Introduction to Computer Network

Chapter-2

A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are called nodes.
The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable,
or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the
Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a
single computer to do more. A computer network is a set of computers connected for the purpose
of sharing resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other
shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be considered a
computer network.

2.1 Applications of Computer Network

a. Resource sharing
It allows all programs, equipment and data available to anyone on the network irrespective of the
physical location of the resource and the user
b. High reliability due to alternative sources of data
It provides high reliability by having alternative sources of data. For e.g. all files could be
replicated on more than one machines, so if one of them is unavailable due to hardware failure or
any other reason, the other copies can be used. The aspect of high reliability is very important for
military, banking, air traffic control, nuclear reactor safety and many other applications where
continuous operations is a must even if there are hardware or software failures.
c. Money saving
Computer networking is an important financial aspect for organizations because it saves money.
Organizations can use separate personal computer one per user instead of using mainframe
computer which are expensive. The organizations can use the workgroup model (peer to peer) in
which all the PCs are networked together and each one can have the access to the other for
communicating or sharing purpose.
The organization, if it wants security for its operation it can go in for the domain model in which
there is a server and clients. All the clients can communicate and access data through the server.
The whole arrangement is called as client -server model.
d. Communication medium
A computer network provides a powerful communication medium among widely separated
employees. Using network it is easy for two or more employees, who are separated by
geographical locations to work on a report, document or R and D simultaneously i.e. on -line.
e. Networks for people:
Starting in 1990s, the computer networks began to start delivering services to the private
individuals at home. The computer networks offer the following services to an individual person:

1. Access to remote information

2. Person to person communication
3. Interactive entertainment.
1. Access to remote information

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Access to remote information involves interaction· between a person and a remote database.
Access to remote information comes in many forms like:
(i) Home shopping, paying telephone, electricity bills, e-banking, on line share market etc.
(ii) Newspaper is. On-line and is personalized, digital library consisting of books, magazines,
scientific journals etc.
(iii) World wide web which contains information. about the arts, business, cooking, government,
health, history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports etc.

2. Person to person communication

Person to person communication includes:
(i) Electronic-mail (e-mail)
(ii) Real time e-mail i.e. video conferencing allows remote users to communicate with no delay by
seeing and hearing each other. Video-conferencing is being used for remote school, getting
medical opinion from distant specialists etc.
(iii) Worldwide newsgroups in which one person posts a message and all other subscribers to the
newsgroup can read it or give their feedbacks.

Interactive entertainment
Interactive entertainment includes:
(i) Multiusers real-time simulation games.
(ii) Video on demand.
(iii) Participation in live TV programmes likes quiz, contest, discussions etc.
In short, the ability to merge information, communication and entertainment will surely give rise
to a massive new industry based on computer networking

2.2 Peer-to-peer and Client-Server Network

Peer-to-peer networks are more commonly implemented where less than ten computers are
involved and where strict security is not necessary. All computers have the same status, hence the
term 'peer', and they communicate with each other on an equal footing. Files, such as word
processing or spreadsheet documents, can be shared across the network and all the computers on
the network can share devices, such as printers or scanners, which are connected to any one
computer.

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 peer to peer network
Client/server networks are more suitable for larger networks. A central computer, or 'server', acts
as the storage location for files and applications shared on the network. Usually the server is a
higher than average performance computer. The server also controls the network access of the
other computers which are referred to as the 'client' computers. Typically, teachers and students in
a school will use the client computers for their work and only the network administrator (usually
a designated staff member) will have access rights to the server.

Figure 1 client server network

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2.3 Types of Network (LAN, MAN, WAN)
2.4 Internet, Intranet and Extranet
Internet: Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible computer network of interconnected
computer networks (internetwork) that transmit data using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).
Internet is the world's largest Internetwork . The terms World Wide Web (WWW) and Internet are

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not the same. The Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper
wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, etc. World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of
interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide
Web is one of the services accessible via the Internet, along with various others including email,
file sharing, remote administration, video streaming, online gaming etc.

Intranet: An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It may consist of
many interlinked local area networks and use any Wide Area Network (WAN) technologies for
network connectivity. The main purpose of an intranet is to share company information and
computing resources among employees. Intranet is a private Internetwork, which is usually created
and maintained by a private organization. The content available inside Intranet are intended only
for the members of that organization (usually employees of a company).

Extranet: An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company like suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other business associates.
Extranet is required for normal day-to-day business activities. For example, Placing order to
registered vendors, Billing & Invoices, Payments, Joint Ventures, Product Brochures for Partners,
Discounted price lists for partners etc.

2.5 Connection Oriented Services

There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service.
These are:
1. Connection is established.
2. Information is sent.
3. Connection is released.
In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting the
communication. When connection is established, we send the message or the information and
then we release the connection.
Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can send the
message in connection oriented service if there is an error at the receivers end. Example of
connection oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.

Figure: connection oriented services

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2.6 Connection Less Services
It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be
carried. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of message
sent can be different from the order received.
In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without
checking that destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message.
Authentication is not needed in this. Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) protocol.

Figure: connectionless services

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Following are the important differences between Connection-oriented and Connection-less
Services.

Sr. Key Connection-oriented Services Connection-less Services

No.

