MST 01

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Mayra Christina M. Ambrocio, DEM
Loreta L. Apaya
Milben A. Bragais
Roel L. Fucio
Ozzy Boy S. Nicopior
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Table of Contents
Module 5: Environmental Geoscience 108
Introduction 108
Learning Outcomes 108
Lesson 1. Environmental Geology 109
Lesson 2. Ecological Succession 109
Lesson 3. Terrestrial Ecosystem 110
Lesson 4. Aquatic Ecosystem 112
Lesson 5. Plate Tectonic 113
Lesson 6. Geomorphic Hazards 114
Lesson 7. Tectonic Hazards 116
Lesson 8. Extraterrestrial Impacts 119
Lesson 9. Weather and Climate 120
Lesson 10. Global Climate Change 121
Module 6: Environmental Assessment, Management, and Legislation 126
Introduction 126
Lesson 1. Strategies of Government 128
Lesson 2. Corporate Management 135
Lesson 3. Philippine Laws 137
Lesson 4. International Agreements and Treaties 141
Lesson 5. Philippine Environmental Laws 146
Lesson 6. Categorizing Environmental Laws 151
Module 7: Contemporary Environmental Issues and Methods 164
Introduction 164
Lesson 1. Anthropogenic Impacts 166
Lesson 2. Solid Waste, Garbage Problem, Waste Management 166
Lesson 3. Pollution Situation in the Philippines 170
Lesson 4. Ecosystem Degradation in the Philippines 171
Lesson 5. Water Resource Projects: Dams 173
Lesson 6. Coral Reef Degradation 177
Lesson 7. Biodiversity Loss 178
Lesson 8. Global Climate Change 180
Lesson 9. Deforestation 181
Lesson 10. Manila Bay “White Sand” Controversy 184
Lesson 11. “Plant Parenting” And the Republic Act 9147 189
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Module 8: Environmental Pollution and Control 202
Introduction 202
Lesson 1. Environmental Pollution 203
Lesson 2. Types of Environmental Pollution 204
Lesson 3. Issue on Solid Waste 212
Lesson 4. Key Feature of Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 216
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List of Figures
Figure Description Page

8.1 Environmental Pollution 204
8.2 Soil Pollution 205
8.3 Air Pollution 208
8.4 Water pollution 209
8.5 Measurement of water quality 211
8.6 Causes and Effects/Impacts of Solid waste 2112
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MODULE 5
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOSCIENCES
Introduction
Environmental geoscience is concerned with the interaction between humans, natural

resources or unique geographic features on Earth. Humans faces several issues like
atmospheric changes, natural hazards, hazardous wastes, environmental degradation,
overpopulation, soil erosion, and other environmental challenges that needs science based
information and understanding to come up with proper mitigation and response to minimize
the negative impacts to the environment and humans.
The more we know about the Earth, the more we can protect our environment, prepare
for potential hazards, and better utilize the available resources. Understanding the intricacies
of interacting earth systems is a necessity if human beings are to survive and prosper for
more than a moment in geological time (National Research Council, 1993).
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Develop an understanding of the Earth’s basic geologic features,
2. Demonstrate competence on how Earth processes impact humanity and how we,
individually and collectively, depend on geologic resources and basic principles of
geology, and
3. Learn mitigation and adaptation techniques to the global and environmental changes.
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Lesson 1. Environmental Geology
Environmental Geology is an applied science which objectively studies geologic information to

address contemporary environmental problems such as pollution, waste management, resource extraction,
natural hazards, and human health. An environmental geologist can evaluate the risk and damage
potential from natural hazards such as floods, landslides, volcanoes, or earthquakes (Environmental
Geology Introduction Module 1, 2020).
Environmental geology is a subset of environmental science, which is the study of the interaction
of humans with their fundamentally geological environment. Being part of environmental science, the
definition indicates the addition of human element to the concept of geology in consideration of both the
impacts and benefits of human existence (Environmental Geology, 2020).
Lesson 2. Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the term used to describe the gradual ecosystem changes occur in species
composition and community structure over time after a disturbance has occurred like volcano eruption or
a tsunami. Plants and animals, along with the entire ecosystem, would be recover over time and be
restored to a functional environment (Succession in Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecosystems, 2013).
Succession can occur after different types of disturbances, such as volcanoes, earthquakes, floods,
fires and human activities. Pioneer species are the first species to colonize the area after the disturbance.
These species are often small and are very good at adapting to adverse conditions. They are good in
facilitating the recovery of the environment by creating conditions that are more favorable for larger and
less adaptable species. After the ecosystem stabilize, the region will become a climax ecosystem wherein
plants and animals of the ecosystem are in a stable relationship with the environment and they remain
relatively unchanged until another disturbance occurs (Succession in Freshwater and Terrestrial
Ecosystems, 2013).
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Lesson 3. Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and the environment. This

ecosystem exists primary in tundra, taigas, temperate forests, tropical rainforests, grasslands, and deserts
(Terrestrial Ecosystem, 2020).
3.1 Tundra
Tundra is a type of biome with extensive treeless plain due to low temperature and short growing
seasons. This biome can be found across northern Europe, Asia, and North American between the taiga to
the south and the permanent ice to the north (Community and Ecosystem Dynamics, 2020).
3.2 Taiga
Taiga is a type of biome characterized as coniferous forest composed of pines, spruces, and
larches vegetation. It is also referred to as boreal or snow forest which are found across northern Europe,
Asia, and North America in the regions with long, cold winters and short, cool summers and acidic, thin
soils (Community and Ecosystem Dynamics, 2020).
3.3 Temperate Forests
Temperate Forest biome are typically composed of deciduous forest with dominant species like
beech, maple, oak, and other deciduous hardwood trees. These species have broad leaves that shed in fall
and grown again during spring. Rainfall is abundant, 30-80 inches/year or 75-150 cm/year, and growing
season is a well-defined between 140 and 300 days in this biome. Temperate forests are found south of
the taiga in eastern North America, eastern Asia, and much of Europe. (Community and Ecosystem
Dynamics, 2020).
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3.4 Tropical Rain Forests
Tropical Rain Forests are typically found in regions between 10 degrees north and south of the
equator. This biome is probably the riches biome in terms of diversity and total biomass. Rain forests has
warm climate, between 20o and 30o C, and plenty rainfall of at least 190 cm/year (Community and
Ecosystem Dynamics, 2020).
3.5 Grasslands
Grasslands are found in temperate and tropical areas with reduced rainfall, 10-30 inches per year,
or prolonged dry seasons. Grasslands are characterized as areas almost devoid of trees. It can support
large herds of grazing animals and also excellent for agriculture for areas with deep and rich soils. There
are large areas of grasslands in Americas, Africa, Asia, and Australia (Community and Ecosystem
Dynamics, 2020).
3.6 Deserts
Deserts are found in latitudes of 30o N or S where descending air masses are dry. It is
characterized by having dry conditions, usually less than 10 inches per year or 25 cm per year, and a wide
temperature range. Deserts have very few vegetation which are all adapted to heat and lack of abundant
water like succulents and cacti. Arthropods (especially insects and spiders), reptiles (lizards and snakes),
running birds (the roadrunner of the American southwest and Warner Brothers cartoon fame), rodents
(kangaroo rat and pack rat), and a few larger birds and mammals (hawks, owls, and coyotes) are animal
life present in deserts, like the Sonora desert in North America (Community and Ecosystem Dynamics,
2020).
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Lesson 4. Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems are the communities of organisms, the surrounding water environment, and the
relationship between them. The aquatic ecosystem can either be a freshwater or a marine ecosystem. The
freshwater ecosystems are found in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and streams while marine ecosystems
are found in seas and oceans (Encyclopedia. 2020).
4.1 Marine
Marine ecosystem is the largest of all ecosystem covering approximately 71% of the Earth’s
surface. This constitutes oceans, seas, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, etc. It is different from freshwater
ecosystem because of the dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water (Alexander, 1999).
4.2 Freshwater
Freshwater ecosystems cover only 0.78% of the Earth’s surface. There are three basic types of
freshwater ecosystem. The first is called Lentic which are characterized as having slow moving water like
pools, ponds, and lakes. The second type is called Lotic which are faster moving water like streams and
rivers. The third type are wetlands which are areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part
of the time (Vaccari, 2005).
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Lesson 5. Plate Tectonic
A conceptual revolution in geological sciences that begins in the 1960s, that continues to affect the
field until today, is the new picture of the Earth which acknowledge the essential role of large-scale
horizontal movements throughout the Earth's evolution aside from the traditional of vertical movements.
The concept is the plate tectonics which has endured through two decades of scientific scrutiny and is
now regarded as an established fact. Scientists now know that the Earth’s crust is composed of about a
dozen major and several minor plates that constantly move and jostle each other in response to
movements in the underlying mantle (National Research Council, 1993).
The convergence of plates creates oceanic trenches and coastal volcanoes. In the converging of
plates, one may override the other, and the leading edge of the lower plate may melt as it reaches greater
depths or may produce melting in the overlying mantle. If neither plate sinks, collision creates a wrinkled
mountain belt, such as the Himalaya or the Urals. On the other hand, if plates merely sideswipe each
other, the boundary shears laterally, as happens along California's San Andreas Fault. In both situations,
earthquakes occur when the plates bind, build up stress, and suddenly slip free (National Research
Council, 1993).
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Lesson 6. Geomorphic Hazards
Geomorphic hazards happen when human populations are threatened by geomorphic processes like
landslides, land subsidence, and floods. Geomorphic hazards involve a slow progressive change in a
landform, although not catastrophic, it can become a significant hazard with costly mitigation and
response measures. Human population contributes to instability of these physical changes. As the
population increases, the threat of these geomorphic hazards also increases (National Research Council,
1993).
These ongoing and gradual hazards like landslides, land subsidence, and flooding caused more
damage and expenses due to regularity of occurrence (National Research Council, 1993).
6.1 Landslides and Debris Flow
Landslide is a mass movement occurring on steep slopes under the action of gravity. On the other
hand, debris flow is a mass movement commonly triggered by intense rainfall on a steep slope (Wang, et
al., 2015).
Destructive landslides have been recorded around the world for over three millennia with
corresponding great damages affecting both public and private properties. Several research efforts have
been conducted to reduce landslide losses. These studies aims to find accurate methods in identifying
areas at risk and ways of mitigating the contributory factors (National Research Council, 1993).
With the improvement in the communication systems, mitigation efforts have substantial progress
in the development of physical warning systems for impending landslides. The continues advancement of
technology, particularly in geographic information system and remote sensing using satellite images,
provided our Earth scientists, engineers, land-use planners, and public officials important information
useful in planning and decision making for mitigating the negative impacts of landslides and debris flows
(National Research Council,1993).
Research is particularly needed to show cause-and-effect relationships with other geological

