Antenna and propagation

LAB 1 FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS OF RADIATION PATTERN

This laboratory presents the most common parameters of antennas, as specified

in real life engineering application.

1. Objectives:
Familiarize with the graphical representation of the radiation pattern of an antenna
Determining the fundamental parameters of radiation patterns
Determining the boundary regions of the field produced by antenna

2. Theoretical summary:
2.1. Coordinate systems (definitions, differences between them)
2.2. Radiation pattern (isotropic, omnidirectional, directional)
2.3. Lobes (major, minor, HPBW, FNBW)
2.4. Electrical input parameters: input impedance of an antenna, reflective coefficient
and VSWR
2.5. Antenna radiation efficiency
2.6. Radiation power density
2.7. Radiation intensity
2.8. Directivity, antenna efficiency, gain and bandwidth
2.9. Field regions

3. Laboratory work:
3.1.Identify the radiation patterns.
3.2.Represent the radiation diagram in the vertical and horizontal plane.
3.3.Represent the input impedance of an antenna, the reflection coefficient and VSWR
and determine analytically the reflection coefficient and VSWR.
3.4.Calculate the boundaries of the field.
3.5.Identify the lobes and indicate the directions of maximum radiation.
3.6.1. Determine the angle formed between the direction of maximum radiation
from the main lobe and the back lobe.
3.6.2 Determine the HPBW and FNBW.
3.6.3 Determine the minimum attenuation of the side lobes and the back lobe with
respect to the maximum of the main lobe.
3.6.4 Determine the directivity of the antenna.

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2. Theoretical summary

2.1. Coordinate systems

For the localization of a point in space, one of the following coordinate systems is used:
the Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, z), the spherical coordinate system (r, or a system
derived from the spherical coordinate system: distance, elevation, azimuth. In the case of the
Cartesian coordinate system the position of a point "M" in space is defined by the triplet (xM,
yM, zM), in the case of the spherical coordinate system by the triplet (r, and in the case of
the coordinate system derived from the spherical coordinate system of the triplet (r, elevation,
azimuth). The three coordinate systems are represented in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Locating a point in space.

If the semi-axis ox coincides with the geographical north direction, then the azimuth is
identical to the coordinate .

2.2. Radiation pattern (isotropic, omnidirectional, directional)

An RF powered antenna produces, in the air, electromagnetic waves that propagate in

all directions. At one point in space, the intensity of the radiated electromagnetic field is
dependent: on one side by the distance from the antenna, on the other side on the direction.
The radiation pattern of the antenna refers exclusively to the angular dependence
(direction) of either the intensity of the electric / magnetic field radiated in the free space, or
the density of power radiated, or the gain, or the directivity. The angular dependence can be
described analytically by a mathematical function of two angular variables, or graphically, by

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a surface or a set of diagrams. In order to determine or define the radiation pattern of the
antenna a spherical volume with the antenna in the center is considered. The radius of the
sphere is chosen to be large enough that the angular distribution of the radiated field intensity
to be independent of distance (the observation point is in the "far field area"). At each point on
the surface of the sphere, to which a unique direction corresponds, one of the above-mentioned
quantities is measured or calculated: the amplitude of the electric or magnetic field, the radiated
power density, the gain, or the directivity. Since the radiation pattern expresses only the
angular dependence of the considered size, and the amplitude of the field and the density
of the radiated power depend on both the direction and the distance (the radius of the
sphere), in order to eliminate the distance dependence function it is normalized with the
maximum value. Therefore, the radiation pattern is a normed the pattern expressed as a ratio
or in dB.
Note that in the far field a current element radiates a transverse electromagnetic
spherical wave , because the ratio between and is constant and equal to , and and
are perpendicular to each other and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This
represents the direction of the vector product between the electric and the magnetic field, and
is called the Poynting vector. The Poynting vector represents, from a physical point of view,
the power density carried by the electromagnetic wave. When a radiation diagram is drawn in
a far field area, in that region the radiation function will be represented only once, for both
the electric and magnetic field.

Figure 1.2a The E and H plane patterns for a pyramidal horn antenna (Balanis,2005).

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(b)
Figure 1.2b The E and H plane patterns for omnidirectional antenna (Balanis.2005).

