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Civil Engineering Thumb Rule
Civil Engineering Thumb Rule
Today, we will discuss something very general. Inspite of knowing these general thumb rules, Civil
Engineers still end up making disastrous mistakes which would not only cost them but also cost the
people living in the building designed by these engineers.
Earlier, I wrote an article describing one of my projects where structural designing was executed on
site (which was extremely pathetic) even before Architectural design was done. (Check
out: Consequences of Wrong Structural Design | Live Project example)
In this article, we will go through the essential thumb rules to be followed for giving a column
layout. Ofcourse RCC columns have to be designed in accordance to the total load on the columns
but apart from that it is essential for every Civil engineer and Architect to remember a few thumb
rules so that they are prevented from making mistakes.
9‖x9‖ columns are to be used for a single storey structure with M15 grade of concrete.
In case, 9‖x9‖ column size is to be used for 1 and half storey structure, then it is advised to use M20
grade concrete.
A safe and structurally sound column size for a 1 and half storey structure should not be less than
12‖x9‖ using M15 grade concrete. This should be in your most preferred and practical options list.
The distance between two columns of size 9‖x9‖ should not be more than 4m centre to centre of
column.
If larger barrier free distances are required then going for larger column size is to be used.
The size of the columns increase because of two factors:
1. Increase in the distance between two columns (This increases the dimensions of the columns as
well the depth of the beam.)
2. Height of the building (Increase in the number of floors is directly proportional to the dimensions
of the columns.
Thumb rule no.3
Alignment of Columns
A rectangular grid is to be made for placing the columns. This helps in avoiding mistakes and placing in
columns can be done in the right way.
(The duty of the Civil Engineer is to understand and not make such dramatic blunders. The
consequences of this kind of structural design could be disastrous.)
9‖x9‖ size columns are only preferred if you were to construct only a ground floor structure using M15
grade concrete. If you are to construct another floor that is (G+1), the minimum size of the column
should not be less than 9‖x12‖ using M15 grade concrete.
If the client insists on using smaller columns (9‖x9‖); in that case, use of M20 grade concrete should be
done mandatorily and the construction should not be initiated before the client agrees to do so.
(It is my request to all the Engineering students and Civil Engineers to avoid making such terrible
mistakes or rather I should firmly say that do not make such blunders. It is an insult to the field
of Civil Engineering. Your mistakes will cost you as well as others. The collapse of one structure
designed by you can ruin your entire career. Your own life and others lives are also in your
hands. So please be careful.)
Design of Foundations
Foundations
Foundation of a structure is like the roots of a tree without which the tree cannot stand. The
construction of any structure, be it a residence or a skyscraper; starts with the laying of foundations.
Before designing the foundation, the type of soil is determined. Depending on whether the soil is hard
soil or soft soil, a specific type of foundation is adopted.
Shallow Foundations versus Deep Foundations
Foundations are made in various materials… They could be reinforced cement concrete foundations or
brick foundations or stone rubble masonry foundations etc. The choice of material to be used in the
construction of foundations also depends on the weight of the structure on the ground.
The bearing capacity of soil plays a major role in deciding the type of foundation. The safe bearing
capacity of soil should be 180N/mm2 to 200N/mm2.
Foundations are broadly classified into shallow foundations and deep foundations. The depth of the
foundation means the difference of level between the ground surface and the base of the foundation.
If the depth of the foundation is greater than its width the foundation is classified as a deep
foundation.
Before we go to the ultimate solution of the repair of cracks in a staircase, I would want all the
students to know that, ―Design in a way that you would never have to look for solutions‖.
This is an important matter. The graver the problem, the harsher and shorter the solution is….
Basic elements of Staircase
Earlier, in one of my article, I have explained the “Design of RCC Staircase”. Please do go through
before designing…
. RCC Structures
RCC Structures are nothing but reinforced concrete structures. RCC structure is composed of building
components such as Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase etc.
These components are reinforced with steel that give stability to the structure. Staircase is one such
important component in a RCC structure.
In this article, we will discuss different types of staircases and study the RCC design of a dog-legged
staircase
Dog Legged Stair
Stairs
Stairs consist of steps arranged in a series for purpose of giving access to different floors of a building.
Since a stair is often the only means of communication between the various floors of a building, the
location of the stair requires good and careful consideration.
In a residential house, the staircase may be provided near the main entrance.
In a public building, the stairs must be from the main entrance itself and located centrally, to provide
quick accessibility to the principal apartments.
Loads
Dead load of a step = ½ x T x R x 25
Dead load of waist slab = b x t x 25
Live load = LL (KN/m2)
Floor finish = assume 0.5 KN/m
Stairs spanning Longitudinally
In this, stairs spanning longitudinally, the beam is supported ay top and at the bottom of flights.
