NATIONAL LAW INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY,

BHOPAL

In the partial fulfillment for the requirement of the project on the subject of Political Science 1
of B.A., L.L.B (Hons.), Third Trimester

th
Submitted on March 2019

Western and Indian Political Thought :

A Comparative Analysis

Submitted to:
Asso Prof. [Dr]Raka Arya

Submitted by :
Hrishikesh Jaiswal

(2018BALLB126)

1
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Table of Contents

Certificate….........................................................................3

Preface................................................................................4

Acknowledgement…..........................................................5

Introduction…....................................................................6

Research Methodology.......................................................8

Indian Political Thought.....................................................9

Western Political Thought................................................12

Comparison…......................................................................20

Bibliography........................................................................23

Page 2 of 23|NATIONAL LAW INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY ,BHOPAL

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the research project titled “ Western and Indian PoliticalThought A
Comparative Analysis” has been prepared by Hrishikesh Jaiswal, who is currently pursuing
B.AL.L.B (HONS) at National Law Institute University ,Bhopal in fulfillment of Political
Science course
Date

Signature of student

Signature of faculty
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PREFACE

I feel great pleasure in presenting the project under study. I hope that the readers will find
the project interesting and that the project in its present from shall be well received
by all. The project contains a detailed study of “Western and Indian
PoliticalThought A Comparative Analysis”

Every effort is made to make the project error free. I would gratefully acknowledge any
suggestions to improve the project to make it more useful.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

On completion of this Project it is my present privilege to acknowledge my

profound gratitude and indebtedness towards many people for their valuable
suggestions and constructive criticism. Their precious guidance and unrelenting
support kept me on the right track throughout the project. I gratefully
acknowledge my deepest sense of gratitude to:

Prof. (Dr.) V Vijayakumar , Director, National Law Institute University, Bhopal

for providing us with the infrastructure and the means to make this project;

Our Political Science teacher Asso Prof. [Dr]Raka Arya, who provided me this
wonderful opportunity and guided me throughout the project work.

I would also like to thank my batch mates and seniors for their constant help and
guidance which helped me in completing this project.

I’m also thankful to the library and computer staffs of the University for helping us find
and select books from the University library.

Finally, I’m thankful to my family members and friends for the affection and
encouragement with which doing this project became a pleasure.

HRISHIKESH JAISWAL(2018BALLB126)
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INTRODUCTION

Political Thought is the thought of the whole community.1 Political Theory answers the

questions like:

a. Are all the individuals equal?

b. What comes first – ‘The State’ or ‘The Individual’?

c. How does one justify violence employed by the state?

d. Is the minority justified in dictating terms to the majority and vice versa?

These four questions would be taken up to study the theories mentioned in this project in the

later chapters but only with respect to the contemporary world.

1.1 Political Theory as a Technique of Analysis

When Aristotle remarked that the individual is a political animal, he indicated the

primacy of politics and the fact that political thinking takes place at various levels and in

variety of ways. Political theory is used either to defend or question the status quo. It is a way

to analysis the present scenario and to understand the loopholes and positive points in order to

form a mechanism which deals with the state for a step towards welfare state. Some

commentators like Goodwin emphasize the centrality of the power paradigm whereas others

like Talcott Parsons downgrade it, comparing it to money in modern politics which is very

true in case of contemporary world. Recent works by John Rawls and Robert Nozick do not

1
A history of political thought Plato to Marx(book), Subrata Mukherjee and Sushila
Ramaswamy (Authors), Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi(Publishers), February, 2007 (8th
edition) page no.4
 7

emphasize on ‘power’ at all.2 It is however interesting that Rawls talks about justice, well-

ordered society, stability and efficiency without any attempt to speak about ‘Power’.

