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LEARNING OUTCOMES 4
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Determine the solution set for linear equations in one or two variables;
Apply the different system of linear equations in one or two variables;
Graph the system of inequalities in one or two variables;
Formulate linear programming models;
Use graphical method for solving both maximization and minimization linear
programming problems.
Definition of Statistics
Statistics is an art and a science of collecting, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data.
Examples
■ The term statistics came from the Latin phrase “ratio status” which means study of
practical politics or the statesman’s art.
■ In the middle of 18th century, the term statistik (a term due to Achenwall) was used, a
German term defined as “the political science of several countries”
■ From statistik it became statistics defined as a statement in figures and facts of the
present condition of a state.
Application of Statistics
■ Diverse applications
“During the 20th Century statistical thinking and methodology have become the scientific
framework for literally dozens of fields including education, agriculture, economics, biology, and
medicine, and with increasing influence recently on the hard sciences such as astronomy,
geology, and physics. In other words, we have grown from a small obscure field into a big
obscure field.” – Brad Efron
■ Comparing the effects of five kinds of fertilizers on the yield of a particular variety of corn
■ Determining the income distribution of Filipino families
■ Comparing the effectiveness of two diet programs
■ Prediction of daily temperatures
■ Evaluation of student performance
Two Aims of Statistics
Statistics aims to uncover structure in data, to explain variation…
■ Descriptive
■ Inferential
Descriptive Statistics includes all the techniques used in organizing, summarizing and
presenting the data on hand while Inferential Statistics includes all the techniques used in
analyzing the sample data that will lead to generalizations about a population from which the
sample was taken.
Areas of Statistics
Descriptive statistics
■ methods concerned w/ collecting, describing, and analyzing a set of data without
drawing conclusions (or inferences) about a large group.
■
Example of Descriptive Statistics
Present the Philippine population by constructing a graph indicating the total number of Filipinos
counted during the last census by age group and sex
Inferential statistics
■ methods concerned with the analysis of a subset of data leading to predictions or
inferences about the entire set of data.
A new milk formulation designed to improve the psychomotor development of infants was
tested on randomly selected infants.
Based on the results, it was concluded that the new milk formulation is effective in improving the
psychomotor development of infants.
Larger Set
(N units/observations)
Smaller Set
(n units/observations)
1. Nominal
Numbers or symbols used to classify
Examples are sex, marital status,
occupation, nationality, etc
2. Ordinal scale
Accounts for order; no indication of
distance between positions.
Examples are curriculum level, socio-
Theeconomic
ratio levelstatus, military ranks,
of measurement has Latin
all thehonors,
following properties:
etc
a. the numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into
3. distinct,
Intervalnon-overlapping
scale and exhaustive categories;
Equal intervals; no absolute zero.
ACTIVITY No. 2
Enumerate five (5) variables that you may think and classify each as to
qualitative or quantitative data. If quantitative, state whether it is discrete or
continuous data. State the level each variable is measured. [15]
1. __________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. _________________________
Definition
Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of the variable based on what
For example, we can measure the educational level of a person by using the International
Objective Method
Methods of Data Collection
Subjective Method
Use of Existing
Records
ACTIVITY No. 2
Sketch a pie chart on your own monthly family income and expenditures. [20]
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION NO. 1
Identify whether the given situation belongs to the area of descriptive statistics or
inferential statistics. [20]
Synchronous vs Asynchronous Learning: Their Effects in the Teaching-
Learning Process
Average of a student in his 10 subjects
Statistics on COVID-19 cases in the world
Effect of music in reviewing for the exams
One wishes to find out which gives a better salary between companies in the
rural areas or urban areas
Enrolment rate in tertiary private institutions
Percentage of PUIs by municipality in the Province of Rizal
Impact of COVID 19 Pandemic
SELF in the
ASSESSMENT life of tertiary
QUESTION No. 2 students
Average sales for the first quarter of 2020
Amount of time spent in studying vs success of passing
Classify the following variables as to qualitative or quantitative. If quantitative, further
tell if it is discrete or continuous data. Be able to state the scale each is measured.
[30]
breeds of dogs
birth order (first, second, etc)
monthly income
cellphone number
night differential of cashiers in a convenient store
spot on a die
jersey number of a basketball player
IQ test scores
Students classification (continuing, irregular, returning)
COVID 19 cases in a barangay
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION No. 3
Verbal Ability Test Scores and Math Ability Test Scores of ten (10) students
in a certain class. [15]
ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION No. 1
Identify whether the given situation belongs to the area of descriptive statistics or
inferential statistics. [20]
Reference: Slides Presentation Used During The Training on Teaching Basic Statistics for Tertiary
Level Teachers Summer 2008
Most of the slides were taken from Elementary Statistics: A Handbook of Slide Presentation
prepared by ZVJ Albacea, CE Reano, RV Collado, LN Comia, NA Tandang in 2005 for the Institute
of Statistics, CAS UP Los Baños
St:
Write the left most column d
hen three or more numbers must
be
added, the chances of making a
mistake
becomes much smaller if the
first two
numbers are added and then the
third one
LEARNING OUTCOMES
General Objectives
The purpose of this module is to familiarize students in Descriptive Statistics using Data
Analysis ToolPak
Specific Objectives
As a result of this lesson, students should be able to:
Analyze data using Data Analysis ToolPak and other functions in MS Excel;
Explain and interpret the results of the data analysis.