Two of the most important aspects of the radiation diagram are the E-plane and the H-
plane. E-plane is defined as "the plane containing the electric field vector and the direction of
maximum radiation", and the H-plane as "the plane containing the vector of the magnetic field
and the direction of maximum radiation".
An illustration is shown in Figure 1.2 a. For this example, the x-z plane (elevation
plane; ) is the E - plane and the x-y plane (azimuthal plane; ) is the H - plane.
Other coordinate orientations can be chosen. The omnidirectional scheme in Figure 1.2 b has
an infinite number of E - planes (elevation planes; is constant) and a H - plane (azimuthal
plane; ).
The radiation pattern of the antenna can be presented graphically as a surface in a two-
dimensional 2D plane (polar or rectangular coordinates) or in a three-dimensional 3D space
(spherical or Cartesian coordinates).
2D diagrams can be drawn in both E-plane and H-plane when either the angle ,or the
angle is fixed ( the curves in the plane being thus obtained by sectioning the three-
dimensional diagram with a plane).
is constant and the angle variable, the diagram is represented in the horizontal
plane or the diagram in azimuth (Figure 1.3).
he angle varies and the angle is constant, the diagram is represented in the vertical
plane diagram or the elevation diagram (Figure 1.4).

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(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 Azimuth amplitude radiation diagram represented in:
a) polar coordinates and b) rectangular coordinates

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4 Elevation amplitude radiation diagram represented in:
a) polar coordinates and b) rectangular coordinates

In the case of 3D diagrams, instead of polar plane coordinate systems, the

representation is made in spherical coordinates, varying both and (Figure 1.5).

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(a) (b)
Figure 1.5 Radiation pattern in amplitude represented in:
(a) spherical coordinates and Cartesian coordinates (b)
An isotropic radiator is defined as a lossless antenna and is characterized by uniform
radiation in all directions of space. In spherical coordinates, the pattern of the radiation is a
sphere. It does not exist physically; it is considered as a reference to expresses the directive
properties of real antennas.
A directional antenna is one having the property of radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves more efficiently in some directions than in others. It must have at least
one direction in which the radiation is dominant / significant.
An omnidirectional antenna is characterized by a uniform radiation in one plane and
non-uniform in the another plane.

Figure 1.6 Three-dimensional radiation patterns.

2.3. Radiation pattern lobes

A radiation lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively

weak radiation intensity.

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Figure 1.7 Radiation lobes (Balanis, 2005).

The lobe containing the maximum radiation direction is called the major lobe or the
main lobe, all other lobes are called minor lobes. Minor lobes usually represent radiation in
undesired directions, and they should be minimized. The minor lobes are divided into side
lobes and back lobes. Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes. The back lobe is
the minor lobe whose maximum radiation forms with the maximum radiation direction of the
antenna an angle roughly equal to 180 . The back lobe is in the back hemisphere of the
maximum radiation direction.
Beamwidth is the solid is emitted .
It may be measured in the horizontal or vertical planes.
Beamwidth varies with the physical and electric characteristics of an antenna such as:
type, design, orientation, and frequency. It may be horizontal (azimuth) or vertical (elevation)
or in the case of omnidirectional antennas around 360 horizontally. Directional antennas focus
the RF energy in a specific direction, with the bandwidth inversely proportional to the gain or
directivity of the antenna.
Beamwidth is a useful analytical parameter for several practical applications including:
Planning antenna coverage in a given area
Determining whether neighbouring antennas will interfere with each other
Assisting in improving the performance of communication links
Devising the deployment of networks within more than one environment (e.g.
indoor and outdoor)
Development of network mobility

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The relationship between antenna gain and beamwidth can assist in determining the
resolution of an antenna beam and its directivity.
Related to beamwidth there are two other key parameters:
Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) is the angle between two directions having
radiation intensity equal to one half of the beam maximum (measured in the plane that contains
the maximum radiation).
(1.1)
Depending on the model represented can be determined as follows:
power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents the square of the magnitude of
the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space and has value equal to of
the maximum power
field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function of the angular space and has value equal to of the maximum
field
power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field, in
decibels, as a function of the angular space and has a value equal to the maximum value minus
3 dB. This scale is usually desirable as a logarithmic scale can accentuate in more details those
parts of the pattern that have very low values (minor lobes).
By dividing a field/power component by its maximum value it is obtain a normalized
or relative filed/power pattern which is a dimensionless number with maximum value of unity.
First Null Beam Width (FNBW) is the angle between first nulls in the patterns.
The plus (+) and minus (-) signs in the lobes in figure 1.8 indicate the relative
polarization of the amplitude between the various lobes, which changes (alternates) as the nulls
are crossed. All three patterns yield the same angular separation between the two half-power
points, on their respective patterns, referred to as HPBW.