1.2 Political Theory as Conceptual Clarification

Political Theory helps to understand the concepts and terms used in a political

argument and analysis. For example: the meaning of freedom, equality, democracy, justice,

rights etc. these terms are used in daily routine and as well as in the subject. An understanding

to all these terms helps us to know the way they have been employed and distinguished from

one another, which would make the concepts and issues involved easily

1.3 Political Theory as Formal Model Building

Few theories given by the Thinkers are of great importance and could be used as a

devise to formulate a model for social working and upliftment and thereby, producing the

product of welfare state. And many theories could be used for formulation of foreign

policies or economic policies. Political Theory can help in a number of ways, e.g., Joseph

Schumpeter’s Elitist Theory of Democracy was based on the assumption that a human being

takes his economic life more seriously than the political one.

1.4 Political Theory as Theoretical Political Science

The emergence of political science in the twentieth century has led to some political

scientists to look upon political theory as a mere theoretical branch of the discipline. It is

more of an attempt made to understand the empirical structure of the society and its impact on

the individual surviving therein and hence, the world on the greater scale.

2
page 6
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Analyze and compare Indian and Western Political Thought

OBJECTIVE

 To enhance knowledge about Indian Political Thought

 To analyse Western Political Thought
 To Compare Indian and Western thoughts to see the similarities and differences

METHODOLOGY

The method used for research work in the present project is the doctrinal method of data
collection.
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INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

Ancient Indian Political Thought has been significantly represented by the Vedas, the
Upnishads, and the other religious writings. The Manusmriti along with other Smritis, dealt
with every political institution and the entire panorama of human life vertically and
horizontally. The vertical perspective led to the concept of the state. The horizontal
perspective led to the concept of Dharma. Both these concepts were supported equally by
philosophy and science.

DHARMA:
One of the meaning of the term ‘Dharma’ is culture. Therefore, all the characteristics of
Indian culture are the characteristics of Dharma in India. The fundamental characteristics of
Indian Culture are: religious orientation, spirituality, religious tolerance, synthetic spirit,
adaptability, freedom of thought, integral approach and most of all, unity in diversity. Dharma
is cultural organization and and spirituality. It has been equated with self-knowledge.
According to Sri Aurobindo, spirituality is the key to the Indian mind.

STATE

According to Manu, the origin of the state is marked when the creatures were dispersed in
various directions out of fear from each other, the Lord created a King for the protection of
the whole creation. He gave the idea of state of nature and the ruler being the religious figure.
Kautilya is indeed one of the earliest known political thinkers, economists, and king-makers.
For Kautilya the elements of sovereign state are the king, the minister, the country, the fort,
the treasury, the army and its ally, and the enemy. Kautilya tells that wealth and its security is
dependent on peace and industry. The traditional six forms of state policy are peace, war,
neutrality, marching, alliance, and the double policy of making peace with one and waging
war against another.

Like Vedas and the Upanishads the Gita maintains identity between man, nature and God.
This identity in the form of Brahman is the basis of harmony, integrality and justice in the
individual, society and humanity. Ultimately God is the material as well as the efficient cause
of the universe. Both man and Nature aim at realisation of divine values.
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Gandhi said non-violence society will be stateless. Gandhi was opposed to the state as it was
neither natural, nor necessary institution. He rejected the state like a philosophical anarchist
on the following grounds:
1. The state is rooted in violence in concentrated and organized form. The state is a soulless
machine which can hardly be weaned from violence, to which it owes its very existence.
2. State’s coercive authority is destructive of individual’s freedom and personality.
3. In a non-violent society, state will be superfluous.
He stated “to me, political power is not an end but one of the means of aiding people
to better their condition in every department of life.” If national life becomes as perfect as to
become self-regulated, no representation is necessary. There is thus a state of lightened
anarchy. In such a state, everyone is his own ruler. He rules himself in such a manner that he
is never hindrance to his neighbor. In the ideal state, therefore, there is no political power
because there is no state.”
Secondly, Gandhian society a stateless and classless society will be composed of a number of
self-contained and self regulated village communities. Every village will have a panchayat,
having full powers of administration and capable of meeting all its essential needs to the
extent of defending itself.3

SOVEREIGN

Manu’s ruler is the religious figure and the subjects obey their ruler, however, the ruler acts
with justice in his state.

