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Chapter 1

ENGINE
Objective: To give a brief introduction to aero engines.

Desired Learning Outcomes:

1. Understand the origin of aero engine.

2. Analyse (broadly outlined) types of engines.

3. Revise basic Gas laws.

4. Understand the derivation of chemically correct mixture.

History of Engine

1. The industrial revolution, which took place in the late eighteenth century and
continued into part of the twentieth century, was largely a result of the ability of
human beings to find ways of using energy sources to develop power. Development
of the internal-combustion engine took place largely during the nineteenth century. A
French inventor named Jean Lenoir built the first practical gas engine in 1860.
However, the first four-stroke-cycle engine was built by August Otto and Eugen
Langen of Germany in 1876. Otto and Langen also built a two-stroke cycle engine.
The first truly successful gasoline engine, operating according to the four stroke-
cycle principle, was built in Germany in 1885 by Daimler, who had previously been
associated with Otto and Langen. Karl Benz of Germany built a similar gasoline
engine in the same year. The Daimler and Benz engines were used in early
automobiles, and the engines used today are similar in many respects to the Daimler
and Benz engines.

2. The first powered flight in

an airplane was made by the
Wright brothers on December 17,
1903; it is safe to say that the first
successful gasoline engine for an
airplane was the engine used in
the Wright plane(fig 1-1). It was a
four cylinder, water-cooled, 12
horsepower engine producing
ignition by means of a high-
tension magneto.

Fig 1-1
Types of Energies

3. Energy is the capacity for doing work. There are mainly two types of
energies: kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, such as, that
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possessed by a moving cannon ball, falling water or a strong wind. Potential energy
or stored energy, is the energy of position. A coiled spring has potential energy.
Likewise, the water held by the dam of a reservoir has potential energy and gasoline
has potential energy.

Law of Conservation of Energy

4. This law state “Energy can neither be created nor can it be destroyed.” But,
energy can be transformed from one form to another to carry out useful work. For
example, heat energy can be transformed into mechanical energy, mechanical
energy can be transformed into electrical energy, and electrical energy can be
transformed into heat, light or mechanical energy.

Heat Engine

5. An engine is a device which coverts chemical energy of fuel into heat energy.
Subsequently this heat energy is converted into mechanical energy to get useful
work done. There are basically two main types of heat engines: -

(a) Internal combustion engines.

(b) External combustion engines.

Internal Combustion Engine

6. In the internal combustion engine, the transformation of chemical energy into

thermal energy and then thermal energy into mechanical energy takes place within
the engine cylinder, where hot expanding gases act directly on the piston.

Types of Internal Combustion Engines

7. Internal combustion engines are sub-divided into three categories:-

(a) Reciprocating Engines.

(i) Petrol engine

(ii) Diesel engine

(b) Rotary Engines.

Fig 1-2
(i) Turbo jet

Fig 1-3
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(ii) Turbo fan

Fig 1-4

(iii) Turbo prop

Fig 1-5
(c) Direct Engines.

(i) Ram jet

Fig 1-6
(ii) Pulse jet

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(iii) Rocket engines Fig 1-7

External Combustion Engine

8. External combustion engine (fig 1-8) is also known as steam engine in which
the conversion of chemical energy into thermal energy and subsequently into
mechanical energy takes place in separate chambers.

Fig 1-8

Internal Vs External Combustion Engine

9. Separate chambers in external combustion engine results in having greater

volume and greater weight as compared to internal combustion engine. This engine
also has lower efficiency as compared to internal combustion engine. Due to these
reasons, this class of engine is not used for aircraft propulsion. On the other hand
high efficiency, absence of auxiliary parts like furnaces, boilers and condensers,
make the internal combustion engine light, more compact and reliable, making it
suitable for propulsion of aircraft.

Requirements of Aero Engines

10. The following are the requirements of aero engines:-

(a) Low specific fuel consumption

(b) Lesser weight.

(c) High Thrust /Power to weight ratio.

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(d) Capability to operate at high altitudes.

Advantages of Petrol Engine /Disadvantage of Diesel Engine

11. The following points manifest fundamental differences between petrol and
diesel engines:-

(a) To qualify for an aircraft engine, power to weight ratio of an engine should
be 1 HP / 1-2 lbs. In petrol engine 1 horse power is obtained with about two
pounds of weight. If we have to make an engine of 20 HP then weight shall be
close to 40 lbs. Diesel engine draws 1 HP to 15 lbs of weight which is very low
power to weight ratio making it undesirable for use in aircraft.

(b) Diesel engines need much more air to have combustion and at high
altitudes they become inefficient.

(c) The advantage of a diesel engine is that it requires no ignition system; it

consumes cheaper fuel and has a high compression ratio. These are however
nullified with the arguments given above.