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8 Two-dimensional normalized field pattern (a - linear scale), power pattern (b -
linear scale) and power pattern (c - in dB)

2.4. Electrical input parameters: input impedance of an antenna, reflection

coefficient and VSWR

The input impedance

terminals or the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate
ent at
these terminals, with no load attached, defines the impedance of the antenna as:
(1.7)
where is the antenna reactance at terminals. The resistive part consists of two components,
that is:
(1.8)
where is the radiation resistance of the antenna and is the loss resistance of the
antenna.

Figure 1.9 shows the connection of an antenna to a generator with impedance

through a transmission line with characteristic impedance .

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Figure 1.9 Diagram of an antenna connected through a transmission line to a generator.

Reflection coefficient is defined as:

(1.9)

Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined as the ratio between the maximum
and minimum of the standing wave amplitude( resulting from the composition of the direct
wave with the reflected one):
or (1.10)

VSWR is a measure of the mismatch between the transmission line and the load (in this
case, antenna). The higher the VSWR, the worse the matching. VSWR minimum (equal to 1)
corresponds to a perfect matching. The maximum power transfer cannot be achieved unless the
impedance of the antenna is matched to that of the generator.

2.5. Antenna radiation efficiency

The radiation efficiency describes the conductor and dielectric (heat) losses of the
antenna. It is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna and the total power delivered to the
antenna terminals (in transmitting mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters, :
(1.11)
The total antenna efficiency is used to consider losses at the input terminals and
within the structure of the antenna:
(1.12)
where: is the reflection efficiency (mismatch), is the conduction efficiency, is the
dielectric efficiency. Usually and are very difficult to compute, but they can be
determined experimentally.
The losses due to reflections appear because of the mismatch between the feeder
(transmission line) and antenna (figure 2.4) and can be calculated as:
(1.13)
(1.14)
(1.15)

where is the antenna radiation efficiency, which is used to relate the gain with the
directivity.

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Figure 1.10 Losses due to reflections (Balanis, 2005).

2.6. Radiation power density

Instantaneous Poynting vector is the power density and is used to describe the power
associated with an electromagnetic wave:
(1.16)
where are the instantaneous Poynting vector (W/ ), electric-field intensity (V/m) and
magnetic-field intensity (A/m).
The power density associated with the electromagnetic fields of an antenna in its far
field region is predominately real and will be referred to as radiation density (average power
density).

(1.17)

The real part of represents the average (real) power density and the
imaginary part represents the reactive (stored) power density. The ½ factor appears in (1.17)
because the and fields represent peak values, and it should be omitted for rms values.
Based upon the definition of (1.13), the average power radiated power can be written
as:

(1.18)

where: is the total radiated power, is the average power, is the unit vector normal to
the surface, is the infinitesimal area of the closed surface ( ) and is the power per unit
area.

For an isotropic radiator the power density is:

(1.19)

which is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of radius .

2.7. Radiation intensity

-field parameter, and it can be

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obtained by simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance. In
mathematical form it is expressed as:
(1.20)
where is the radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle) and is the radiation density (W/ )
The radiation intensity is also related to the far-zone electric field of an antenna by:

(1.21)

where is the intrinsic impedance of the medium, is the far-field electric field
intensity of the antenna.
The total power is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity, as given by (1.20),

(1.22)
The radiation intensity of an isotropic source is:

(1.23)

2.8. Directivity, antenna efficiency, gain and bandwidth

An isotropic radiator is a fictive radiator that radiates equally in all directions.