FAVOUR OF HIGH CASTES

However, one great slur on Indian penology is the favouritism of the higher castes and lack of
justice towards the lower castes. Different types of punishment were prescribed for the same
offences. According to Manusmriti, a kshatriya or a vaisya or shudra abusing or defaming a
Brahmin was to be respectively punished with the fine of 100 panas, 150 panas and with
corporal punishment while a Brahmin defaming a kshatriya, vaishya or shudra was to be
fined 50, 25 and 20 panas respectively or nothing in the last caste.4 In the middle ages the
social setup was divided in accordance to the religion and then the castes in the religions. And

3
http://www.jstor.org/pss/2379149
4
Manusmriti, VIII. 267-268, Yaj. II 206-07
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also the modern thinkers with the idea of equality and justice for all gave the theory of equal
rights and duties.

KING

According to Dharmashatra a king has to dispense justice, being free from anger and avarice
and in accordance to law, even though be may lose the friendship of person if his decision
goes against the latter. According to Manusmriti, the king, protecting his subject and meeting
out punishment to those who deserve it, performs every day sacrifices in which the fees are
one hundred thousand cows. Yajnavalkya also supports this view. Pointing out the duties of a
king, Manu maintains that king, when protecting his subjects against invasion, should not run
away from the battle. The kings who die fighting in battle go to heaven.
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WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

The earliest philosophers are Thales according to whom water was the origin of the world,

Anaximander (6th century BC) who maintained that the origin was the Indefinite and

Anaximenes (6th century BC) who maintained that air was the source of the world.

Pythagoras maintained that the origin of the universe is Number. Reason, is therefore the

source of the world for mathematics is the subject of pure reason apart from sense.

According to Heraclitus (5th century BC) sleep is better than life and death. This reminds us

of the Mandukya Upanishad which says that the soul becomes prajna in deep sleep,

consciousness solid, integrated and is full of bliss.

THE GREEK POLITICAL THOUGHT

According to Barker, “Political thought begins with the Greeks. Its origin in connected with

the calm and clear rationalisation of Greek mind,”

According to Maxey, “It cannot be said about Hindu political thought, but the extent of their

influence upon the past and present, and possibly upon the future, political life of India, no

western mind is wholly competent to measure.”

Greece is called ‘a laboratory of political experiment’, due to the following reasons:

1. Greece abounded with city-states

2. Ancient Greece presented a picture of flux

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3. Greek outlook was rational

Greek Thinkers laid their main attention towards nature of the state and to man as a political

animal, man can realize himself only through membership of the state. Greek thinkers

discussed liberty, education and fundamental questions of political obligations and revolution

etc. They examined carefully the various grounds on which different social classes based their

claims to political authority. They also tried to find out the ways by which government can be

stable.

6.1. Nature of City- State: About 1500 B.C., Aryan nomads conquered the region of Aegean.

As military masters, the Aryan raiders settled down upon the pre-Hellenic social order. The

rivalry of kinsmen did not encourage voluntary unification. Hence, separation became the

very keynote of their behaviour. Greek state was a community, a true commonwealth or

republic.

6.2. Common Life: A modern city like Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi or Chennai or New York is a

huge congregation of men living in a given area brought together mainly due to economic

needs. In such cities persons living in the same building do not know one another. But in a

Greek city state citizens used to share a common life or purpose.

6.3. Institution of Slavery: after the completion of the conquest, Aryan conquerors became

free citizens while the conquered aboriginal population was reduced to the status of serfdom

or slavery. No slave could be a part of a public assembly, cast a vote, hold an office, appear in

a court of law or enjoy any privileges of membership in the body politic. Aristotle explicitly

justifies slavery as a necessary institution. Plato nowhere condemned it. As labour, it was

performed by slaves .
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1. Plato : Plato has been generally regarded as the founder of philosophical idealism by

virtue of his conviction that there is a universal idea in the world of eternal reality

beyond the world of the senses. He was the first to formulate and define political ideas

within a larger framework of a philosophical idea of Good.5

a. Philosopher Ruler: Plato’s head of the state was a philosopher ruler, who had

the knowledge, intellect and training to govern. According to him, ruling like

any other task requires skill and qualifications as its aim was general well

being of all. On Glaucon’s insistence, Socrates defined a philosopher as one

who loved wisdom, had passion for knowledge, was always curious and eager

to learn. Following Socrates, Plato believed that the Ideal was Real. A

philosopher by his grasp of the Idea of Good was best qualified to rule. A

philosopher should be devoid of any emotional ties and economic

considerations, which is elaborated in his Theory of Communism of Wives and

Property, dealt later in the chapter.