hazards. An example is during the 1991 Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) eruption,
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wherein the thick accumulating ash-fall and ash-flow deposits proved particularly liable to generate
landslides and debris flows during typhoons. With this information, decision makers will be able to
prepare for the best action to mitigate the impact of the potential hazards (National Research Council,
1993).
6.2 Land Subsidence
Land subsidence is defined as the gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth's surface due to
removal or displacement of subsurface earth materials. Aquifer-system compaction associated with
groundwater withdrawals, drainage of organic soils, underground mining, and natural compaction or
collapse, such as with sinkholes or thawing permafrost are among the principal causes (Land Subsidence,
2020).
In the Philippines, the excessive extraction of groundwater is one of the causes of land subsidence
which is also true in East Asian countries. Excessive groundwater extraction is lowering the land surface
by several centimeters to more than a decimeter per year according to Rodolfo and Siringan (2006). This
land subsidence is also associated to flooding which is also a common problem in the country.
6.3 Flooding
Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry; low-lying areas are most
vulnerable to floods. Flooding may occur during heavy rains, typhoons, tidal surges, or when dams or
levees break. Flooding are the most common and widespread weather-related natural disaster (Flood
Basics, 2020).
While floods impacts are mostly negative, there are also positive impacts associated to flooding.
Floods can facilitate access to transportation, fresh water, and rich alluvial soils after the event (National
Research Council, 1993).
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Lesson 7. Tectonic Hazards
Tectonic Hazards or hazard events caused by tectonic plates colliding into each other, moving
against each other, moving apart or subduction between a less dense plate and a denser plate. Tectonic
hazards like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions represent abrupt changes and landforms. Most of the
times, at great scale, these hazards can bring catastrophic events that greatly affects humans lives and
properties. Assessment of earthquake, volcano, and tsunami hazard potential can help planners predict
dangers from the associated landslides and floods (National Research Council, 1993).
7.1 Earthquakes
Earthquake hazard evaluation involves determinations of the specific location, frequency of

occurrence, and intensity of energy release. It requires characterization of the space, time, and size
distribution of the earthquakes that give rise to the hazard (National Research Council, 1993).
It is important in decision making that hazards and risks are neither overestimated nor
underestimated because of the great consequences for life, safety, and economic security. Since it is very
hard to ask citizens to abandon their daily lives for anything but imminent danger, earth scientists have an
obligation to acquire relevant data and pursue research aimed at reliable depiction of an earthquake threat
(National Research Council, 1993).
To estimate the seismic risk or the threat that earthquakes present to human lives and property,
decision makers must apply scientific knowledge of the seismic hazard to the specific characteristics of
engineered works which will help provide realistic picture of the damage that may result from an
earthquake. This involves diverse disciplines, ranging from sedimentology and seismology to
geotechnical and civil engineering (National Research Council, 1993).
7.2 Tsunami
Tsunamis are large ocean waves most commonly generated by the uplift or depression of sizable
areas of the ocean floor during large subduction-zone earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
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and large landslides or submarine slides. Tsunamis are hardly noticed in Open Ocean but as they
approach the shore the waves increase in amplitude as they move into shallower water, depending on the
nature of the local submarine topography (National Research Council, 1993).
In many coastal areas, tsunamis are far greater than is often appreciated like what happened during
the great Alaskan earthquake of 1964 where the loss of life from the tsunami generated in the offshore
area was more than 15 times as great as the loss of life directly attributable to earthquake shaking; much
of it occurred far from Alaska. During the past 50 years, there are significantly more people killed in the
United States by tsunamis than by other effects of earthquakes, although these statistics could change
radically overnight with a major earthquake in a metropolitan area (National Research Council,1993).
7.3 Volcanic
Volcanic hazard is from major volcanic eruption that is well beyond what can reasonably be
controlled by engineering. Volcanic phenomena can be best adapted to by accurately predicting the
occurrence and the likely results of an eruption. Modern instrumentation and techniques are used to detect
precursory phenomena associated with volcanic eruptions (National Research Council, 1993).
It is necessary to have better understanding of the interaction of volcanic emissions with the
atmosphere and hydrosphere. Volcanic events can dramatically modify climate for several years
following eruption by introducing large volumes of dust and gas into the atmosphere. Satellite-based
remote sensing techniques and other data collected can be used in better understanding the relationship of
climate and volcanism. Deciphering the workings of volcanoes is an eclectic challenge which involves
contributions from many areas (National Research Council, 1993).
There are two ways to obtain the data, direct method and through association. Continuously
monitoring the geological, geophysical, and geochemical changes that occur on active volcanoes and
geological mapping of ancient volcanoes whose internal structure has been exposed by eruption and/or
erosion are examples of the direct method of data collection. On the other hand, analyzing the character
and sequence of historical and prehistorical eruptive
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products from various types of volcanoes and then matching these and other data to conceptual models of
how volcanoes work is data collection through association (National Research Council,1993).
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Lesson 8. Extraterrestrial Impacts
The idea of catastrophic terrestrial impact is now considered respectable and has become accepted
as something that certainly happens occasionally and that may have had global consequences at various
times in the past like theories attributed to both the origin of the Moon and the extinction of the dinosaurs
both attributed to impacts of extraterrestrial objects (National Research Council,1993).
From the historical record, dating back less than 3,000 years, contains no reference to anyone killed
by a meteorite fall. It is known that if a large extraterrestrial object did collide with Earth, the
consequences could be devastating but on the time scale of current societal interest, the danger from
impacts is insignificant. If giant terrestrial impacts occur, it is capable of perturbing the earth system
rapidly and to an extent that few other phenomena can rival (National Research Council, 1993).
Humans have acquired the ability to produce sudden perturbations of the earth system on a scale
approaching that of the greatest volcanic and impact events through nuclear explosions which may seem
possible to be used to divert incoming asteroids. Equally significant to this feat is the ability of us humans
to modify our environment on an equally grand scale but more slowly, this is the global change that is
largely a consequence of our intensive fossil fuel consumption (National Research Council, 1993).
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Lesson 9. Weather and Climate
Weather is the temporary conditions of the atmosphere or the layer of air that surrounds the Earth.
Weather moves and changes from hour to hour or day to day. Over many years, certain conditions
become familiar weather in an area (National Geographic Society, 2011).
Temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, and cloudiness are the six
main components or parts of weather. These components define the weather at any given time.
Knowledge of atmospheric processes and the weather components helps meteorologists forecast what the
weather will be in the near future (National Geographic Society, 2011).
Climate is the average weather in a specific region, as well as its variations and extremes over
many years. Climate changes, just like weather but it can take hundreds or even thousands of years. For
example, the Sahara Desert in northern Africa, the largest desert in the world today, used to have different
climate several thousand years ago. That “Green Sahara” experienced frequent rainy weather (National
Geographic Society, 2011).
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Lesson 10. Global Climate Change
Global Climate Change is considered to be one of the major global environmental issues. Recorded
history shows a brief glimpse of environmental change. It shows that global climates may soon be warmer
than at any time during the past 1 million years and sea level may stand higher than at any time during the
past 100,000 years. We are now experiencing these changes and are trying to mitigate and adapt for our
survival. Since nature is a vast laboratory that we can never manipulate or duplicate artificially on the
scale necessary to test theories of global change, we just rely on observations of nature itself and try to
adapt to these changes (National Geographic Society, 2011).
Change is universal throughout the earth system. It is continuously occurring since the origin of the
Earth. But the term ''global change" is more specifically used to refer to human-induced changes affecting
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Human activities, especially for development, have
accelerated rate of change that is affecting the whole earth system. This accelerated rate of change may
prevent normal adaptation mechanisms in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere from
working without major consequences that may affect the environment and the humans. The scientific
community recognizes that expected changes are much broader, extending to changes in such phenomena
as sea level, groundwater quality, pollution, and biodiversity. But on the public level, perception and
concern regarding this climate change may vary depending on the breadth of the interests of the individual
scientist or policy maker concerned (National Geographic Society, 2011).
The varying concern and interest of the general public does not change the fact that the climate is
changing and that us humans has a responsibility to mitigate the negative impacts of these changes to our
environment.
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Assessment Task 5-1
Answer the questions below:
1. Discuss how Environmental Geology can be used in mitigation and adaptation to the global
and environmental changes. (10 points)
2. Identify the most catastrophic natural hazard that you’ve experienced and discuss how it affects
your community and the environment. (10 points)
3. In your own words, discuss Climate Change and what can we do about it? (10 points)
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Summary
Environmental geology as a subset of environmental science studies geologic information and the
interaction of humans with all aspects of their environment; physical, atmospheric, and biological to
address contemporary environmental problems such as pollution, waste management, resource extraction,
natural hazards, and human health.
Ecological succession occurs after different types of disturbances, such as volcanoes, earthquakes,
floods, fires and human activities. These disturbances may be brought by geomorphic hazards which are
slow progressive change in a landform, although not catastrophic, it can become a significant hazard with
costly mitigation and response measures. These ongoing and gradual hazards like landslides, land
subsidence, and flooding caused more damage and expenses due to regularity of occurrence. On the other
hand, abrupt changes may be brought by Tectonic hazards like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. These
hazards can bring catastrophic events that greatly affects human’s lives and properties.
Aside from natural hazard, the idea of catastrophic extraterrestrial hazard is now considered
respectable and has a possibility of occurrence, though it may not happen on a human lifetime or time
scale. With the innovations of Humans, the possibility of stopping these extraterrestrial hazards is higher
with the technologies available at present time. These technologies however are also one of the reasons
for the global change or human-induced changes that is largely a consequence of our intensive fossil fuel
consumption to aid our innovations and day to day activities.
Majority in the scientific community recognizes these global changes and have accepted the
projections of broader impacts in global temperature, sea level, groundwater quality, pollution, and
biodiversity. Though the general public may have varying concern and interest to the issue, it does not
change the fact that the climate is changing, accelerated by human activities, thus we have a responsibility
to mitigate the negative impacts of these changes to our environment.
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References
Alexander, D. (1999). Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Springer. ISBN 0-412-74050-8.
Aquatic Ecosystems. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/energy-government-and-defense-
magazines/aquatic-ecosystems
Community and Ecosystem Dynamics. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

https://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookcommecosys.html
Environmental Geology - an overview | Science Direct Topics. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020,
from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary- sciences/environmental-geology
Environmental Geology Introduction Module 1. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

http://geology.isu.edu/wapi/EnvGeo/EG1_intro/EG_module_1.htm#:~:text=Environmental%
20geology%20is%20a%20science,natural%20hazards%2C%20and%20human%20health.
Flood Basics. (2020). Retrieved 4 October 2020, from

https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/floods/
Land Subsidence. (2020). Retrieved 4 October 2020, from https://www.usgs.gov/mission-

areas/water-resources/science/land-subsidence?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-
science_center_objects
National Geographic Society. (2011). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/weather/
National Research Council. (1993). 5 Hazards, Land Use, and Environmental Change. Solid-Earth
Sciences and Society. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. DOI:
10.17226/1990.
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Rodolfo, K., & Siringan, F. (2006). Global sea-level rise is recognized, but flooding from
anthropogenic land subsidence is ignored around northern Manila Bay, Philippines.
Disasters, 30(1), 118-139. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9523.2006.00310.x
Succession in Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecosystems. (2013). Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/succession-in-freshwater-and-terrestrial-
ecosystems.html.
Terrestrial Ecosystem. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/topics/resource-library-terrestrial-
ecosystem/?q=&page=1&per_page=25
Vaccari, D. (2005). Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists. Wiley-Interscience.