Directivity is a function of angular coordinates that shows how an antenna concentrates power
radiated compared to the isotropic radiator.
Therefore, the direct
in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The
average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided

more simply, the directivity of a non-isotropic source is equal to the ratio of its radiation
intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic source. In mathematical form it can be
written as:

(1.24)

where is the directivity, is the radiation intensity, is the total radiated

power.
For antennas with a narrow major lobe and very negligible minor lobes the solid beam
angle is approximately equal to the product of the half-power beamwidths in two perpendicular
planes shown in Figure 1.11 (a). For a symmetrical model of rotation, the widths of the half-
power beamwidth in any two perpendicular planes are the same, as illustrated in Figure 1.11
(b).
Directivity can be approximated by:

(1.25)

The beam solid angle has been approximated by:

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(steradians) (1.26)
where is the HPBW in one plane (in radians) and is the HPBW in a plane perpendicular
the other .
If the beamwidths are in degree (1.25) can be written as:

(1.27)

where is the HPBW in one plane (in degrees), is the HPBW in a plane at perpendicular
the other (degree) and represents the number of square degrees on a surface of a
sphere.
The expression for converting the dimensionless quantities of directivity to decibels
(dB) is:
(1.28)

(a) (b)
Figure 1.11 Beam solid angles for nonsymmetrical (a) and symmetrical (b) radiation pattern
(Balanis, 2005).
The gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity but and it is a measure that
considers the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional capabilities.
The Gain
a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropic ally. The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropic ally

form this can be expressed as:

(1.29)
When the direction is not stated, the power gain is usually taken in the direction of
maximum radiation.

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The total radiated power is related to the total input power by:
(1.30)
(1.31)
The relationship between gain and directivity:
(1.32)

The bandwidth is the range of frequencies within which the performances of the
antenna, with respect to some characteristics, conform to a specific standard. The bandwidth
can be considered to be the range of frequencies where the antenna characteristics are within
an acceptable value as compered to those obtained at the center frequency.

2.9. Field regions

The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions: i) reactive
near-field; ii) radiating near-field (Fresnel); iii) far-field (Fraunhofer) regions. There are no
abrupt changes in field configuration as the boundaries are crossed (figure 1.12).
Reactive near-field region -field region

antennas, the outer boundary of this region is commonly taken to exist at a distance
from the antenna surface, where is the largest antenna dimension ( for a wire antenna)
and is the wavelength of the antenna.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region
antenna between the reactive near-field region and the far-
maximum overall dimension which is very small compared to the wavelength, this region may
not exist. The limit of the outer boundary is
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region field of an antenna
where the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the

The amplitude scheme of an antenna changes due to the variation of the fields from
near-field to far-field regions. Figure 1.12 shows a typical progression for an antenna with the
largest dimension . In the reactive near-field regions, the pattern is more widespread and
almost uniform, with slight variations. As the observation has moved to the radiating near-field
region (Fresnel), the pattern begins to smooth and form lobes. In the far-field region
(Fraunhofer), the pattern is well formed, usually consisting of a few minor lobes and one or
more major lobes.
The regions of the field are presented in Figure 1.13.

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Figure 1.12 Field distribution.

Figure 1.13 Field regions.

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3. Laboratory work

The 4NEC2 v5.8.17 open source program used in the Antenna and Propagation
laboratory provides a graphical user interface for creating geometry, displaying results and
optimizing them.
The 4NEC2 program uses a special algorithm that allows to calculate the
electromagnetic response for different types of antennas. Geometric and electrical factors are
essential in shaping a wire structure. The circumference of a wire should be really small
compared to the wavelength. Such segments can be freely arranged in three-dimensional space
and exposed in different ways. It uses an iterative method to calculate the currents in a set of
wires and the resulting fields.

The analysis method divides each wire into segments with dimensions in the range from
0.01 to 0.1 m wavelength; it is very important to avoid very short and very long segments.
Voltage Feed point voltage in complex form. Clicking on the Polar checkbox will
display this calculation in polar notation. Polar notation denotes a complex number in
angular direction from the starting point.
Impedance Antenna input impedance.
Parallel form Equivalent parallel feed point impedance.
S.W.R. 50 The Standing Wave ratio at 50 feed point impedance.
Efficiency Overall antenna efficiency.
Radiate-eff Radiated efficiency is a measure of the power radiated through the
antenna as an electromagnetic wave to the power fed to the antenna terminals. Some of
the power fed to the antenna terminals is always lost. For example, the mismatch
between the antenna element and the feeding network causes power losses. Also, the
actual antenna material loses energy just by its nature and creates unintended heat. All
together these losses lead to situations where the antenna radiated efficiency in actual
operation is always below 100% (equals 0 dB).
RDF [dB] Antenna gain referenced an isotropic dipole.