b. Justice: An Ideal State for Plato possessed the four cardinal virtues of wisdom,

courage, discipline and justice. It would have wisdom because its rulers were

persons of knowledge, courage because its warriors were brave, self-discipline

because of the harmony that pervaded the societal matrix due to a common

agreement as to who ought to rule.

c. Theory of Three Classes: Plato divided his State into three classes, first being

the Philosopher King, the second being, the auxiliaries and the third stage were

the workers who producers of the consumable goods. He also discriminated

among the upper two classes and lower class. The upper two classes were

5
A history of political thought Plato to Marx, Subrata Mukherjee and Sushila Ramaswamy ,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, February, 2007, p.49.
 15

given a chance to education but the lower had no privilege to be educated and

they cannot participate in any public meetings.

d. Community of Wives and Property: Plato abolished private family and

property among the guardian class, for they encouraged nepotism, favouritism,

factionalism and other corrupt practices. Plato proposed strict regulation of

sexual intercourse, which was to be performed in the interest of the state by

ensuring that the best and fittest of the human stock was made available. The

philosopher ruler who decide on sexual unions.

According to Plato only a perfect type of education may create perfect state. The

political authority should be blended with broadest knowledge and culture and the

philosopher should be the embodiment of highest political virtue, spirit, swiftness and

strength. He should represent the knowledge in action. The guardians must be given

special training. The system of education outlined above was meant to produce such a

selfless ruling class.6

2. Aristotle: Aristotle has been regarded as the “Father of Political Science” as he was

the first to analyse critically and systematically, the then existing constitutions and

classify them. Aristotle regarded political science as the master science. Plato was an

idealist and radical, whereas Aristotle is realist and a moderate.

a. Origin of the State: Aristotle attempts at tracing it from two angles:

i. Historical: He first talks of family. To him family is an association of

husband, wife, children and slaves. They have no doubt a natural desire to

continue their race by leaving “behind them on image of themselves.” The

6
http://books.google.co.in/books?hl=en&lr=&id=jZM5Gc2zlhkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=wes
tern+political+thought&ots=HNyW9Iu_6i&sig=3LiiFQ5cSq4AMNZLmlrp8yySfxw#v=onep
age&q&f=true
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union of families with the purpose of aiming at something more then the

supply of daily needs makes a village. Similarly, when several villages

come together to the extent of making self-sufficient and continuing its

existence for the sake of good life, the state is born.

ii. Psychological: Man is a political animal by nature. He has an end to

achieve good life- physically, mentally and morally – since he is distinct

from other beings by virtue of his rational nature. His rationality drives

him to form a state.

b. Constitution of the State: Aristotle, like Plato, gave three division of state.

They are citizens, middle class, and slaves. The citizens own land and enjoy

political rights. The middle class practices industry and commerce and enjoy

civil rights. The slaves have neither civil nor political rights.

c. Education: The realization of education is as old as knowledge itself. Aristotle

who realizes that end of the state is the good life of its citizens, says good life

can be attained with the help of education as well. So education must be the

monopoly of the state.

d. Private Property: Aristotle has a strong defense in favour of private property

system. Aristotle says that property is an instrument and a necessary

instrument to good life. He strongly pleads that the citizens must be owners of

property for such a status enables them to develop their personality and good

life. However, he proposes that each citizen should have that much of property

which enables him to live temperately.

e. International Relations: Aristotle is conscious that his state cannot exist alone;

on the other hand it should co-exist with other states while doing so war is

inevitable. However, he says that war is not the end of the state; on the
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contrary it is only a means of peace and good life of the state. His aim is

internal and international peace.