ISBN 0-471-74178-7.
Wang, Z., Lee, J., & Melching, C. (2015). Debris Flows and Landslides. River Dynamics and
Integrated River Management, 193-264. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-25652-3_5
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MODULE 6
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT, MANAGEMENT,
AND LEGISLATION
Introduction
The ultimate responsibility to protect and preserve the environment and natural resources of the
Philippines has been vested in the State1 by the 1987 Philippine Constitution. In particular, the Article II
Section 16 of the Constitution proclaims, as a policy, that the State must safeguard and advance the right
of the Filipino people to a “balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature.” This policy is what guides the Philippine Congress to enact environmental laws with the overall
goal of protecting the environment (Garcia, 2018).
The natural resources of the country have been put under pressure by resource utilization and
economic activities combined with the steady growth of population. This leads to a host of environmental
issues. These problems are aggravated by the lack of pertinent environmental laws and exacerbated even
more by the synergistic effects of poor law implementation and the catastrophic threats of external factors
such as the global climate change (NEDA, 2011). As a response to the disastrous impacts of human
activities on natural ecosystems, solutions to environmental problems are sought through environmental
management and legislation (National Environment Commission, 2011).
The legislation on safeguarding the environment in the Philippines is diversified and extensive.
These include major environmental laws pertaining to mining and extraction activities regulation, forest
protection, air pollution ordinances, water quality standards, control of toxic substances and hazardous
wastes, solid waste management, and assessments environmental impacts for private and government
projects (Bunye, 2019).
1 Note that the government itself is only one part of, and only represents the State. The State has four important
components: (1) Sovereignty; (2) Territory; (3) Population; and (4) Government (Ghai, n.d.)
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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1) Be able to find the relationships between environmental problems, environmental
management, and legislation;
2) Have a broad understanding on why environmental laws are created, how they are
conceived, and who gets to implement them;
3) Be familiar with some international agreements and treaties;
4) Be able to remember some prominent Philippine laws related to environmental
protection; and,
5) Develop a sense of appreciation on the comprehensiveness of environmental lawmaking
in the Philippines.
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Lesson 1. Strategies of Government
1.1 Environmental Management
The term environmental management refers to a government strategy aimed at regulating the
impacts of people's activities and managing the consequences of generating goods and services to the
environment (Kotze and Nel, 2009). The idea is that the collective human activities affect the
environment, mostly in a negative manner. There are four basic requirements of environmental
management, namely: environmental impacts of human activities, value systems, designs and plans for
sustainable development, and environmental education (as cited by Singh, 2006).
In a purely human-centered sense, environmental management deals with the basic issue of how
to continuously modernize the technology while ensuring that the process does not have a huge impact in
the natural environment. Environmental management seeks to find the best possible balance between
pursuing economic growth, ensuring the equitable distribution of resources for the present generation, and
conserving the natural resources for the generations to come (National Environment Commission, 2011).
The environment has been sustaining us with all our needs for over thousands of years. In the
process of survival and subsistence, we have also done significant changes in the landscapes that we are
beginning to experience the negative consequences of such actions. We have also learned that the planet’s
resources are not infinite (Scott, 2016), and something must be done if we want the human species to
persist.
“The first step to solving any problem is recognizing there is one” (The Newsroom Script
Episode 1, 2020). Thus, we recognize that individual human activities leave direct and indirect traces of
impacts on the natural environment. When taken collectively, these activities have even larger and more
significant impacts to the environment and the society in return. Because human actions are also
motivated by the differences in religion (Hope et al., 2014), culture, and traditions, their impacts on our
ecosystems happen in varying degrees and levels (Freedman, 2018; Global Environmental Change, 1992).
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The unique ability of humans to consciously interact with the nature also means that humans have
the same unique ability to proactively manage the environment (Barrow, 2005). This is where we realized
the need for environmental protection strategies and management approaches. Guided by the concept of
sustainable development, we now plan to ensure that not only our needs are provided but also that of our
future generations. Environmental management, human health, and sustainable development are
interconnected (Goosen, 2012).
To achieve the long-term goals of sustainable development, educating the public is key. In the
Philippines, a law has been passed to promote environmental awareness through environmental
education. The said law requires the integration of environmental education in schools, training programs
and courses, both formal and non-formal (Republic Act 9512, 2008).
1.2 The Department of Environment and Natural Resources
We have established that human activities impact our environment in several ways and something
must be done to actions that cause harm to our environment. Consequently, we learned to regulate or
prohibit the activities that either cause negative impacts or damages to the environment and natural
systems (Science Direct Topics, 2020).
In the Philippines, the country’s main environmental regulator” is the Department of

Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). It used to be called the Department of Environment,
Energy and Natural Resources (DEENR) and was later renamed and reorganized as the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) by virtue of Executive Order 192 series of 1987.
The DENR is the main executive agency tasked with the implementation of environmental laws
and policies. The main responsibilities of the agency are:
1) the development and management of the country’s environment; conservation and proper use
of the country’s natural resources, including forest and watershed areas and grazing lands,
mineral resources, and lands of the public domain (DENR, 2016);
2) the regulation of activities through issuances of licenses and permits on all natural resources
utilization, consistent with the national laws, to ensure that benefits derived therefrom are
shared equitably for the present and future generations of Filipinos (DENR, 2016).
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1.3 The Bureaus of the DENR
The bureaus of the DENR which are involved in the implementation of environmental laws and
regulations are the following:
a) The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)
The EMB is responsible for setting environmental quality standards for air, water, land, noise
(emb.gov.ph). It also lays down the implementing rules and regulations for the environmental impact
assessments, management of solid wastes and hazardous substances (EO 192 Section 16, 1987).
b) The Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)
The MGB (mgb.gov.ph) is responsible for the conservation, management, development, and
proper use of the country’s mineral resources (EO 192 Section 15, 1987).
c) The Land Management Bureau (LMB)
The LMB is responsible for the surveys, administration, management, and disposition of the
public lands (alienable and disposable lands) and other lands not within the jurisdiction of any
government agencies (lmb.gov.ph). The LMB issues guidelines, standards, orders, regulations, and
implementation of policies for land use development and maximization (EO 192 Section 14, 1987).
d) The Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB)
The BMB, formerly known as the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), is responsible
for the formulation and recommendation of guidelines, policies, rules and regulations for the
establishment and management of protected areas (www.bmb.gov.ph) (EO 192 Section 18, 1987).
e) The Forest Management Bureau (FMB)
The FMB is responsible for the matters concerning protection, occupancy, management,
development, and conservation of forest lands and watersheds, forest plantations, non-timber
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forest products, wood-based industries, regulation of the utilization and exploitation of forest resources
including wildlife, to ensure continued supply of forest goods and services (forestry.denr.gov.ph) (EO 192
Section 13, 1987).
1.4 Attached DENR Agencies
Aside from the DENR bureaus, there are the so-called attached agencies whose scope may be
limited and specific, although their powers further to their mandate are extensive (Bunye, 2019). The
agencies attached to the DENR are the following:
a) The Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)
The LLDA, as an attached agency to the DENR, is responsible for the development and
management of the Laguna Lake and the 21 major rivers draining into it. The agency was created through
RA 4850 in 1966. PD 813 of 1975 and EO 927 series of 1983 provided LLDA with powers of
environmental protection and jurisdiction over the Laguna de Bay. The powers to supervise and align
policies was then transferred to the DENR from the Office of the President by virtue of EO 149 series of
1993 (LLDA, 2020).
The role of the LLDA concerning regulation and law enforcement include programs on water
quality monitoring, community-based resource management, and evaluation of projects that require
clearances to operate within their jurisdiction. This includes areas in the provinces of Rizal and Laguna,
towns in Batangas province (Tanauan, Sto. Tomas, Malvar), towns in Cavite province (Silang, Carmona),
Lucban in Quezon province, and Metro Manila cities (Marikina, Pasig, Taguig, Muntinlupa, Pateros)
(PEZA, 2007).
Under its Environmental User’s Fee system, the LLDA gives incentives to the lake users and
requires firms to secure discharge permits, which are renewed annually, in particular those establishments
that release industrial wastewater to the Lake. Hence, the Agency is empowered by law to issue cease and
desist orders (CDO) against establishments that violate wastewater discharge regulations in areas that
surround the country’s largest lake including the economically crucial Metro Manila (Bunye, 2019).
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b) The Palawan Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD)
RA 7611 of 1992 (“Strategic Environmental Plan [SEP] for Palawan Act”) transfers the
administrative jurisdiction of the DENR to the local government of Palawan, beginning December 31,
1993. The environmental management of the province has been since then under the responsibility of the
Palawan Council of Sustainable Development (PCSD). The PCSD is tasked with the implementation and
policy directions of the SEP. It is an inter-disciplinary and multi-sectoral body which is directly under the
Office of the Philippine President (Republic Act 7611, 1992),
c) The National Water Resources Board (NWRB)
The NWRB is a government agency responsible for the management and regulation of all water
resources and water-related services in the country. Its mandated functions include: (1) formulating and
coordinating policies within the framework of Integrated Water Resources Management; (2) regulation of
water resources through water permit issuances; (3) Resolution of conflicts on water use; and (4)
regulation of water service providers by issuing Certificate of Public Convenience, Certificate of Public
Convenience and Necessity, and water tariffs (NWRB, 2020). The following are some of the laws and
policies related to the NWRB, water management, and water regulation:
• PD 424 – created the National Water Resources Council (NWRC).