Conversion of Heat Energy to Mechanical Energy

12. As stated earlier energy can neither be created nor destroyed. However
energy can be transformed from one form to another. In addition, heat engine is a
device, which converts the chemical (potential) energy of fuel into heat energy and
subsequently into mechanical energy. To have a clear idea of the principle of
operation of a piston engine, knowledge of the two gas laws namely Boyle’s and
Charles’s law is essential.

Boyle's Law and Charles's Law

13. Boyle's law states that the volume of any dry gas varies inversely with the
pressure sustained by it, temperature remaining constant. In other words, increasing
the pressure upon a volume of confined gas reduces its volume correspondingly. In
a similar manner, doubling the pressure reduces the volume of the gas to one-half.

14. Charles's law states that the pressure of a confined gas is directly proportional
to its temperature. Therefore, as the temperature is increased, pressure of the gas is
also increased as long as the volume remains constant.

Operation of an Engine

15. These laws may be used to explain the

operation of an engine (fig1-9). The mixture of
fuel and air burns when it is ignited and gives off
heat. Heat is absorbed by the gases in the
cylinder, and they tend to expand. The increase
in pressure, acting on the head of the piston,
forces it to move downward, and the motion is

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Fig 1-9
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transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. Crankshaft subsequently

converts the reciprocating movement into rotary movement.

Derivation of Stoichiometric Mixture

16. Combustion is a process in which chemical energy of fuel is converted into

heat energy. Fuels used in aircraft engines are hydrocarbons which are different
compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen. In general, the formula is Cm Hm.

17. During combustion, hydrocarbons react with oxygen in the air. (Air is a
mixture of Oxygen and Nitrogen, 23.2% and 76.2 % by weight and 20.9 % and 78.1
% by volume respectively). Nitrogen does not participate in the combustion process
but acts as an inert gas and dampens the rate of combustion.

Reaction

Cm Hm + O2 CO2 + H2o + Heat (Complete burning)

Atomic Weights

Carbon ‘C’ = 12
Hydrogen ‘H’ = 1
Oxygen ‘O’ = 16

Equation interpretation

18. The following deductions will eventually lead to a ratio of chemical correct
mixture:-

12 lbs of Carbon requires 2 x 16 lbs of Oxygen

1 lb of Carbon requires 32/12 lbs of Oxygen or 8/3 lbs.

2 lbs of Hydrogen requires 16 lbs of Oxygen

1 lb of Hydrogen requires 16/2 lbs of Oxygen or 8 lbs.

Normally petrol contains 85 % Carbon and 15% Hydrogen. So 1 lb of petrol will have
0.85 lbs of Carbon and .15 lbs of Hydrogen.

1 lb of Carbon needs 8/3 lbs of Oxygen

0.85 lb of Carbon will require 8/3x0.85= 2.26 lbs of Oxygen

1 lb of Hydrogen needs 8 lbs of Oxygen

0.15 lbs of Hydrogen will require 8x 0.15 =1.2 lbs of Oxygen

Therefore, 1 lb of petrol requires 2.26+ 1.2 = 3.46 lbs of Oxygen

23 lbs of Oxygen by weight is present in 100 lbs of Air

1 lb of Oxygen will be present in 100/23 lb of Air

3.46 lbs of Oxygen in 100 x 3.5/23= 15.2 lbs of Air

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So to burn 1 lb of petrol 15.2 lbs of Air will be required.

19. The ratio 15.2:1(Air: Fuel) is known chemically correct mixture or

stoichiometric mixture in which complete burning takes place.

20. Stoichiometric Mixture. This is the mixture where all the fuel and oxygen
available in the mixture can be utilised in the burning process. For a variety of
reasons the stoichiometric mixture is not usually the best to employ, because the
temperature of combustion is so high that power is lost through phenomena like
dissociation and detonation.

21. Incorrect mixtures cause variation in engine performance that may lead to
serious engine damage. Combustion is only possible between air / fuel mixtures
8:1(rich mixture) to 20:1 (lean mixture). In other words, when the mixture is
excessively rich or excessively lean it approaches the limit of flammability and the
rate of burning decreases until it finally reaches zero. This is much more pronounced
on the lean side than it is on the rich side of the correct proportion of fuel and air,
because of the enhanced presence of Nitrogen which acts as combustion
suppressant.

22. In fuel / air mixtures, the proportions are expressed on the basis of weight,
because a ratio based on volumes would be subjected to inaccuracies resulting from
variations of temperature and pressure.

Questions for Study and Discussion

DLO 1

1. What is law of conservation of energy?

2. What is a heat engine?

DLO 2

1. Why is petrol engine preferred over diesel engine?

2. Is turbofan an internal combustion engine?

DLO 3

1. What is Boyle’s law?

2. What is Charle’s law?

DLO 4

1. What is stoichiometric mixture?

2. What is the difference between lean and rich mixtures?

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