3. Thomas Aquinas

By profession, Aquinas was a theologian rather than a philosopher. Indeed he

nowhere characterises himself as a philosopher, and the references to philosophers

found in his own work refer to pagans rather than Christians. Nonetheless much of his

work bears upon philosophical topics, and in this sense may be characterized as

philosophical. Aquinas' philosophical thought has exerted enormous influence on

subsequent Christian theology, especially that of the Roman Catholic Church,

extending to Western philosophy in general. Aquinas stands as a vehicle and modifier

of Aristotelianism, Augustinian Neoplatonism and Proclean Neoplatonism.7

a. Theory of Knowledge: Thomas Aquinas was the first to recognize the fact that

Aristotelian intellectualism would be of great help for the study of philosophy

as well as theology. But the introduction of Aristotle's works involved the

solution of the disputed question of the relationship between philosophy and

theology. There are two different types of knowledge: sense knowledge and

intellectual knowledge. Sense experience is the beginning for all of man's

natural knowledge. It begins in the senses, and is completed in the intellect.8

b. Theology: Aquinas viewed theology, or the sacred doctrine, as a science, the

raw material data of which consists of written scripture and the tradition of the

Catholic Church. These sources of data were produced by the self-revelation of

God to individuals and groups of people throughout history. Faith and reason,

while distinct but related, are the two primary tools for processing the data of

7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas
8
http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Aquinas.html
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theology. Aquinas believed both were necessary — or, rather, that the

confluence of both was necessary — for one to obtain true knowledge of God.

Aquinas blended Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine by suggesting that

rational thinking and the study of nature, like revelation, were valid ways to

understand truths pertaining to God. According to Aquinas, God reveals

himself through nature, so to study nature is to study God. The ultimate goals

of theology, in Aquinas’ mind, are to use reason to grasp the truth about God

and to experience salvation through that truth.

c. Law and Justice: According to Aquinas, there is a four fold classification of

law: eternal, natural, human and divine. The eternal law is the controlling plan

of the universe existing in the mind of God. Natural law is the participation of

ma, as a rational creature in the eternal law through which he distinguishes

between good and evil and seeks his true end. Human law is the application, by

human reason of the precepts of natural law to particular earthly conditions.

The Divine law is that through which the limitations and imperfection of

human reason are supplemented and man is infallible and directed to super

mundane end eternal blessedness; it is the ‘Law of Revealation’.

4. Montesquieu: He believed political freedom could be created by separating political

powers into different branches, and he developed the political theory of 'checks and

balances' that became an important part of the American Constitution.

a. His views on Law: Montesquieu does not believe in abstract justice. He,

however believes that the basic principle of law and justice exist in nature. But

he is of the opinion that the teaching of nature are to be found “not in

deduction from assumption based on reason, but in the facts of history of the

actual working of political life.” Man is governed by two different sets of law:
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i. Law established by God or Natural Laws.

ii. Laws made by man or Positive Laws:

1. International Law: International Law arises out of the relation

of one state with other states.

2. Political Law: Law governing the relation between the

individuals and the government is called political.

3. Civil Law: The relations between the citizens of the same state

are regulated by civil law.9

b. Separation of Powers: According to Montesquieu, separation of governmental

powers into executive, legislations and judicial organs is the best guarantee for

liberty.

9
Comprehensive History of Political Thought, N.Jayapalan, Atlantic Publishers and
Distributors, 2001, p.166
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INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT v WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

2.1. Naturalism: Greek philosophy started as a kind of naturalism as the distinction between

mind and matter was not clearly recognized that time, now called Materialism by some

philosophers with a scientific basis. But we must note that a naturalism that does not

distinguish between mind and matter has an equal possibility of developing into materialism

or spiritualism. Indians and the Chinese worshipped elements of nature too. The Greek Gods

were natural Gods (like the early Indian Gods). The Water of Thales was considered God.