• PD 1067 – enacts the Water Code of the Philippines
• PD 1206 – assigns the residual functions of the Public Service Commission and the
Board of Waterworks to the NWRC.
• EO 124-A – renames the NWRC to NWRB and transfers the technical functions of the
DPWH Bureau of Research and Standards.
• EO 123 – reconstitutes the NWRB Board
• EO 860 – redefines the NWRB Board, transfers NWRB to DENR.
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d) The Natural Resources Development Corporation (NRDC)
Created through EO 7862, the NRDC is tasked to develop and promote the use of systems and
technologies that complement the utilization of natural resources. The agency’s functions was further
enhanced by the EO 192 (1988). Its functions and objectives include, but not limited to, the following:
• Conduct research and development on natural resources-based products;

• Provide support and assistance to natural resources-based industries (financial, technical,
management);
• Engage private sector in reforestation and industrial forestry operations;
• Ensure stable market for natural resources-based products; and,
• Engage in production/marketing of minor products (forest, aquatic, marine).
e) The National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA)
As a DENR-attached “mapmaking” agency, the NAMRIA is the central depository and

distribution facility of all data related to natural resources. These data are in the form of maps, charts,
texts, and statistics and are made available to the public through their website and upon request
(NAMRIA, 2020).
It has four technical branches: (a) hydrography, (b) mapping and geodesy, (c) resource data
analysis, and (d) geospatial information system management.
• EO 192 section 22 – creates the NAMRIA

• DENR Administrative Order 31 (1988) – prescribes the guidelines for implementing EO
192, section 22.
f) The Philippine Mining Development Corporation (PMDC)
The PMDC formerly known as the “Natural Resources Mining Development Corporation” is a
wholly-owned and controlled government corporation and is attached to the DENR ().
• EO 636 (July 2007) transfers the PMDC from the DENR to the Office of the
President (Gloria Macapagal Arroyo).
• EO 689 (December 2007) transfers the PMDC back to the DENR.
2 (“Executive Order NO. 786”, n.d.)
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1.5 The Local Government Unit’s Role
The Local Government Code of 1991 (aka RA 7160), places the Local Government Units (LGUs)
at the frontline of managing the environment and natural resources. The LGUs, which comprise of the
provinces, cities, municipalities, barangays, and autonomous region, are empowered to enforce specific
environmental laws and regulations through the enactment of local ordinances, under the DENR’s
control, review, and supervision (Republic Act 7160, 1991).
The powers of LGUs include the imposition of fines and the penalty of imprisonment for
violations of local environmental ordinances. The following are the environment and natural resources
functions that were decentralized and whose implementation are delegated to the LGUs (World Bank,
2009):
a) Regulating the environmental impacts of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (RA 6810)
b) Regulation of fishing in the municipal waters (RA 8550)
c) Regulation of small-scale mining and quarrying (RA 7076)
d) Pollution control measures (RA 8749)
e) Solid waste management (RA 9003)
The RA 7160 also mandates the municipalities to establish an environmental management

system, and facilities related to sanitation (PD 856 of 1975) and general hygiene.
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Lesson 2. Corporate Management
2.1 Government Regulations on Corporations

The government and its regulatory agencies have considerably influenced the private companies
and corporations to comply with environmental regulations and ensure that their projects and activities
have very minimal impacts on the environment (Banerjee, 2001; Walker et al., 2008). As a result,
corporations are now gradually implementing environmentally responsible business practices while they
pursue profit-making activities (Camilleri, 2017).
In the Philippines, relevant agencies have been mandated by specific national laws to ensure that
business establishments are operating lawfully under the existing environmental regulations. Any
violation of environmental laws by the business establishments may result in the imposition of fines,
imprisonment, or revocation of relevant business permits. The LGUs, where the business establishments
are situated, are devolved with the power to revoke business permits for such violations (Bunye, 2019).
2.2 Environmental Permits

Environmental assessment is the term used to assess, beforehand, both the negative and positive
consequences of a policy, plans, programs, and projects. In which case, environmental permits are
required before any decision is made whether to continue with such proposed actions or not. The DENR,
through the EMB, issues documents certifying that any proposed undertaking, activities, or project has
complied with the environmental laws and regulations (Bunye, 2019).
1) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The “EIA process” seeks to evaluate and predict the likely impacts, positive or negative,
of proposed projects during the different phases: construction, commissioning, operation, and
abandonment. The EIA process requires the involvement of the applicant (aka the project proponent), the
EIA consultants, the EMB, a review committee, communities possibly affected by the project, and other
stakeholders (Bunye, 2019).
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2) Environmental Compliance Certificates (ECC)
The EIA and EIS are the necessary requirements for securing the ECC. The ECC is a document
issued by DENR-EMB, which certifies that a proposed project or undertaking has complied with all the
requirements of the Environmental Impact Statement (PD 1586) system and the proponent has committed
to implement its approved Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to address any environmental impacts
(Bunye, 2019).
3) Other Permits and Licenses
In most situations, businesses may also be required to secure permits over and above the ECC
from the regional offices of the DENR-EMB. The following list specifies the business activities that are
required to secure permits and the corresponding national laws that requires them to comply (Bunye,
2019).:
1) Hazardous wastes production (RA 6969)

2) Air pollutants generation (RA 8749)
3) Wastewater discharge of businesses not connected to sewer lines (RA 9275).
Note that for establishments operating in the National Capital Region and the industrial
towns surrounding the Laguna Lake may be required by the LLDA to secure separate
discharge permits (PD 813, RA 4850, EO 927, EO 149).
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Lesson 3. Philippine Laws
The government officials involved in the creation of general laws in the Philippines are always
elective – both at the local and national levels. The President and the Congress, at the national level, are
both involved in the creation of the following forms of general law: (a) constitutional amendments; (b)
statutes; (c) executive agreements; and (d) treaties. At the local government level, quasi-legislative
lawmaking by regional governments, provinces, cities, municipalities, and barangays, are entrusted to the
elective leaders, which consist of local chief executives, governing assemblies, board, and councils
(Fernandez, 1992).
3.1 Laws versus Policy
The term “policy” summarizes what the government plans to do and what it intends to achieve for
its citizens. It also includes what it does not aim to do. Policies are informal documents and not laws.
Policies guide the creation of new laws and are framed to achieve certain goals (Cheung, 2019).
The term “law” refers to a set principle, procedures, or standards that are imposed on people. It
comes in various types, namely: (a) civil laws, (b) criminal laws and (c) international laws. Laws are
framed to implement justice to the society (Cheung, 2019).
3.2 Sources of Philippine Laws
Where are our laws coming from? Who creates them? More importantly, what are the basis for
creating them? In this section, we discuss the main sources3 of laws in the Philippines.
1) The Constitution
The Constitution is the fundamental and supreme law of the land, as it provides both the
unifying principle and comprehensive framework for the entire Philippine legal system. The
3 University of Melbourne Library, 2020
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unifying principle is the yardstick of validity for the creation of laws within the legal system. All
enactments are valid if they are in accordance and harmony with the Constitution (Herald Digital Law
Philippines, 2011).
2) Statutes
A Statute is an act passed by the legislative bodies (House and Senate) followed by mandatory
presentation to the President, who is then given time to make his decision: (1) to veto, or (2) sign it into
law, or (3) allow it to lapse into law by not signing it. Statutes include Acts of Congress, municipal
charters, municipal legislations, court rules, administrative rules and orders, legislative rules, and
presidential issuances.
3) Treaties and Conventions
A treaty refers to “draft agreement between countries” or sometimes referred to as “international

agreements” signed by the parties or countries involved (Shaw, 2019). The President negotiates each
treaty and after it is signed by the parties, submits it to the Senate for ratification. It is the ratification by
the Senate, which gives it the status of law.
4) Judicial Decisions (Shaw, 2019)
According to the Civil Code (Article 8), ‘judicial decisions applying to or interpreting the laws or
the Constitution shall form a part of the legal system of the Philippines’. Only decisions of the Supreme
Court establish jurisprudence and are binding on all other courts.
5) Customary Law (Shaw, 2019)
To some extent, customary law also forms part of the Filipino legal system. The Constitution
provides that ‘the State shall recognize, respect, and protect the rights of indigenous cultural communities
to preserve and develop their cultures, traditions and institutions’ (The 1987 Philippine Constitution
Article XIV, Section 17). To protect and promote the rights of the indigenous peoples, the Indigenous
People’s Rights Act was passed in 1997, also known as the RA 8371.
There are instances when some laws provide some leeway to the indigenous peoples to go about
their lives without having to worry about violating the law. One example would be the RA 9147 which
penalizes the killings of wildlife species. This law does not prohibit the killing of
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wildlife for as long as it is part of the traditional use or religious rituals of the indigenous cultural
communities (RA 9147 Chapter 3 Article 1 Section 7).
3.3 Lawmaking Powers in the Philippines

In the previous section we have learned where are laws come from and what are the fundamental
basis for creating them. In this section, we will learn who have the authority to create laws and the type of
lawmaking powers they are limited to. The categories of law-making powers in the Philippines are the
following (Fernandez, 1992):
1) Constituent Power
This is the power to lay down the rules of fundamental law, or the rules of the constitution, which
are considered principles. This power is vested to the (1) Congress of the Philippines, and (2) the Filipino
People (through people's initiative, constitutional ratification). Its forms include Constitution and
Amendments).
▪ Example: The 1987 Philippine Constitution
2) Electoral Power
This is the power by which sovereign power or supreme power (or portions thereof
allocated as offices) are bestowed on citizens. It is the power of the people to choose their leaders. The
many forms of electoral power include votes, certificates of canvass, election returns, and election
proclamations.
▪ Examples are national and local elections.
3) Legislative Power
This is the power to create “Duties and Rights” through general law that are in harmony
with and not objectionable to the Constitution (fundamental law). This power is vested to the Congress of
the Philippines (whose members are elected by the people). Forms of legislative power include: statutes
(Republic Acts), legal codes, certificates of confirmation, resolutions, ordinances, local laws, and
international laws.
▪ Examples are Republic Acts and ratified Treaties
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4) Executive Power
This is the ordinance power vested to the Philippine President. This is also known as the
President’s rulemaking authority4. This power is used to create law for mobilizing administration, such as
appointments and directives addressed to administrative officers and assistants. Its forms include:
Executive Orders, Administrative Orders, Proclamations, and Official Decrees.
▪ Examples: EO 23, EO 26, AO 300 (1996), Proclamation 237 (1988), PD 1586
5) Judicial Power
This is the power of the courts to create Duties in favor of persons, upon determination of a
violation of law. Its forms are: Judgments, Court decisions, and Judicial rules and is vested to the
Supreme Court or the lower courts as may be established by law. Examples:
▪ Writ of Kalikasan5 (Supreme Court, 2010)
6) Administrative Power
These are the rules and regulations by an official government body (e.g. DENR) empowered with
the authority to supervise and direct the execution of certain legislative acts. This is the power by
Administrative Agencies to create Duties in favor of particular persons, upon determination of compliance
with the requisite conditions prescribed by law. Its forms include: Regulations, Administrative judgments,
Orders, Ordinances and is vested to the Bureaucracy or the non-elective government officials. Examples
include:
▪ DENR issuing ban on open-pit mining (DAO 2017-10)
▪ LLDA issuing cease and desist orders on wastewater discharge violations
4 “Administrative Code of 1987, Book III, Title I, Chapter II”, n.d.
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Lesson 4. International Agreements and Treaties
Treaties govern many aspects of international environmental law. A treaty is a term to refer to
“draft agreement between countries” or sometimes referred to as “international agreements” which are
signed by the parties or countries involved. Such agreements are legally binding when they formally
ratified by the countries concerned. A ratified agreement means “signed and made officially valid.”
Ratification is done by the Senate (Bautista, 2018).
Our Constitution has the following provision for treaties: “No treaty or international agreement
shall be valid and effective unless concurred in by at least two-thirds of all the Members of the Senate”
(The 1987 Philippine Constitution, Art VII, Sec 21). The Senate ratification gives the treaty the “status of
law”. Sometimes, the terms Protocols and Conventions are used. In the following section, we discuss
their main differences.
4.1 Treaties, Protocols, and Conventions
The treaties, conventions, and protocols are sometimes taken interchangeably. Strictly and
technically speaking, they are not the same. The following definitions provide the differences 6 between
these three terminologies:
• Convention. This is an international meeting of country representatives which results in general

