of the base compressor using a hybrid
Thecomprising
method present article
GA andproposed a novel
a simulation approach
package for optimizing
and defining the function
an objective impellers
andofthe
centrifugal
variables.
compressors
GA was used to develop a new compressor design by optimizing the objective function. GA, asa the
by creating and simulating different variations of the base compressor using hybrid
core
method
of this method, was used to optimize the impeller’s geometry. GA produces different generationsthe
comprising GA and a simulation package and defining an objective function and of
variables. GA suggests
impellers and was useddifferent
to develop a new
designs compressor
by simulating thedesign by optimizing
flow using a commercialthecode
objective function.
and evaluating
GA, as the core of parameters
the performance this method,and wascreating
used to optimize the with
generations impeller’s
bettergeometry. GA produces
performance. different
The optimization
generations of impellers and suggests different designs by simulating the flow
process began by selecting a turbocharger compressor and ended with developing a new optimal using a commercial
code and design
impeller evaluating the performance
in which the pressure parameters and creating
ratio remained constantgenerations
as that of with better
the base performance.
design and the
The optimization process began by selecting a turbocharger compressor and ended
efficiency was improved by 2%, while the stability of the compressor improved against surge by with developing
aapproximately
new optimal 7%. impeller design in which the pressure ratio remained constant as that of the base
design and the efficiency
This improvement was improved
in efficiency by 2%,that
also indicates while the stability
extending of the
the study andcompressor improved
use of CFD simulation
against
tools assurge byoptimizing
well as approximately 7%.
the performance of turbomachines can consistently be used as a reliable
This improvement in efficiency
tool for moving forward on the path toward also indicates
sustainablethat extending the study and use of CFD
development.
simulation tools as well as optimizing the performance of turbomachines can consistently be used as
a reliable tool for moving forward on the path toward sustainable development.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5409 16 of 18

In the same way, future studies can construct even more conventional models by utilizing
reasonable methods of optimization and continuing with more practical lab examinations. As a result of
this study, it is predicted that future research will permanently increase the efficiency of the compressor
by maintaining the technical specifications of the output fluid to obtain the possibility of replacing
fuel-efficient engines with green and economical fuel. Through the effective combination of higher
education, advanced research, and industrial practice, these findings from this paper will have a
profound impact on theoretical research and commercial development in remanufacturing theory and
engineering in the near future.

Author Contributions: M.O. and S.-J.L. conceived of the presented idea and drafted the manuscript. S.M. and
H.-T.L. developed the theory, revised, and designed the figures H.-C.Z. and S.-J.L. supervised the findings of this
work. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude for the financial support provided by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51975100). This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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