Loads
Self weight of a step = 1 x R/2 x 25
Self weight of waist slab = 1 x t x 25
Self weight of plan = 1 x t x 25[(R2 + T2)/T]
Live load = LL (KN/m2)
Floor finish = assume 0.5 KN/m
For the efficient design of an RCC stair, we have to first analyse the various loads that are going to be
imposed on the stair.
The load calculations will help us determine, how much strength is required to carry the load. The
strength bearing capacity of a staircase is determined on the amount of steel and concrete used.
The ratio of steel to concrete has to be as per standards. Steel in the staircase will take the tension
imposed on it and the concrete takes up the compression.
These are the essential steps that are to be followed for the RCC Stair Design.
RCC staircase cracks
There are two types of cracks, they are;
1. Minor cracks or surface cracks
2. Major cracks or structural Cracks
Like I said before, the graver the problem, the shorter and harsher the solution….
In case of minor cracks (surface cracks) occurring in the RCC staircase , the cracks can be filled up
with the help of plastering. Surface cracks are not very harmful to the structure. They only result in
marring the aesthetics of the built space.
In case of major cracks (structural cracks) that is causing vibrations when someone walks on the
staircase, the staircase has to be broken and then recast again. (Remedy is as short as it could be)
RCC Column
A column forms a very important component of a structure. Columns supportbeams which in turn
support walls and slabs. It should be realized that the failure of a column results in the collapse of the
structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance.
Supporting the slabs is the main function of the columns… Such slabs are called Simply Supported Slabs.
Simply supported slabs could be either one way slab or a two-way slab. It depends on the dimensions of
the slab.
A column is defined as a compression member, the effective length of which exceeds three times
the least lateral dimension. Compression members whose lengths do not exceed three times the
least lateral dimension, may be made of plain concrete.
In this article, we are going to discuss in detail the basis of classification of columns and different types
of reinforcement required for a certain type of column.
75mm
1/6th of the core diameter of the column
Pitch should not be less than,
25mm
3 x diameter of helical bar
Pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is not allowed)
As the name suggests, simply supported slabs are supported on columns or stanchions…
Simply supported slabs don‘t give adequate provision to resist torsion at corner to prevent corner from
lifting.
The maximum bending moment will be given if the slabs are restrained. But atleast 50% of the tension
reinforcement provided at the mid span should extend to the support. The remaining 50% should
extend to within 0.1Lx or Ly at the support as appropriate.
RCC Slab Design depends on the on the dimensions of the slab after which the slab is termed as a one-
way slab or a two-way slab…
In the design of RCC structures, Column Design and Beam Design are to be done before we start with
RCC Slab Design
…
Basic Rules followed in the design of simply supported Slab
Thickness of slab
l/d ratio should be less than the following:
Calculated value
3d
300mm
Distribution or Temperature reinforcement
This reinforcement runs perpendicular to the main reinforcement in order to distribute the load and to
resist the temperature and shrinkage stresses.
Calculated area
5d
450mm
Diameter of bars
The diameter of the bars varies from 8mm to 14mm and should not exceed 1/8 th of the overall depth of
the slab.
For distribution steel, the diameter varies from 6mm to 8mm.
Cover
The bottom cover for reinforcement shall not be less than 15mm or less than the diameter of such bar.
RCC Beams
RCC beams are cast in cement concrete reinforced with steel bars. Beams take up compressive and add
rigidity to the structure.
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e.,
loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls,
or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In Light frame
construction the joists rest on the beam.
Doubly Reinforced Beam
In this article, we are going to discuss types of beam construction and RCC design of Doubly reinforced
beam…
Balanced section
Ast1 = (0.36.fck.b.Xumax)/(0.87fy)
Step 2
If factored moment Mu > Mulim, then doubly reinforced beam is required to be designed for additional
moment.
Mu – Mulim = fsc.Asc (d – d‘) [fsc value from page no. 70]
Step 3
Additional area of tension steel Ast2
Ast2 =Asc.fsc/0.87fy
Step 4
Total tension steel Ast, Ast = Ast1 + Ast2
In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or
directly on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building.
In high rises buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the
steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
While making structural drawings of the reinforced concrete slab, the slabs are abbreviated to
―r.c.slab‖ or simply ―r.c.‖.
Design of various types of slabs and their reinforcement
For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In all
cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:
Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves
strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations run across the
short dimension, from side to side.
A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.
Reinforcement design
A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction.
A two way slab has structural strength in two directions.
These slabs could be cantilevered or Simply Supported Slabs.
Construction
A concrete slab can be cast in two ways: It could either be prefabricated or cast in situ.
Prefabricated concrete slabs are cast in a factory and then transported to the site ready to be
lowered into place between steel or concrete beams.
They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. Care should be
taken to see that the supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions to avoid trouble with
the fitting of slabs over the supporting structure.