agreement about actions and procedures they will take on specific global issues (e.g. global
warming, wildlife trade, the law of the sea).
• Protocol. This is a written agreement formulated and signed by the diplomatic negotiators, as the
basis for a final convention or a treaty. Some treaty may take years before completion.
• Treaty. This is an agreement where the countries involved (“parties”) negotiate to reach a mutual
understanding (common ground), discuss conflicts, and resolve disagreements. The treaty is
ratified by the government of the representative who signed the treaty. Ratification is done by the
country’s lawmaking authority.
The treaties, protocols and conventions are usually named after the place where they
were held, organized, or conducted.
6 International Protocols, Treaties, and Conventions, 2009
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4.2 International Environmental Agreements
Several hundred international environmental agreements exist, but this module will only cover
some of them, especially the ones where the Philippines is a signatory.
1) UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
The UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in
1992. The said Conference was also known as the “1992 Earth Summit”. The Earth Summit gave birth
to the Agenda 21 which is non-binding action plan of the UN regarding sustainable development
(UNCED, 1992).
Sustainable development was defined as “the development that meets the need of the present
without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.” The "21" in Agenda
21 refers to the 21st century or the year 2000, which was the original target. The parties involved hoped
that the development goals will be achieved by the year 2000 only to discover that the said target was too
optimistic. The new target now is the year 2030 with the goal of achieving global sustainable
development.
Since the objective of Agenda 21 is that every country should adopt its own local Agenda 21
plan, the Philippines had the "Philippines Agenda 21: A National Agenda for Sustainable Development
for the 21th Century.” In 2012, the UN Conference on Sustainable Development was held again in Rio,
called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.
2) Montreal Protocol
The science is clear: The earth’s ozone layer, in the stratosphere, absorbs most of the sun’s
harmful Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation. If the ozone layer gets depleted, more UV-B will reach the earth.
More UV-B means more diseases such as skin cancer, eye cataract. More UV-B also leads to lesser plant
yields, less ocean productivity and even damage to plastics. What destroys the ozone layer are chlorine
atoms attacking the ozone molecules. The chlorine atoms come from man-made technologies that release
the substance called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (Hot Mess, 2018; US EPA, 2015).
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The Montreal Protocol was adopted on 16 September 1987 in Montreal and came into force on
January 01, 1989. The Protocol stipulates the following: (a) Phasing out the ozone-depleting substances,
i.e. CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride must be phased out by the year 2000; (b) methyl chloroform to be
phased out by the year 2005. The Montreal Amendment 1997 has the following new targets: (a)
Industrialized countries to phase out methyl bromide by 2005;
(b) Developing countries will phase out methyl bromide by 2015.
3) Basel Convention
The Basel Convention was aimed to tackle on the uncontrolled disposal of hazardous wastes,
especially on controlling their transboundary movements. The said Convention was held in Basel,
Switzerland where a global agreement was reached on March 22, 1989. The agreement entered into force
on May 5, 1992 having signed by 169 parties. The Philippines signed the agreement on March 22, 1989
and ratified on October 21, 1993 (Basel Convention, 1989).
4) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
The Cartagena Protocol was an international agreement which was aimed to ensure the safe
handling, use and transport of living modified organisms (LMOs) which were a product modern
biotechnology. The Protocol also tackled the possible adverse effects of LMOs on the sustainable use of
biodiversity and its conservation, plus the accompanying risks to human health.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety entered into force on 11 September 2003 and is an
international agreement that is legally binding under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD,
2012).
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5) Ramsar Convention (1971)
The Ramsar Convention was signed in 1871, in Ramsar, Iran. The treaty’s official name is “The
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat.” While the Ramsar
Convention was originally intended to protect the habitats of water-bird species, the Convention has since
broadened its scope to include the protection of all wetland biodiversity and the 'wise use', conservation,
and sustainable use of wetlands (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2016).
6) Kyoto Protocol (1997)
The science is clear: There is an overwhelming scientific consensus that: (a) Global warming is
real and it is happening; and, (b) Humans have caused it through CO2 emissions. The Kyoto Protocol was
an international agreement (treaty), adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020).
The Protocol’s main objective was to reduce the emissions of atmospheric carbon (CO2) and
other greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six GHGs: carbon
dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6), and perfluorocarbons (PFCS) (Britannica, 2020).
The Kyoto Protocol was humanity’s first attempt to reach an international agreement on
mitigating global climate change through the reduction in GHGs. It was the first legally binding GHG
emission commitments for the developed countries with the overall goal of globally reducing CO2 levels
by at least 5% (1990 levels) by 2008-2012.
To read more about the long history of The Kyoto Protocol and the ongoing conversations, visit
this link: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto Protocol
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7) The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
The UNCLOS is an international agreement also referred to as the “Law of the Sea Treaty” or
the “Law of the Sea Convention” which was adopted in 1982 and entered into force in 1994. The
Philippines was one of its original signatories in 1982 and the 11th country to ratify UNCLOS in 1984
(DENR International Agreements, 2020).
The UNCLOS specifies the territorial sea limits of the countries from which they can utilize and
explore marine resources. It also provides that a coastal State like the Philippines has sovereign rights to
its Economic Zones (EEZ), continental shelf (CS), and contiguous zone (CZ), to be measured from its
territorial baselines. Sovereign rights pertain to a state’s exclusive rights, to the exclusion of other states,
to the economic use and conservation of marine resources. From its inception in 1982, the Convention has
since created three institutions (DENR International Agreements, 2020):
1) International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (1982)
The ITLOS is the judicial body that arbitrates disputes related to the UNCLOS.
2) International Seabed Authority (1994)
The ISA is an independent body under UNCLOS that regulates mineral resources
exploitation and exploration in deep seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction.
3) Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (1997)
The CLCS is an organization that specifies the limits of maritime zones and provides
technical and scientific advice to the coastal States that submit their claims.
Locsin (2019), considers the UNCLOS as the “Constitution of the Oceans” as it provides a
comprehensive legal regime for our seas and it affirms the rule of law in the oceans.
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Lesson 5. Philippine Environmental Laws
The Philippines does not lack in environmental statutes (Teehankee, Revote, and Herbosa, 2018).
The 1987 Philippine Constitution itself is very specific in providing for ownership, supervision, and
governmental control of natural resources as well as the public domain lands (Article XII, Section 2).
Another constitutional provision provides that the State “shall protect and advance the right of the people
to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature” (Article II, Section
16).
To address environmental problems, most environmental laws are passed through legislation,
which is a process of creating or enacting laws by the Congress although there are other means by which
laws are created. This section only mentions some examples of environmental laws in the Philippines.
5.1 Some Presidential Decrees on Environment (Teenhankee et al., 2018)

Presidential Decrees (PDs) were creations of the late President Ferdinand E. Marcos during the
Martial Law years when he took control of the Congress’ lawmaking powers. Presidential Decrees were
the only laws made during the Marcos presidency.
Presidential Proclamations and PDs were the type of laws issued between the years 1972 and
1986. The following are some of the examples of PDs related to the environment:
a) PD 1152 – Philippine Environmental Code of 1977
This Code provided a comprehensive program of environmental protection and management. It also
established specific environment management policies and prescribes environmental quality standards.
b) PD 1586 – Establishing an EIS System of 1978
Defined the framework for implementing the environmental impact assessment (EIA) as the
mechanism to resolve the impacts of development projects on the environment and the people affected
by such undertaking.
c) PD 1067 – Water Code of 1976

Revised and consolidated all laws on water resources related to utilization, exploitation, ownership,
appropriation, development, protection, and conservation.
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d) PD 705 – Revised Forestry Code of 1975
Revised and updated the PD 389 (the Forestry Reform Code of the Philippines).
e) PD 1219 – Coral Resources Development and Conservation Decree of 1977.

This law provided for the exploration, exploitation, utilization, and conservation of the country’s coral
resources.
f) PD 856 – Sanitation Code of 1975

Placed the responsibility of managing the solid wastes to the LGUs.
5.2 Some Republic Acts on Environment (Teenhankee et al., 2018)
From 1946 to 1972, the laws passed by the Philippine Congress have been titled “Republic Acts”.
During the years 1972–1986, the laws passed were called Presidential Decrees and Presidential
Proclamations. In the post-Martial Law years (1987–present), laws were again titled Republic Acts.
1) RA 7160 – Local Government Code of 1991

The law provides that the LGUs should share with the national government the responsibility in
maintaining and managing the ecological balance within their territorial jurisdiction in accordance
with national policies and other pertinent provisions.
2) PD 8749 – Clean Air Act of 1999

An act providing for a comprehensive air pollution control policy.
3) RA 6969 – Toxic Substances, Hazardous/Nuclear Wastes Control Act 1990

An act to control toxic substances and hazardous and nuclear wastes, providing penalties for
violations.
4) RA 9003 – Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

An act providing for an ecological solid waste management program, creating mechanisms and
incentives, declaring prohibited acts, and providing penalties.
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5) RA 9147 – Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act of 2001
Conservation and protection of wildlife resources and their habitats.
6) RA 9513 – Renewable Energy Act of 2008

Development, utilization, and commercialization of renewable energy resources.
7) RA 9729 – Climate Change Act of 2009

Created the Climate Change Commission. Mainstreaming climate change into government policy
formulations.
8) RA 10121 – Disaster Risk Reduction and Management of 2010

Institutionalized the national disaster risk reduction and management plan.
9) RA 7586 – National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992
NIPAS seeks to classify and manage all designated protected areas (PAs), with the goal of preserving
genetic diversity, ensuring sustainable resource use, and maintaining the PAs natural conditions to the
greatest possible extent.
10) RA 11038 – E-NIPAS Act of 2018

Creates 94 more national parks across the country.
11) RA 9512 – Environmental Education Act of 2008
This law seeks to promote environmental awareness through environmental education by mandating
the integration of environmental education in school curricula at all levels, whether public or private,
including in barangay daycare, preschool, non-formal, technical vocational, professional level,
indigenous learning and out-of-school youth courses or programs.
12) RA 8371 – The Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act (IPRA) of 1997

An act to recognize, protect and promote the rights of indigenous cultural communities (ICCs) and
indigenous peoples (IPs), creating a national commission on indigenous peoples (NCIP).
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5.3 Some Administrative Orders on Environment
Administrative Orders7 also known as the “Acts of the President” concerning particular aspects
of governmental operations in pursuance of his duties as administrative head (E0 292,
s. 1987).
1) Administrative Order 1 (2010)
- Directing the LGUs, particularly provinces, to use the Guidelines on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk
Reduction in their planning activities.