Hercaclitus said that reality is change and identified it with fire, which he treated as God. Fire

is one of the five elements of nature worshipped by the Vedic people, is a part of most Indian

marriages. And also the first lawgiver, according to Hindu Mythology, ‘Manu’ is progenitor

of Gods of the land.

2.2. Equality: Looking at life from a materialistic perspective, the West felt the need to find

a tool to unify its people, so was enunciated the concept of Equality. In India, it is believed

that there is an eternal consciousness in man that is common to every individual, rich or poor.

Man’s physical existence is a result of his Karmas and Samskaras.Since every human being

has a soul, equality is an essential part of Indian philosophy.

2.3. Theology: In the early scriptures of both Ancient Greece and India, God appears merely

as the personification of atmospheric phenomenon. The life of the early communities of

herdsmen and of the agriculture community was chiefly influenced by those elemental facts

of Nature on which they depended: the alternation of day and night; the visible signs of which

are sun, moon and stars; favourable or adverse weather conditions, thunderstroms and winds,
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rain and drought. These external phenomena, on which depended the prosperity and often,

indeed, the very fate of Man, could not be altered and directly modified by primitive Man.

The feeling that he was completely dependent on these outward processes, therefore, rendered

Man humble in the face of the uncontrollable forces of Nature. Prompted by a powerful

instinct of self-preservation, however, Man attempted to establish some sway over them by

worshipping and placating the mighty being which, he believed, were incorporated in

atmospheric forces, by the acknowledgment of their dominion, resigned submission to their

authority and perhaps the utilitarian desire to gain their assistance and favour by satisfying

and strengthening them by means of libations. It is this attitude, then, that we invariably find

underlying all primitive worship.

Another mode of divine worship practised in ancient Greece, and preserved also for

ages in India, is the veneration, allied however with fear, of powerful beasts; and thus the

Gods in animal form, the Greek Satyr, a combination of Man and animal, have had their

equivalents in Indian religions at all times; the elephant-god, the snake gods and goddesses,

the vulture-god, or the more beneficent deities who assumed the shape of a bull, a cow or

monkey; in the main, symbols of wealth and fertility.

But while this conception of diety maintained its dominance over India, in the West it

was soon abandoned. For at the very period when the Sophistic outlook was developing, that

is about 500 B.C a single paramount principle was postulated as ruling the Universe, at least

by the more advanced Greek thinkers, although the masses remained much longer content

with an indiscriminate diversity of Gods.

2.4. Ethics: In the first place we must consider two different concepts of Individuality: that of

India’s cosmic Philosophy and that of the anthropologically determined West. In India, then

the individual is always part and parcel of the Whole. Man, most closely woven into the
 22

Universal Cosmic network, is subject to precisely the same biological laws of growth and

decay as all other forms. According to India’s Cosmic outlook the individual does not stand in

splendid isolation; he is not the all powerful Man, of ancient Greece.

2.5. Dharma: The Indian Dharma be identified with none of the Western concepts of duty.

For while it imposes on Man obligations towards non-human beings, it is by no means akin to

the Christian idea of obedience and humility towards Deity, since Dharma prescribes not only

the acknowledgment of obligations towards higher, a supreme Being, but also towards lower

beings, and this again not as a mode of indirect worship of a creator. Dharma, moreover, is

not only negative obligation, in the guise of the restraints of duty, but is equally the sustaining

influence of right.

2.6. Liberty: Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a passionate lover of liberty in all the sphere of life

like Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau. He declared the essential divinity of man as man.

Man was by his nature and constitution, ‘eternally free’. To deny this freedom was an out rage

upon his nature and a sin against his maker.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Chopra .J.K, Contemporary Political Thought, Book Enclave, Jaipur 2003

2. Gandhi.G Madan, Political Theory and Thought, Daryaganj, New Delhi, 2007.
3. Jayapalan.N, Indian Political Thinkers, Mhera Offset Press, Delhi, 2000.
4. Ramaswamy, Rama, Political Theory Ideas and Concepts, Daryaganj, New Delhi,
2006.
5. Sharma Urmila, Indian Political Thought, Delhi, 2006.
6. Varma.V.P, Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought,Agra,2006.