Descriptive Statistics
A descriptive statistic (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that
quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a collection of information
while descriptive statistics (in the mass noun sense) is the process of using and
analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from inferential (or
inductive statistics) by its aim to summarize a sample rather than use the data to learn
about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. This generally
means that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, is not developed on the
basis of probability theory and are frequently non-parametric statistics. Even when a
data analysis draws its main conclusions using inferential statistics, descriptive statistics
are generally also presented. For example, in papers reporting on human subjects,
typically a table is included giving the overall sample size, sample sizes in important
subgroups (e.g., for each treatment or exposure group), and demographic or clinical
characteristics such as the average age, the proportion of subjects of each sex, the
proportion of subjects with related co-morbidities, etc.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statistics
Summary Measures
Measures of Location
Maximum and Minimum
Median
Mode
Range (R)
Variance
Standard Deviation
Remarks on Standard Deviation
Measures of Skewness
What is Symmetry?
Measures of Kurtosis
Percentiles
Deciles
Quartiles
Measures of Variation
Measures of Variation
Let’s try to work on some data samples
Encoded Data
Data Analysis Using ToolPak
Data Interpretation
Based on the summary measures, it can be noted that the distribution (weight in
pounds), whose mean is 145.13 with a standard deviation of approximately 18.67, is a
positively skewed (0.15 is greater than 0) and a platykurtic (-1.32 is less than 0)
distribution.
ACTIVITY NO. 1
ACTIVITY NO. 2
Compute for Descriptive Statistics using Data Analysis ToolPak.
A surveyresults.
Interpret in a certain barangay showed the number of members in each household
as follows 3, 5, 6, 4, 7, 8, 6, 9, 10, 4, 6, 7, 5, 8, 9, 8, 3, 4, 5 and 5.
Fifty families were surveyed and the number of children x was recorded for each
family as follows:
0,1,2,3,4,2,2,2,3,3,4,5,6,1,0,1,6,2,5,4,3,0,1,2,3,3,3,6,4,2,6,2,1,5,3,0,0,2,5,6,1,0,1,2,5,3
,4,2,2,3
Based on the summary measures, it can be observed that the distribution (number of
children of a sample of 50 families), whose mean is 2.72 or approximately 3 children
with a standard deviation of approximately 2 children, is a positively skewed (0.308 is
greater than 0) and a platykurtic (-0.77 is less than 0) distribution.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION NO. 2
Consider the systolic blood pressures of 12 smokers and 12 non-smokers are follows:
Consider the systolic blood pressures of 12 smokers and 12 non-smokers are follows:
Smokers: 122,146,120,114,124,126,118,128,130,134,116,130
Non-Smokers: 114,134,114,116,138,110,112,116,132,126,108,116
Based on the summary measures for smokers, it can be observed that their
systolic blood pressure, whose mean is 124.83 with a standard deviation of 9.67, is a
positively skewed (0.73 is greater than 0) and a leptokurtic (0.64 is greater than 0)
Reference: Slides Presentation Used During The Training on Teaching Basic Statistics for Tertiary
distribution.
Level Meanwhile,
Teachers Summer 2008 the non-smokers whose mean systolic blood pressure is
119.67 with a standard deviation of 10.12 is also a positively skewed (0.82 is greater
than 0) and a leptokurtic (0.83 is greater than 0) distribution. In this survey, it can be
concluded that systolic blood pressure of smokers is closer to the mean than that of
the distribution of the non-smokers.
Most of the slides were taken from Elementary Statistics: A Handbook of Slide Presentation
prepared by ZVJ Albacea, CE Reano, RV Collado, LN Comia, NA Tandang in 2005 for the Institute
of Statistics, CAS UP Los Baños
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Direction of Relationship
1. Perfect Positive Correlation
If x and y have a strong positive linear correlation, r is close to +1.0. An r value
which is exactly equal to +1.0 indicates a perfect positive fit. Positive values
indicate a relationship between x and y variables such that as values for x
increase, values for y also increase.