- Naming the West Philippine Sea of the Republic of the Philippines
- Consistent with PD 1559 (1978) – Exclusive Economic Zone Law
- Consistent with RA 9522 (2009) – Baselines Law
- Consistent with the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

- Expediting the restoration and rehabilitation of the Manila Bay and creating the Manila Bay Task
Force.
4) Administrative Order 300 (1996):

Strengthening the EIS system, expounding the granting or denying of ECCs.
5.4 Some Executive Orders on Environment (Teenhankee et al., 2018)
Executive orders are “Acts by the President” whose effectivity remain valid until they expire on
their own terms or are canceled and revoked by the same issuing President. The revocation or
modifications to the previously issued Executive Orders can also be made by any incumbent President.
7 “Administrative Code of 1987 Book III Chapter 2 Section 3”, n.d.
149
1) EO 515 (2006)
Creation of National Anti-Environment Crime Task Force under the Presidential Anti-Organized
Crime Commission, headed by the DENR secretary.
2) Executive Order 774 (2008)

Reorganizing the Presidential Task Force on Climate Change
3) Executive Order 23 (2011) – Logging Ban

Total log ban on natural and residual forest, selective logging in certain areas, through DENR-issued
special permits. Creation of the anti-illegal logging task force.
4) Executive Order 26 (2011) – National Greening Program

Objective: Increase the country's forests with 1.5 billion trees between 2011 to 2016.
5) Executive Order 193 (2015) – Expanded National Greening Program

Expanding the coverage of the NGP to cover the remaining denuded, degraded, and unproductive
forestlands extending its implementation from 2016 to 2028.
150
Lesson 6. Categorizing Environmental Laws (Teenhankee et
al., 2018)
We have learned that the Philippines boasts a very comprehensive set of laws and polices
concerning the conservation and utilization resources, encompassing the different types of ecosystems. In
which case, we can categorize the Philippine laws based on the type of ecosystem which they are
specifically made for. The following list details the most pertinent of these laws:
6.1 Forestry-Related Laws

• PD 705 of 1975 (Revised Forestry Code of the Philippines) – This has been, and still is, the
“Bible of all Philippine forestry laws”. The law contains the overarching provisions on the
management and conservation of the Philippine forests.
• PD 330 (1973) – Penalized timber smuggling / illegal logging from public forests and forest
reserves as qualified theft.
• PD 953 (1976) – Required tree planting in certain places and penalized cutting, destruction,
damaging, and injuring of certain trees, plants, and vegetation.
• PD 1153 (1977) – Required every Filipino to plant “one tree every month for five
consecutive years”. This law was later repealed by EO 287 (1987).
• PD 331 (1973) – Recognizes the need for Registered Foresters in developing, managing, and
utilization of all public forests on a sustainable yield basis
• DENR Administrative Order 24 (1991) – Ordering the shift of logging from old-growth
forests to secondary forests effective 1992.
• EO 263 (1995) – It is THE national strategy to ensure sustainable development of Philippine
forests, aka the Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM).
• EO 318 (2004) – “Promoting sustainable forest management in the Philippines.” An attempt
to revise PD 705.
• RA 10176 (2012) – Requiring all able-bodied Filipino citizens, at least 12 years old, to plant
one tree every year.
6.2 Fisheries-Related Laws

• PD 704 (1974) – To preserve the productivity of fishery resources through wise utilization
and proper conservation.
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• PD 1015 (1976) – Banning of commercial fishing within 7 kilometers from the shoreline.
• PD 1058 (1976) – This law increased the penalties for illegal fishing.
• PD 1219 (1977) – Law on protecting the coral ecosystems, providing for its exploration,
exploitation, utilization, and conservation.
• RA 8550 (1998) – The Fisheries Code of the Philippines detailing the policies to protect,
conserve, and manage fisheries, e.g. allowable fishing methods.
6.3 Mining-Related Laws

• PD 463 (1974) – Modernization and intensification of mining exploration development
recognizing mining as important for the national development.
• PD 1198 (1977) – Restoration of mined-out areas.
• PD 1251 (1977) – “Mine wastes and tailing fee” to compensate for the damages incurred to
the private landowners.
• RA 7942 (1995) – Mining Act of 1995 – This institutes a new system for exploration,
development, utilization, conservation of mineral resources.
• RA 8749 (1999) – People’s Small-scale Mining Act
• DENR Administrative Order No. 2010-21 – Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR)
for The Philippine Mining Act of 1995 (RA 7942).
• DENR Administrative Order No. 2017-10 – Ban on open-pit mining.
• EO 79 (2012) – Guidelines to ensure responsible mining, includes performance review of
existing mining operations, moratorium on mineral agreements (MAs).
• DENR Special Order No. 2018-53 – Crackdown on illegal small-scale mining, creating
the National Task Force on Mining Challenge (NTFMC).
• Pending Mining-Related Bills in Congress:
o House Bill 113 (Standards for Responsible Mining)
o House Bill 288 / Senate Bill 313 (Fiscal Regime for Mining Industry)
o House Bill 1455 (Joint Congressional Oversight Committee on Mining) o
House Bill 1470 (Regulating the Practice of Mining Engineering)
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6.4 Pollution-Related Laws
• PD 984 (1976) – Revising the RA 3931 (Pollution Control Law), this law sets some
policies on water, air and land pollution esp. prevention, abatement, and control.
• PD 1181 (1977) – This vehicular pollution control law sets the maximum allowance
emissions from all types of vehicles. This was a supplement to PD 984.
• PD 600 (1974) – Criminalizing the discharge of harmful liquids and substances
(e.g. oil) into the country’s waters.
• PD 1144 (1977) – Pesticides Control law.
153
Assessment Task 6-1
Before we wrap up this module, let us see if you have learned something. Please answer the
following questions to the best of your ability.
Fill in the blanks

a) The 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article __ Section __ states that it is the State’s
policy to protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology
in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.
b) The Local Government Code is also known as the Republic Act _ _ _ _.
c) The _______________________________ is the country’s lead agency responsible for
implementing environmental laws and policies.
d) The Climate Change Act of 2009 (RA 9729) created the “_________ _________
Commission.”
e) RA 8749 is also known as the “__________ _________ Act.” (Hint: This law provides for
a Comprehensive Air Pollution Control Policy).
f) RA _ _ _ _ created the Laguna Lake Development Authority.
g) Presidential Decree 1151 (1977) is the “____________ ____________ Code.”
h) PD 705 is also known as the “Revised __________ Code.” The PD 705 amends the
PD 389.
i) RA 9003 is the “Ecological ________ _________ ____________ Act of 2000.”
j) RA 9147 provides for the conservation and protection of __________ resources and their
habitats.
k) RA 10121 is the “_________ ______ Reduction and Management Act.”
l) RA 8371 is the “___________ ________ Rights Act of 1997.” This law recognizes the
rights of ___________ ________ over their ancestral lands.
m) RA 7586 is the “National Integrated ___________ __________ Systems Act” or the
“NIPAS Act of 1992.”
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Assessment Task 6-2
Enumeration
a) List the Bureaus of the DENR (acronyms will do).
_________, ________, _________, ________, _________
b) List the Attached Agencies to the DENR:

_______________ _______________ _______________
_______________ _______________ _______________
c) Give three (3) examples of Treaties, Protocols, or Convention:

_________________________________________
_________________________________________
_________________________________________
d) Write the title of the following pollution-related laws

• RA 8749 (1999): ___________________________________________
• RA 9003 (2001): ___________________________________________
• RA 6969 (1990): ___________________________________________
• PD 856 (1975): ____________________________________________
155
Assessment Task 6-3
Matching Type:
Match the law designation (left) with its title (right):
• PD 1151 • Clean Air Act

• RA 9729 • Clean Water Act
• RA 7160 • Climate Change Act of 2009
• RA 7942 • Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act
• RA 10121 • Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
• RA 9003 • Hazardous Waste and Toxic Substances Act
• RA 8749 • Local Government Code
• RA 9275 • Philippine Environment Code
• RA 9003 • Philippine Mining Act
• RA 6969 • Revised Forestry Code
• PD 705 • Solid Waste Management Act
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Assessment Task 6-4
1) Crossword Puzzle:
Let us see if your vocabulary has improved through this simple crossword puzzle
2) True or False:
On the blank space provided, write T if the statement is correct and write F if the
statement is wrong.
____ 1) The Constitution is not the fundamental and not the supreme law of the land.
____ 2) there is an overwhelming scientific consensus that global warming is real, that
climate change is happening, and that humans are causing the climate change.
157
____ 3) The Philippines has sovereign rights to its Economic Zones (EEZ), continental
shelf (CS), and contiguous zone (CZ).
____ 4) RA 9147 (Wildlife Act) imposes fines and penalties for killing any wildlife species.
However, this law exempts the indigenous peoples for the killing of wildlife if it is part of their
traditional use or religious rituals.
_____ 5) The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article II Section 16 guides the Philippine
Congress to enact environmental laws with the overall goal of protecting the
environment.
3) Essay:
Answer the following questions to the best of your ability. Use a separate sheet for your
answers.
a. Pick any two Philippine environmental laws and discuss briefly what the law is
about. Use your own words. (Tip: Discuss only some highlights).
b. In your opinion, what is the most important environmental law enacted in the
Philippines? Choose one and briefly discuss why.
c. What environmental law in the Philippines do you think need stricter