Analogy Connection-oriented Services are similar to Connection-less Services are

1
Telephone System. similar to Postal System.

Usage Connection-oriented Services are used in Connection-less Services are

2
long and steady communication networks. used in volatile networks.

Congestion No Congestion in Connection-oriented Congestion is quiet possible in

3
Service. Connection-less Services.

Reliablility Connection-oriented Service are highly In Connection-less Services, no

4
reliable. guarantee of reliablity.

Packet In Connection-oriented Service, packets In Connection-less Services,

5
Routing follows same route. packets can follow any route.

2.7 Protocols and Standards

I. Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it
is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
1.Syntax:
The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address
of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be
the message itself.
2.Semantics:
The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does an
address identify the route to be taken for the final destination of the message?
3.Timing:
The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only

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1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

II. Standards:
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity
necessary in today's marketplace and in international communications. Data communication
standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure
(meaning "by law" or "by regulation"). ISO, ITU, ANSI, IEEE, EIA.

2.8 The OSI Reference Model

The OSI Model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers
are as follows.
i. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
ii. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
iii. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
iv. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
v. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that the architecture does
not become widely.
Benefits of OSI Model:
i. It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
ii. It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and
support.
iii. It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each
other.
iv. It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
v. It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to
understand.
a. The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The
design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit it is received by the
other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are what electrical signals should be used
to represent a 1 and a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is established, how it is torn down
when both sides are finished, how many pins the network connector has, and what each pin is used
for. These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, as well as
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

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 Figure OSI Reference model
b. Data Link Layer:
The physical layer provides only a raw bit-stream service, the data link layer attempts to make the
physical link reliable while providing the means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the link . For
LANs, the Project 802 standards of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
separate the data-link layer into two sublayers:

Figure Datalink sub layers

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 • The logical link control (LLC) layer, the upper of the two layers, which is responsible
for flow control, error correction, and resequencing functions for connection-oriented
communication, but which also supports connectionless communication
• The media access control (MAC) layer, the lower of the two layers, which isresponsible
for providing a method for stations to gain access to the medium

Functions:
• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
• Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the datalink layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to
the end of the frame.
• Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.

c. The Network Layer

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how
packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static or dynamic tables.
Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer, in conjunction with higher layers
that adapt the load they place on the network. More generally, the quality of service provided
(delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue. When a packet has to travel from one
network to another to get to its destination, many problems can arise. The addressing used by the
second network may be different from that used by the first one. The second one may not accept
the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network
layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected.
Simply, network layer is also responsible from logical addressing.

d. The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into smaller
units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end. The services of this include the following:
• End-to-End Flow control to ensure that the transmitting device does not send more data
than the receiving device can handle.
• Packet sequencing for segmentation of data packets and remote reassembly.

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 • End-to-End Error handling and acknowledgments to ensure that data is retransmitted
when required.
• Multiplexing for combining data from several sources for transmission over one data
path.
• Virtual circuits for establishing sessions between communicating stations.
e. The Session Layer
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. Sessions
offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit),
token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical operation
simultaneously), and synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up
from where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery).

f. Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems .Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
• Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information
must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers
use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer
at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process
to transform the message back to its original form.
• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such
as text, audio, and video.

g. Application layer:
Layer 7 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, in which network-aware,
user-controlled software is implemented—for example, e-mail, file transfer utilities, and terminal
access. The application layer represents the window between the user and the network. Examples
of protocols that run at the application layer include File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP), telnet, and similar protocols that can be implemented as utilities the
user can interface with.

2.9 The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by
Department of Defense’s Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a
research project of network interconnection to connect remote machines. TCP/IP functionality
is divided into four layers, each of which include specific protocols.

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 1. The application layer
This Layer provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its protocols include the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol 3
(POP3), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP).
2. The transport layer
It is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network. TCP handles
communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The
transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used
instead of TCP for special purposes.
3. The internet layer,
It is similar like the network layer in OSI model. It deals with packets and connects
independent networks to transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer
protocols are the IP and the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error
reporting.
4. The physical layer
The Physical layer consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the network component
that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The protocols in this layer
include Ethernet for local area networks (LANs) and the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).

Figure OSI vs TCP/IP

Figure TCP/IP layers with corresponding protocols

A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

Similarities
The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a
stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar. For
example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide

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an end-to-end, network- independent transport service to processes wishing to communicate.
These layers form the transport provider. Again, in both models, the layers above transport are
application-oriented users of the transport service.

Differences:
• An obvious difference between the two models is the number of layers: the OSI model has seven
layers and the TCP/IP model has four. Both have (inter)network, transport, and application layers,
but the other layers are different.
• Another difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-oriented communication. The
OSI model supports both connectionless and connection-oriented communication in the network
layer, but only connection-oriented communication in the transport layer. The TCP/IP model
supports only one mode in the network layer (connectionless) but both in the transport layer, giving
the users a choice.
• The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding protocols were invented. This
ordering meant that the model was not biased toward one particular set of protocols, a fact that
made it quite general. With TCP/IP the reverse was true: the protocols came first, and the model
was really just a description of the existing protocols. There was no problem with the protocols
fitting the model.
• OSI is just a theoretical mode whereas TCP/IP model is a model according to which Internet
is developed
• OSI is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization) whereas TCP/IP is
developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network).

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