In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork. Formwork is a box-like setup
in which concrete is poured for the construction of slabs.
For reinforced concrete slabs, reinforcing steel bars are placed within the formwork and then the
concrete is poured.
Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to hold the reinforcing steel bars away from
the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the
reinforcement.
Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist only of
sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a
tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.
It is seen that people are not much aware of the idea of waterproofing the Sunken slab before the floor
finish is done. In this article, we will discuss the method of the construction of Sunken slab and
waterproofing technique.
Calculation of loads is extremely simple. I hope after reading this article, the queries of many of my
readers would get a satisfactory answer.
Foundation Design
Foundation is the base of any structure. Without a firm foundation, the structure cannot stand. That is
the reason why we have to be very cautious with the design of foundations because our entire structure
rests on the foundation.
The strength of the foundation determines the life of the structure. As we discussed in the earlier
article, design of foundation depends on the type of soil, type of structure and its load.On that basis,
the foundations are basically divided into Shallow Foundations and Deep Foundations.
In this article, we are going discuss the step by step guide to Column Footing Design….
In sloped or stepped footings, the effective cross-section in compression shall be limited by the area
above the neutral plane, and the angle of slope or depth and location of steps should be such that the
design requirements are satisfied at every section.
Step 1
Area required for footing
Square = B = (w+w1)/P0
A=bxd
Step 2
Bending Moment
Critical section for maximum bending moment is taken at the face of the column
Step 3
To fix the depth of the footing shall be greater of the following:
d =?(M/Qb)
Critical shear for one way shear is considered at a distance ‗d‘ from face of the column.
SF, V = q [ B2 – (b + d)2]
SF, V = q [L x B – (a + d)(b + d)]
Tc = 0.16?fck
Area of steel, Ast = M/(?stjd)
1. Market Value
2. Book Value
3. Capital Cost
4. Capitalized Value
In this article, we are going to discuss different categories under which a property is evaluated
that is Valuation is done.
Market Value
The market value of a property is the amount which can be obtained at any particular time from the
open market if the property is put for sale. The market value will differ from time to time according to
demand and supply.
The market value also changes from time to time for various miscellaneous reasons such as changes in
industry, changes in fashions, means of transport, cost of materials and labour etc.
Book Value
Book value is the amount shown in the account book after allowing necessary depreciations. The book
value of a property at a particular year is the original cost minus the amount of depreciation allowed
per year and will be gradually reduced year to year and at the end of the utility period of the property,
the book value will be only scrap value.
Capital cost
Capital cost is the total cost of construction including land, or the original total amount required to
possess a property. It is the original cost and does not change while the value of the property is the
present cost which may be calculated by methods of Valuation.
Thus to gain an annual income of Rs x at a fixed rate of interest, the capital sum should be x(100/rate
of interest).
In this article, we will discuss what is Valuation and the six important purposes of Valuation.
Valuation
Valuation is the technique of estimating and determining the fair price or value of a property such as a
building, a factory or other engineering structures of various types, land etc.
Six important Purposes of Valuation
The main purpose of valuation are as follows:
Taxation
To assess the tax of a property, its valuation is required. Taxes may be municipal tax, wealth tax,
Property tax etc, and all the taxes are fixed on the valuation of the property.
Rent Function
In order to determine the rent of a property, valuation is required. Rent is usually fixed on the certain
percentage of the amount of valuation which is 6% to 10% of valuation.
Compulsory acquisition
Whenever a property is acquired by law; compensation is paid to the owner. To determine the amount
of compensation, valuation of the property is required.
Valuation of a property is also required for Insurance, Betterment charges, speculations etc
RCC Specifications
Shuttering shall be done using seasoned wooden boards of thickness not less than 30mm.
Surface contact with concrete shall be free from adhering grout, nails, splits and other defects.
All the joints are perfectly closed and lined up.
The shuttering and framing is sufficiently braced.
Nowadays timber shuttering is replaced by steel plates.
All the props of approved sizes are supported on double wedges and when taken out, these
wedges are eased and not knocked out.
All the framework is removed after 21 days of curing without any shocks or vibrations.
All reinforcement bars conform IS specifications and are free from rust, grease oil etc.
The steel grills are perfectly as per detailed specifications.
The covers to concrete are perfectly maintained as per code.
Bars of diameter beyond 25mm diameter are bent when red hot.
The materials proportion should be as per the specifications of the concrete.
Methods of Depreciation
Step one
Nominal shear stress
Tv = Vu/bd
Step two
Percentage of steel
Percent steel = Ast/bd x 100
= 0.63%
Step three
As per IS: 456: 2000
Therefore, Tv < Tc
Step four
Provide minimum shear reinforcement;
Sv = (0.87fy.Asv)/0.4b
As per IS:456:2000,
= 375mm