implementation? Pick one and briefly discuss why.
d. Search for any local environmental ordinance in your barangay. Choose one and discuss
briefly what the ordinance is about. What national law was it based on?
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Summary
The environmental problems that we face are a result of the collective pressures that we put in the
environment. Humans have the unique ability to consciously interact with the environment and have the
same unique ability to proactively manage it. Hence, our policy and decision-making should take into
consideration how to regulate human activities through penalties or incentives. The manner of legislation
and environmental law implementation ultimately affects the everyday lives of the Filipino citizens.
We are now becoming increasingly aware that nature knows no boundaries. The transnational
nature of environmental problems has led us to participate in discussions through our attendance in
conventions and conferences. We put the “Think Global, Act Local” slogan into action through our
conscious effort to integrate global issues into our local legislation.
Over the years, we have learned that addressing environmental problems is not just the
government’s job and that public participation can further improve our implementation of environmental
laws. Such is the case of the environmental impact assessments where people participation has been
proved essential in almost every part of the procedure.
The Philippine environmental law and policymaking is continuously being shaped by several
factors such as the current priorities of the government, our participation and obligations in treaties, as
well as the vigilance of our local citizens and all the stakeholders concerned.
159
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Module 7
Contemporary Environmental Issue
and Methods
Introduction
A lot is happening in the world right now. The weather is becoming more unpredictable
and stronger typhoons are becoming more frequent in recent years (De Guzman, 2017). The
Philippines was again reminded of its place in the Pacific Ring of Fire with the momentous
eruption of the Taal Volcano in the early part of the year 2020 which wreaked havoc to the
immediate communities and engulfing the neighboring provinces in volcanic ash (Esguerra and
Cinco, 2020). While the directly affected towns were still recovering from the onslaught, the
novel coronavirus pandemic ensued.
The Philippines is a country blessed with natural resources, but it is also a place cursed
with natural calamities thanks largely to its unique geographic location. It is located along the
typhoon belt, it is visited by an average of 20 tropical cyclones every year, of which ten will
become typhoons and five will be potentially destructive (de la Cruz, 2016). Located along the
Pacific Ring of Fire, the country is home to occasional tremors which we know as earthquakes
and unpredictable volcanic activities. As a tropical country, the perils of the changing climate are
even greater. The increasing global average temperature poses threat to the country’s coral reef
ecosystems which has tremendous implications on the economy and our life systems.
Unfortunately, the climate is expected to be even warmer and more extreme in by the year 2050
to 2100 (Algo, 2018).
Our environmental consciousness has been largely local and personal before the
invention of the internet and the proliferation of smartphones. With the advent of modern
information technologies like the cyberspace and the social media, our awareness of issues both
domestic and overseas is even more enhanced through real time information via newsfeeds. We
are now becoming increasingly concerned and involved in some issues that affect us directly or
indirectly. Some of these issues unify us while some topics incite divisiveness.
164
Contemporary issues are all around us and affect almost every area of our current lives.
Any issue that is relevant to us can be considered a contemporary issue: from climate change to
technology, social issues to health8. A contemporary issue refers to an issue that is currently
affecting people or places and that is unresolved 9 and such issues have political, economic, social,
historic, and geographic components10.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1) Know what “contemporary issue” means;

2) Be aware of the contemporary environmental issues that the world is facing today;
3) Learn about the contemporary environmental issues that affect the Philippine
environment and the everyday lives of the Filipinos as well; and
4) Appreciate that some environmental issues are interrelated and intertwined.
8 “What are Contemporary Issues”, 2020

9 “Contemporary Issue”, n.d.
10 “Contemporary World Issues”, n.d.
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Lesson 1. Anthropogenic Impacts
Scientists use the word “anthropogenic” to refer to the environmental changes which are either
caused or influenced by people, either directly or indirectly (USGS, 2015) 11. The term may also refer to
any impacts on the natural environment that can be attributed to human activities (Wright and Boorse,
2016). The operative word is “people”. The term comes the two Greek words anthropo- which has to do
with humanity and -genic which means creation. In this sense, anthropogenic may be described as
anything created by humans.
A Russian geologist by the name of Alexey Pavlov was the first to use the term “anthropogenic”
to describe an effect or object that results from human activity. Its first usage in English was introduced
by the Sir Arthur Tansley, a British ecologist, with specific reference to the influences of humans on
climax communities of plants (Bampton, 1999).
Such influences consist of both direct and indirect changes made by humans to the biophysical
environments, ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources. Examples of these changes are enhanced
global warming, ecosystem degradation, loss of biodiversity, among others (Wikipedia contributors,
2020).
Pop quiz: In your own words, define “anthropogenic”.
11 “Earthword: Anthropogenic”, 2015
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Lesson 2. Solid Waste, Garbage Problem, Waste Management
2.1 Solid Waste is Uniquely Human
Solid waste is unique to human societies – a uniquely human invention generated by uniquely
human activities. Because in natural ecosystems, there is no such thing as a “waste”. This means that the
matter expelled by one organism is then taken up by another organism and then used again. This process
of natural recycling is consistent with the law of conservation of matter: “matter is never created or
destroyed, only changes its form” (Karr, Interlandi, and Houtman, 2015).
Since solid wastes are not natural, their production has negative impacts on the environment. The
process of waste disposal changes the natural environment as the wastes occupy space and it requires land
to setup dumpsites and landfills. In landfills, rainfall causes the production of leachates which then
contaminates the soils, surface water, and groundwater. Landfills also emit harmful gases, such as
methane, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic compounds through the anaerobic decomposition of
organic wastes. The improper disposal of wastes can also have negative effects on the biodiversity. In the
case of marine mammals, plastic wastes are documented to choke and strangle unsuspecting animals. The
harmful chemicals released by the solid wastes may also persist in the natural environment and then later
bio accumulate in the food chain (Eldredge, 2002).
2.2 Solid Waste Situation in the Philippines
The production of solid wastes in the Philippines are due to the development of urban and rural
areas, brought about by increasing population and improved living standards. The country’s waste
generation has increased significantly from 37,427.46 tons/day to 40,087.45 tons/day, 2012 and 2016
respectively (Senate Economic Planning Office, 2017).
Meanwhile, the solid wastes generated by our cities are expected to reach 165% (77,776 tons) by
2025. Of the total generated solid wastes, the most amount are produced by
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the residential areas (57%), followed by commercial establishments (2%), institutional sources (1%), and
industrial or manufacturing sector (4%) (Mawis, 2019).
2.3 Managing the Solid Waste Problem: Republic Act 9003
To improve the management of solid waste in the country, the government enacted the RA 9003 12
or the “Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000”. The law mandated the creation of the National
Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC) is the major agency tasked to implement RA 9003
which was chaired by the DENR. The NSWMC oversees the implementation of solid waste management
plans (SWMP) by LGUs as mandated by law (Sarmiento, 2018).
The LGUs are then mandated to develop their own 10-year SWMP, form an environmentally
sound disposal system, set up a Materials Recovery Facilities (MRF), and close and rehabilitate
dumpsites within their jurisdiction. The MRFs in barangays are specifically designed for the recycling of
materials, conversion of biodegradable wastes into fertilizer, and collection of residual wastes prior to
their transport to the sanitary landfills (Sarmiento, 2018).
RA 9003 specifically mandates that open dumpsites must be transformed into sanitary landfills
four (4) years after the enactment of the law. In 2018, however, there were only around 139 landfills that
are operational which provide service to only 308 of the country’s 1,634 LGUs. At the same time, there
were more than 425 illegal dumpsites still operating. In terms of recycling, only 24 percent of the
country’s 42,036 villages had operational MRFs (Sarmiento, 2018).
2.4 Violations of the RA 9003
In 2016, Environmental Ombudsman Gerard Mosquera warned to file charges and complaints
against 100 LGUs for violating RA 9003 by the start of 2017. The Environmental Ombudsman’s fact-
finding investigation was launched as part of the Office of the Ombudsman’s
12 “Intensified Environmental Protection: Solid Waste Management”, 2019
168
campaign to ensure higher level of compliance by LGUs to RA 9003. All fact-finding cases may lead to
criminal and administrative cases (Barahan, 2016).
In 2009, the DENR filed complaints before the Office of the Ombudsman against local executives
(mayors) for allegedly violating the RA 9003. The accused face preventive suspension as penalty to serve
as a deterrent to future offenders (Chiu, 2019). Citizens are not spared from violating the RA 9003. On
August 20, 2020, two men were arrested in Tuy, Batangas for allegedly tossing 16 drums of illegal
substances into a river. The two were arrested for violating the RA 6969 (Toxic Substances and
Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act of 1990) and RA 9003.
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Lesson 3. Pollution Situation in the Philippines
3.1 Air Pollution
The World Health Organization in 2018 reported that the Philippines records 45.3 deaths for
every 100,000 people, all related to air pollution, which is the third highest globally (Effects Health
Institute, 2018). In Metro Manila alone, the polluted air affects 98% of the population living there
(Synovate, 2005).
Interestingly, the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted to a temporary improvement in the country’s
air quality. On March 16, 2020 the greater part of Luzon including the National Capital Region (NCR)
was placed into the so-called enhanced community quarantine (ECQ). Nearly two weeks after the
imposition of the ECQ, data from various sources has shown a drastic improvement in Metro Manila’s air
quality (Sabillo, 2020). But not for long. According to a new report by the Centre for Research on Energy
and Clean Air (CREA) and Greenpeace, air pollution levels in the NCR are now gradually back to higher
levels NCR with the lifting of the lockdown and return of the motor vehicles (CREA and Greenpeace,
2020).
3.2 Water Pollution
Of all the river systems in the Philippines, only one third may be considered suitable for
supplying the public’s water needs. In addition, 58% of the country’s groundwater is contaminated (Asian
Development Bank, 2009). According to the ADB (2007), the causes of pollution are untreated
wastewater which come from the households and industries.
The Pasig River is considered to be one of the most polluted rivers in the world. In fact, it is the
world’s eighth most polluting in terms of unwanted plastic wastes that enter the marine environment
(Lebreton, 2017).
The largest inland waterbody in the country, the Laguna Lake, has been the receiving end of all
the wastes that come from the domestic, industrial, agricultural, and upstream forests whose pollution are
draining into the lake. Such pollution, of which 81% are coming from domestic wastes, contribute to the
quality of the lake’s water to degrade over time (WAVES, 2015).
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Lesson 4. Ecosystem Degradation in the Philippines
Ecosystem degradation is defined as the destruction of natural environments on a large scale
(Union of International Association, 1994). Agriculture is said to be one of the reasons for the extensive
destruction of ecosystems globally for it allowed the human populations to proliferate since its invention
about 10,000 years ago (Eldredge, 2002). But the environmental problems are not happening in isolation
and they are not unidirectional. In reality, most problems are intertwined and the cause and effects are
multi-directional.
The ecosystem is said to be experiencing degradation when the ecosystem’s capacity to provide
ecosystem services is diminished and in a persistent manner 13. The ecosystem services are the following:
(1) provisioning, (2) regulating, (3) supporting, and (4) cultural. For the provisioning services, the
examples are the food we eat and the freshwater that we consume. For the regulating services, one good
example is the climate stabilization. The supporting services are nutrients and water cycling. The cultural
services are the non-material benefits that humans enjoy through recreation and the aesthetic values that
the ecosystem provide. There is ecosystem degradation when any of the aforementioned services has
significantly decreased in quantity and quality especially in terms of the benefits they provide.
The ecosystems in the Philippines that are experiencing degradation are: (1) forests, (2) coral reef
communities, and (3) mangrove ecosystems. Our livelihoods as well as the economy are dependent on
these ecosystems. Degraded coral reefs leads low fish catch while rapid deforestation leads to landslides,
soil loss, reduced water quality which have tremendous impacts to the downstream communities.
Ecosystems also affect other ecosystems: mangrove destruction contributes to the destruction of coral
ecosystems through reduced protection from waves and sediments (Smith, 2017).
The concept of rippling effects states that when two or more ecosystems are impacted because of
natural or manmade activities, the synergistic destructiveness is even amplified (Union of International
Association, 1994). A problem in one ecosystem may lead to a multitude of other problems. Take for
instance the problem of deforestation. The loss of forests may result to the loss of topsoil that supports
plant life that supports a host of animal species and so on, and this may ultimately result to the loss of
biodiversity.
13 “Degradation of Ecosystem”, n.d.
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We can illustrate the interconnectedness of ecosystems by exploring the issues that surround the
problem of deforestation. A lot of problems may emerge from the loss of forests (Smith, 2017) and one of
them is the release of carbon to the atmosphere that contributes to the enhanced global warming. This
leads to the trapping of copious amounts of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide which results to ocean
acidification. Ocean acidification would then lead to degradation of coral reef ecosystems. According to
Claparols (n.d.) the loss of coral reef colonies could result to increased poverty, food shortages, and
ecological disaster.
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Lesson 5. Water Resource Projects: Dams
One of the major challenges the world is facing today is water security. Our water resources are
steadily and rapidly being put under pressure by the ever-growing global population. According to
estimates, with the current practices the world is expected to face a 40% deficit between projected water
demand and available water supply by 203014 (World Bank, 2017).
According to Biswas (2012), the world’s major problems related to water use include: (1) access
to safe drinking water; (2) supply of water for agriculture, hydropower, and industries; (3) water
development projects; and (4) sharing of water resources by two or more territories.
The increase in demand for water can be tied to the expansion of agricultural areas (Eldredge,
2002) which according to estimates need an average of about 2,500 liters of water just to produce just 1
kg of rough rice, either by rainfall or irrigation or both. This estimated amount accounts for all the
percolation, seepage, and outflows of evapotranspiration (Bousman, 2009). By 2050, scientists project a
60% increase in agricultural production and a 15% increase in water withdrawals just to feed a population
of 9 billion people. The problem is, there is already water scarcity in several parts of the world. Estimates
suggest that about 1.8 billion people around the world will be experiencing water scarcity by 2025 (World
Bank, 2017).
To address water shortage issues, humans invented a dam. A dam is a barrier (either made of
earth, rock, or concrete) built across a river or stream which is intended to obstruct the flow of water.
Dams are man-made lakes, a kind of water resource project constructed to ensure enough water supply for
domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes.
Although humans have been building dams for thousands of years to manage water supply for
drinking and irrigation, people have turned to the construction of more and more dams to meet the ever
increasing demands of water consumption and energy generation. Since the 1950s, the world has
witnessed the construction of at least 45,000 large dams. Globally, almost half of the rivers now have at
least one large dam to produce electricity through hydropower. Meanwhile, majority of the world’s large
dams were constructed for irrigation purposes (World Commission on Dams, 2001).
14 World Bank, n.d.
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5.1 Some Advantages of Dams
The following are just some of the reasons why we construct dams:
a) Water supply
Dams provide a stable source of water supply in many urban areas around the globe. In the
Philippines, there are about 15 large dams that are currently operating, with a total water storage volume
of 8.67 x 10^9 cubic meters (Hydropower and Dams, 2019). The Angat Dam supplies about 90% of the
potable water for Metro Manila and supports the irrigation of 28,000 ha of farmlands in Bulacan and
Pampanga.
b) Generation of Electricity
Rivers with sufficient flow of water may be converted into dam for producing electricity, also
known as hydroelectric power. As of 2017, the Philippines has a total installed hydroelectric power
capacity of 4,312 megawatts with a hydropower generation of 10,199 GWh (International Hydropower
Association, 2018).
c) Irrigation and Water Flow Stabilization
Agriculture is responsible for about 70% of water consumption globally and is expected to go up
with the projected 50% increase in food production by 2030 (World Economic Forum, 2015). One of the
purposes for dam construction is to assist agricultural irrigation.
d) Flood prevention
Dams can store large amounts of water thus help in reduction and prevention of floods. This is
because of the reduction in the amount of water that reaches the downstream. A dam operating schedule
called the “rule curve” determines when a dam should be drained or filled. A certain allowance is set so
that the chances of flooding in the downstream communities is curtailed during times of extreme rainfall
events (Hydropower and Dams, 2019).
e) Offset in the Global Sea Level Rise
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This may sound rather controversial but in 1996, NASA’s Dr. Benjamin Fong Chao claims that
dam building since the 1950s has somewhat offset the continuing global sea level rise. He claims that if
there had been no new reservoirs constructed, the global seal level would have been more than 1.2 inches
over the last 40 years (Hydropower and Dams, 2019).
5.2 Some Disadvantages of Dams
While there are many benefits associated with the creation of dams, there are also negative
aspects that need to be discussed and weighed in. Over the years, the negative environmental and social
impacts of dams have been well documented (Hydropower and Dams, 2019).
Some of the documented problems associated with dams are as follows:
a) Siltation and sedimentation
Through time silt is deposited at the bottom of the reservoir. This eventually leads to the reduced
utility of the dam by shortening reservoir’s life span. The buildup of silt reduces the dam’s water storage
capacity, which affects its long-term usefulness for electricity generation, flood control, and irrigation.
When water enters a reservoir, larger sediments are deposited and forms a delta in its upper end. This
leads to a steady rise in the level of the reservoir’s upper reaches, which eventually causes flooding. The
entire process shortens the utility of the dam (Hydropower and Dams, 2019).
b) Species Extinction
Many populations of fish and marine mammals are negatively affected by dams which do not
have proper bypass systems for these animals. Without such systems, the life cycles of fish may be
disturbed due to disrupted breeding which in worst cases may even lead to extinction. Some pelagic fishes
(those who live or frequent the open oceans) are trapped in their breeding streams inland (Hydropower
and Dams, 2019).
c) Spread of Diseases
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Because of the slow movement of the reservoir water, they can become breeding grounds for
vectors that carry diseases, such as malaria-causing mosquitoes (Hydropower and Dams, 2019).
d) Dams Force People to Relocate
When the Pantabangan Dam in Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija was constructed in 1971 and
completed in 1974, an estimated 1,300 people from the dam's reservoir zone were displaced (Hydropower
and Dams, 2019).
e) Changes to Earth’s Rotation
It may seem unbelievable but large dams has been proved to cause changes in the earth’s rotation
and gravitational field. In 1995, NASA’s Dr. Benjamin Fong Chao claimed that this is due to the
influence of 88 reservoirs that were constructed since the early 1950's. Although the said effects didn’t
pose any danger to the people or the global environment as a whole, Dr. Chao’s study has shown, for the
first time, that anthropogenic activities can have significant impact on a planetary scale, in this case
altering the Earth’s rotation (Browne, 1996).
Assignment 1: Look for some local or international examples of dams and hydropower projects
that have a history of environmental issues and controversies (Examples: Narmada dam, Tehri dam,
Almatti dam, Kaliwa Dam)
Assignment 2: Read up on about some hydroelectric power plants in the Philippines:
• Agusan Dam • Pulangi River

