Synthesis of Linkages

Assignment 2

Topic: A Brief Evolutionary History of Kinematics up till the

1900s
Synthesis of Linkages
Assignment 2 September 30, 2016

Kinematics is the name of the study of motion that was introduced by Ampere in his famous
essay on the classification of sciences (Macagno, 1991). Though this study is quite old, it was
integrated with other areas of science. Innovations in Mechanics in these times can also be
associated with kinematics even if it was not so defined.

From medieval times, Man in his need for accomplishment beyond his human power developed
machines and hence mechanism without a true identification of the field of science now known
as kinematics. A study of the devices used in times before holds no dispute to this thought.
One of the earliest definition of a machine was given by Vitruvius, a military engineer at about
28 B. C., He defined a machine as a combination of timber fastened together, chiefly efficacious
in moving great weights (Hartenberg & Jacques, 1964). Subsequently, Hero of Alexandria gave
a summary of machines as the five mechanical powers which were Lever, Windlass, Screw,
Wedge and Tackle block. Modern thought on machines was defined in 1875 by the German
kinematician Franz Reuleaux who identified the six basic mechanical components as crank,
wheels – gears, cam, screw, rachets, belts/ chains/ hydraulic lines (Hartenberg & Jacques,
1964). However, each of this components find their origin far back before the Christian era and
they arose mainly for use in war machinary like the engines built by Archimedes that twarted
the Romans at Syracuse between 214 and 212 BC

While there was a growth in war machineries, devices for ease of household labour were not
really been developed, however, the laws of mechanics were applied in the temple for effects
such as closing of doors after lighting sacrificial fires and like things. The Roman seizure of
Alexandria and Egypt which was the earliest place of learning in the ancient world during the
time of Julius Ceasar reduced the rapid innovations in science and development of mechanism
/ machines but aided the development of more sophisticated machinery already in existence.
After this, at about 642 AD, The Arabs conquered Egypt and innovations and refinement of
existing technology resumed. At this time, between 500 and 1000 AD, there were no substantial
evidence of mechanical progress in the western world but growth in agricultural methods and
craftsmanship led to development and a preparedness for research in mechanical devices to
aid production.

The journey to understanding kinematics as a field of study can be said to have begun with
Euler and Watts in the Eighteenth century, their individual works brought light to this field of
study. Euler observed that;

The investigation of the motion of a rigid body may be conveniently separated into two
parts, the one geometrical, the other mechanical. In the first part, the transference of
the body from a given position to any other position must be investigated without
respect to the causes of motion, and must be represented by analytical formulae, which
will define the position of each point of the body. This investigation will therefore be
referable solely to geometry, or rather to stereotomy.

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Synthesis of Linkages
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It is clear that by the separation of this part of the question from the other, which
properly belongs to mechanic, the determination of the motion from dynamical
principles will be made much easier than if the two parts were undertaken conjointly.
(Macagno, 1991)

This led to the separation of dynamics into kinematics and kinetics. Lagrange is quoted to have
described Euler’s Mechanica sive motus scientia analytica exposita as the first great work in
which analysis is applied to the science of movement (Hartenberg & Jacques, 1964). A subtle
agreement to Eulers idea can also be deduced from D'Alembert, in his book “Dynamique”, where
he stated that all that we can see without doubts in the motion of a body is that it traverses a
certain distance in a certain time. (Macagno, 1991), though he assumed that these could be
derived from the principles of dynamics. Watt, who was an engineer studied the synthesis of
movement. He was the first to focus on the motion of a point on the intermediate link of a four
bar mechanism and he was able to build a double acting steam engine. He also discovered
coupler point motion.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Monge proposed a course on the elements of
machines and a compilation of machine elements with an understanding of the means by which
direction of motion were changed at the Ecole Polytecnique. The curriculum for the course as
outlined by Monge and Hachette was detailed to a book by Lanz and Betancourt, and this
became the first published book of Kinematics. Hachette did the compilation of machine
elements with an understanding of the means by which direction of motion were changed, and
this became the foundation for what we now have as the Compendium of Mechanisms.