4. Phi Coefficient or the Four-fold Coefficient is used when both x and y are
dichotomous. The computational formula is given by:
Testing the Significance of an r
Illustrative Example
QPA in QPA in
Math English
QPA in
Math 1
QPA in
English 0.485512 1
ACTIVITY No. 1
Analyze using Data Analysis ToolPak. Use 0.05 alpha to test whether their
ACTIVITY No. 2
A random sample of fifty men and fifty women were surveyed as to drinking
habits and classified as alcoholics, heavy drinkers and light drinkers. The results
were:
Test the relationship of Sex and their Attendance to Kindergarten in the table below:
The correlational coefficient value of 0.666667 suggests that there is a moderate correlation
between Sex and Attendance to Kindergarten of the sampled population.
Examples for Self-Assessment Questions were taken from the book: Probability & Statistics.
Ymas Jr., Sergio E. Sta Monica Printing Corporation.Manila Philippines.2009
Linear Regression
Regression is primarily used to build models/equations to predict a key response, Y,
from a set of predictor (X) variable. Correlation is primarily used to quickly and concisely
summarize the direction and strength of the relationships between a set of 2 or more
numeric variables.
Regression describes how an independent variable is numerically related to the
dependent variable. Correlation is used to represent the linear relationship between two
variables. On the contrary, regression is used to fit the best line and estimate one
variable on the basis of another variable.
Use correlation for a quick and simple summary of the direction and strength of the
relationship between two or more numeric variables. Use regression when you're
looking to predict, optimize, or explain a number response between the variables (how x
influences y)
When investigating the relationship between two or more variables, it is important
to know the difference correlation and regression. Correlation quantifies the direction
and strength of the relationship between two numeric variables, X and Y whose values
always lie between -1.0 – 1.0. Meanwhile, simple linear regression relates to X and Y
through an equation of the form y = a + bx.
Regression describes how an independent variable is numerically related to the dependent
variable. Correlation is used to represent the linear relationship between two variables. On
the contrary, regression is used to fit the best line and estimate one variable on the basis of
another variable.
Illustrative Examples
A researcher would like to know which among the high school grade, pre-board
rating, age and college grade are predictors of the board rating.
Let us try to simulate the analysis by encoding the data below.
Name Board High Pre- Age College
Rating School Board Grade
Grade Rating
Zsakira 90 94 88 30 86
Wajid 92 90 91 32 90
Ysabelle 95 92 92 24 93
Xhandra 93 88 90 22 91
Zhnarah 88 90 86 21 89
Gio 91 92 90 24 93
Airah 93 90 92 25 94
Wilxon 96 88 94 23 94
Wlei 99 89 97 22 97
Vinh 94 90 91 21 92
Fairuz 89 92 91 32 91
Adrian 95 91 94 40 93
Shairah 98 90 96 34 96
EXCEL VIEW
Encode the data using five columns, first column for the dependent variable (board
rating) and the remaining columns for the independent variables (high school grade,
pre-board rating, age, and college grade).
Figure 6.1
Data View
Encoded Data
EXCEL GUIDE
Regression
Click OK
Figure 6.3
Regression Dialog
Box
Click in the Input Y Range and select the range of the dependent variable in the first
column including the label.
Figure 6.4
Input Range
Including the labels Input Range A1:A14
Click in the Input X Range and select the range of the independent variable in the
remaining columns.
Figure 6.5
Input Range
Figure 6.6
Labels in First
Click Row
Click
Result
Table 6.1
Regression
Output
Table 6.2
Regression Statistics
R Square equals 0.893, which is a good fit, 89.3% of the variation in the dependent
variable (board rating) is explained by the independent variables (high school grade,
pre-board rating, age, college grade).
Since the value of the Significance F (0.00059) is less than the 0.05, the results
of the analysis are reliable.
Otherwise, better to stop using this set of independent variables if Significance F
(0.00059) is greater than the 0.05. You may delete some variables and/or add other
variables.
Regression Line Coefficients
Table 6.4
Coefficients
Based on the probability values, only the Pre-Board Rating with 0.0052 p-value is
below 0.05 which makes it a predictor of the board rating.
In other words, for each unit increase in high school grade, board rating
decreases with 0.0995. For each unit increase in Pre-Board Rating, board rating
increases with 1.2856. For each unit increase in age, board rating decreases with
0.1424. For each unit increase in college grade, board rating decreases with 0.2738.
The regression line can also be used to forecast or predict the dependent
variable based on the given independent variables by simply substituting the values.
For example, you would like to predict the board rating of a student whose high
school grade is 90, pre-board rating is 80, 30 years old and with a college grade of 85.
Y =13.482−0.0995 High SchoolGrade+ 1.2856 Pre−Board Rating−0.1424 Age−0.2738College Grade .
The following data relate the selling price Y to the living space x 1, lot size x2, and
the number of bathrooms x3, for 10 recently sold homes in a common area.
EXERCISE No. 2
A researcher would like to know whether the profile of the respondents in terms of
age, number of children, and distance from work predicts their performance in a
certain company.
ANSWER TO ASSESSMENT
SELF SELF ASSESSMENT
No. 1 QUESTION
Reference: http://www/graphpad.com