COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

COURSE: PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE CODE: MBS 310

TERM 3 - ASSIGNMENT 1

TOPIC: SPECIAL SENSES

GROUP 8

QUESTION: What is the near point of vision? Why does it recede throughout life? How
many different kinds of photosensitive pigments are found in the human retina? Discuss
their chemistry, how they produce electrical responses in the retina, and their relation
to color vision.
The near point of vision is the nearest point to the pupil at which an eye can focus on object
without straining. If the object is closer to the eye at a distance shorter than the near point of
vision, the object appears blurry. For someone with normal vision, the near point is 25cm,
the near point is normal in young people but increases with age, may cause farsightedness
and it can become 500cm in later years.

The near point of vision recedes through life starting from age 40, this happens because of the
hardening of the eye crystalline lens. Both the lens and its capsule lose elasticity and these
physical changes result in the anterior curvature of the lens not being increased during near
vision. The condition is called presbyopia. Another causative factor is the reduction in the
convergence of eyeballs due to the weakness of ocular muscles that occurs in old age. The
recession is normal with aging and does not signify disease.

Ultimately, the process of vision is made possible by photosensitive pigments which are
responsible for the chemical aspect of visual processing. There are 4 different kinds of
photosensitive pigments found in the rods and cones of the human retina. The rods and cones
are highly specialised neurons known as photoreceptors which receive light photons and
convert the light information into action potentials transmitted to the central nervous system.
They transduce electromagnetic energy into electrical signals. During visual processing,
photosensitive pigments undergo chemical reactions and the photochemical changes are
known as Wald’s visual cycle in the rods. One pigment is known as Rhodopsin found in the
membranous disks of the outer segment of rod cells and the other three are from the cone
cells: porphyropsin, iodopsin and cyanopsin but each cone cell can only contain one of these
pigments. Similar reactions take place during visual processing in both rods and cones.
Rhodopsin is also known as visual purple and its chemical reactions are explained below and
illustrated using diagrams.

Rhodopsin chomophore is an aldehyde 11-cis retinal which reacts with a protein called Opsin
to produce Rhodopsin in a condensation reaction, the product is stabilised by sulfhydryl bond
interactions. When rhodopsin absorbs a photon of light, the 11-cis-retinal part of it isomerises
into all-trans-retinol, also known as vitamin A. This change makes it possible for the retinol to
unbind from opsin.
In the process of Transduction, the freed opsin has an exposed binding site and binds to the G
protein Transducin converting the GDP in it to GTP. The GTP-containing fragment of
transducin then goes to attach to an Alpha-subunit attached to Phosphodieseterase (PDE)
enzyme. This happens twice as phosphodiesterase is inactivated by the two Alpha-subunits
that are bound to it. Upon activation, PDE hydrolyses cGMP to GMP and releases it from
sodium channels of the photoreceptor cell. The sodium channels close as a result but
potassium channels remain open resulting in hyperpolarisation and prevention of
neurotransmitter release.

Rod cells process black and white images while cone cells detect fine detail and colour.
Cones are divided into red, green and blue sensitive types depending on how they respond to
different types of light. S cone cells are sensitive to 440nm blue light, M cone cells are
sensitive to 535nm green light, L cone cells are sensitive to 565nm red light and Rod cells to
less than 500nm grey-shade light. Each cone cell is attached to one ganglion cell hence their
more efficient and/or accurate function compared to rods which transmit impulses as a group
per ganglion cell. Rods are more numerous and more light-sensitive yet only pick up a
greyscale. Photoreceptor cells in the retina connect to bipolar neurons which in turn connect
to ganglion neurons, creating a pathway of light transmission and an action potential is
generated then transmitted to the second cranial nerve (optic) the sensory information is
further transmitted via the thalamus to the visual cortex. Rod cells are responsible for night
vision while cone cells for daytime vision.

Figure 1. The chemical reactions of Rhodopsin

Figure 2. Phototransduction

Figure 3. Retinal cells and their relation to colour vision

REFERENCES
i. Barret K. E., Barman S. M., Boitano S., Brooks H. L. (2010) Ganong’s
Review of Medical Physiology, 23r ed., New York, McGraw-Hill Companies
Inc.
ii. Constanzo L. S. (2003) Physiology, 3 rd ed., Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins.
iii. Ganong W. F. (2001) Review of Medical Physiology, 20 th ed., New York,
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
iv. Guyton A. C., Hall J. E. (2006) Textbook of Medical Physiology, 11 th ed.,
Philadelphia, Elsevier Inc.
v. Sembulingam K., Sembulingam P., (2012) Essentials of Medical Physiology,
6th ed., New Delhi, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers.
vi. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. (2017) Photochemical Reaction,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/photochemical-reaction [accessed
21/04/2017].