Worthy to note in the history of Kinematics are Borgnis, an Italian Engineer and Professor and
De Coriolis, a French Engineer and Professor. Coriolis simplified Borgnis concept of a complete
machine to three parts namely, the receivers of energy, the parts transmitting motion and the
working parts or tools. It was after this that Amperes in his “Essai Sur la Philosophie des
Sciences” in 1834 where he tried to classify all human knowledge coined the term Kinematics.
He wrote:

There exist certain considerations which if sufficiently developed would constitute a

complete science, but which had hitherto been neglected, or have formed only the
subject of memoirs or special essays. This science ought to include all that can be said
with respect to motion in its kinds, independently of the forces by which it is produced.
It should treat in the first place of spaces passed over, and of times employed in the
different relations which may exist between those spaces and times (Hartenberg &
Jacques, 1964).

This thus credited Euler’s earlier idea of the subject matter. Afterwards, Chasles and Poisot
analyzed geometric body’s not just points and improved on the known concept of instantaneous
centers which had been learnt from Johann Bernoulli. (Macagno, 1991)

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Synthesis of Linkages
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In 1864, Belanger made clear the role of kinematics in the “A vant-Propos of his Cinématique”.
Also commenting on Laboulaye's “Traité de Cinématique”, he said; “that one should consider
kinematics as a science possessing its own theories, independently from dynamics and from the
knowledge of the physical and experimental properties of the moving body”. He further went
to compare algebra and geometry in an analogy with kinematics and dynamics, arguing that
they can be taught separately but they do not need to be imparted at sequential times.
(Macagno, 1991)

Another great contributor to the field of Kinematics after amperes was Willis; He classified the
simple combination of mechanism from input to output as follows:

Class A: directional relation and velocity ratio constant

Class B: directional relation constant – velocity ratio varying

Class C: directional relation changing periodically – velocity ratio either constant

or varying (Hartenberg & Jacques, 1964)

He also gave five ways for achieving relative motion between input and output links, they were
rolling contact, sliding contact, wrapping connectors, link works and tackles of all sorts.

Modern Kinematics had its beginning with Reuleaux (Hartenberg & Jacques, 1964). His books on
the subject include Kinematics of Machines which is an English translation done by Kennedy,
and Lehrbuch der Kinematik. He defined terms like element, kinematic pair, higher pairs, lower
pairs. He defined a mechanism as a kinematic chain of connecting links, one link been fixed
(Hartenberg & Jacques, 1964). He also recognized the idea of synthesis of linkages though
limited to type synthesis

Analysis and synthesis of linkages soared between 1870s and the 1880s. Aronhold and Kennedy
gave greater depth to the use of instantaneous centers by the theorem of three centers.
Kennedy calculated accelerations by graphical differentiation of velocities calculated from
instant centers. (Hartenberg & Jacques, 1964). The use of velocity and acceleration diagrams
was introduced by Smith, also independently done by Burmester, Mehmke and Mohr in Germany.
Now Synthesis of Linkages can be defined in three parts. Type Synthesis, Originally introduced
by Reauleux which defines the type of mechanism, Number Synthesis which establishes the
number of links, lower pairs and higher pairs to achieve constrained motion. The criteria of
movement was defined by Grubler, and the third synthesis namely dimensional synthesis defines
proportional lengths of links to achieve the required transformation of motion. Chebyshev, a
Russian mathematician along with Samuel Roberts made significant contribution to synthesis in
the theorem of the triple generation of coupler curves and also with the Chebyshev four bar
mechanism.

This has thus given a brief history of kinematics till the 1900s.

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Synthesis of Linkages
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References
Hartenberg, R. S. & Jacques, D., 1964. Kinematic Synthesis of Linkages. Ist ed. New
York: McGraw Hill.
Macagno, E., 1991. History of Kinematics. 1st ed. Iowa: IIHR Monograph No. 112.
Macagno, E., 1991. Inception of Modern Kinematics. Ist ed. Iowa: IIHR Monograph No.
112.

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