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Frequency The frequency at which the antenna was analyzed.

Wavelength Calculated wavelength corresponding to the analyzed frequency.
Current Feed point current in complex form. Clicking on the Polar checkbox will
display this calculation in polar notation.
Series comp. Series component in .
Parallel comp. Parallel component in .
Input power The applied power in watts from the transmitter as measured at the feed
point of the antenna.
Structure loss Power in (
construction of the antenna.
Network loss Power in (
antenna feed point.
Radiate-power
Theta Start/Stop - number of degrees in the vertical plane. (Elevation)
Count - total number of steps.
Step - how many degrees in each step.
Phi Start/Stop - number of degrees in the horizontal plane. (Azimuth)
Count - total number of steps.
Step - how many degrees in each step.
The laboratory consists in simulating an antenna that operates at a frequency of 300
MHz. The 300 MHz frequency is in the C band (UHF band - Ultra high frequency) it is used
for various early warning radar applications, for the detection and tracking of satellites and
ballistic missiles at very long distances etc.

3.1. Identify the type of antenna for each radiation pattern of the following figure.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.12 Radiation pattern represented in spherical coordinates

3.2. Represent the radiation diagram in the vertical and horizontal plane.

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From the 4NEC2 v5.8.17 program

input interface choose File-> Open. From
the models folder choose Dipole.nec ->
Open.

The dipole antenna will appear in the Geometry

window. To observe the radiation pattern, click the
Calculate new output-data in the Main window.

The values of the antenna parameters appear in the Main window. These values are
calculated by the NEC program when the antenna is simulated. The parameters are:
A new Generate window opens, select Far Field pattern, Full view mode and then press
the Generate button.

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Select Far / Near field from the Main window (figure from left).

To be able to see the radiation patterns in the horizontal plane from the Far Field menu
(figure from right), uncheck Vertical plane. Compare the radiation pattern that appears in the
two planes vertically and horizontally.

What is the relationship between length of the antenna and frequency of work? Find
the physical length of the antenna.

3.3. Represent the input impedance of an antenna, the reflection coefficient and VSWR and
determine analytically the reflection coefficient and VSWR, where . Does the
calculated VSWR have the same value as the one given by the program?

Antenna input impedance representation in NEC.

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Click Calculate new output-data in the Main

window.

A new Generate window opens, check the

Frequency sweep, and choose the frequency range
between 250 MHz and 350 MHz with the step of 0.5, then
click on Generate.

Now note the impedance of the antenna

. To represent SWR and the reflective coefficient,
check SWR / ref, then a window will appear with the
graph of the two parameters.

3.4. Change the working frequency at 600 MHz. How did the radiation pattern changed? Make
a comparison between the radiation pattern from 3.2 and 3.4.

Changing the working frequency.

Click Edit NEC input-file from the Main window. In the window that appears select
Freq / Ground, and at Frequency set 600 MHz. Finally click on Run NEC -> Far Field
pattern -> Generate. To view the radiation pattern follow the steps from 3.2.

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3.5. Calculate the boundaries of the field regions according to the formulas for f=600 MHz.
Represent the antenna in the near field and then in the far field. Determine from the Pattern
window the values of the electric field and magnetic field for the previously calculated in the
near field conditions.
Boundaries are determined by:
reactive near-field:
radiating near-field (Fresnel)
far field (Fraunhofer)
where is the distance.

Antenna in the near field in NEC.

Click the Calculate new output-data in the Main window. A new Generate window
opens, select the Near field pattern option, select the E-fld or H-fld and the Generate button is
pressed. Finally, the Pattern window appears.

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For antenna in the far field pattern select Far Field pattern from the Generate window.

3.6. Identify the lobes and indicate the direction of maximum radiation.

Open the Yagi16.nec file from the models folder. From the Main window select
Calculate new output data -> Far Field pattern -> Generate. Lobe identification can be
done from the Pattern window (F4).

3.6.1. Determine the angle formed between the direction of maximum radiation from the main
lobe and the back lobe.

3.6.2 Determine the HPBW and FNBW.

3.6.3. Determine the minimum attenuation of the side lobes and the back lobe with respect to
the maximum of the main lobe.

3.6.4. Determine the directivity of the antenna using equation (1.23) and then convert it to dB.

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