• Angat Dam • San Roque Dam
• Binga Dam
• Bustos Dam
• Caliraya Dam
• Casecnan Dam
• Lumot Dam
• Magat Dam
• Pantabangan Dam
• Pulangi Dam
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Lesson 6. Coral Reef Degradation
The Philippine coral reef colonies are said to be the richest in the world, even richer than the
Australian Great Barrier Reef with its vast area of 3.3 million hectares (Claparols, n.d.). Despite its
vastness, only five percent of Philippine reef ecosystems have at least 75 percent live coral cover (Posa et
al., 2008; Smith, 2017).
The threats to the country’s extensive coral reefs are harmful fishing practices and siltation (Posa
et al., 2008). The destructive fishing practices consist of cyanide fishing, and dynamite fishing, trawl
fishing, and overfishing (Smith, 2017). The other damaging practices include old-fashioned fishing
methods such as kayakas and muro-ami (Claparols, n.d.).
Barg (1992) presents a list of human activities (ranging from inland, offshore, to coastal)
that have varying levels of impacts to the coral reef ecosystems:
1) Disposal of domestic and industrial sewage causing fish yields to decrease, and affects tourism and
attractions negatively.
2) Mining of corals leading to their destruction and causing adverse impacts to fish yields, tourism,
recreation, and enhanced soil erosion.
3) Mining in offshore/coastal areas and dredging for construction materials both contributing to
downstream sedimentation, turbidity, and coral reef pollution.
4) Oil pollution along offshore waters resulting to reduced yields in fish catch and beach erosion.
5) Forestry, grazing, crop practices in coastal areas causing erosion in watersheds and whose sediments
eventually reach the coral reefs.
Even without the anthropogenic threats caused by the fishing methods, the coral ecosystems have
been under threat by the global change in climate, in particular the increasing amounts of carbon in the
atmosphere.
There have not been many laws to save the Philippine coral reefs from permanent destruction.
One of the first efforts to protect the country’s coral ecosystems is through the passage of the Presidential
Decree 1219 (1977) which bans harvesting of corals.
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Lesson 7. Biodiversity Loss
Biodiversity loss may be defined as the reduction or loss of species in local scales or the
extinction of species on a global scale. The loss of biodiversity is usually tied to ecosystem degradation
and the phenomenon could be temporary for some local losses depending on the ability of the ecosystem
to recover from the degradation. The case is different for extinction, in which the condition is the
permanent and irreversible (Smith, 2017).
The following are some of the many factors that contribute to the loss of biodiversity:
7.1 Overpopulation
Even with lower growth rates, the earth’s population is predicted to reach 10 billion by the year
2050. With the current trends, the less developed countries will have the most concentration of this
growth (Eldredge, 2002). As of 2018, there are 7.594 Billion people inhabiting the planet. The
consequences of population growth are multi-faceted and intertwined. The growing number of people led
to urban sprawl. The growing number of people necessitate food hence the inevitable expansion of
agricultural lands. Increased food production means increased water demand while expansion of
agriculture may require clearing of some forests. These forests are habitats of our threatened biodiversity.
7.2 Overexploitation
Overexploitation is defined as the unsustainable practice of harvesting plants or animals at a rate

where their reproduction capacities are overwhelmed. It also involves the consumption of biological
resources or organisms in greater quantities that their populations are unable to endure (Oxford, 1996).
This can result in local extinction and may even lead to the extinction of entire species if the process is
left unabated. This is true for Philippine mangroves which are under threat by over-harvesting (Smith,
2017).
7.3 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
Human activities that disturb or destroy the natural ecosystems may lead to habitat loss and
fragmentation. These pose a serious threat to our wildlife and worse, could drive some of our species to
extinction. Some cases of habitat loss and fragmentation may be caused by
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natural disturbances, such as forest fires, typhoons, or earthquakes, human activities (Eldredge, 2002).
Humans have been modifying the landscapes for thousands of years and are still doing so in a
very unprecedented manner. The intensification of land use leads to habitat loss and ecological
degradation ultimately leading to biodiversity loss (Allan et al., 2015).
7.4 Deforestation
Deforestation involves the removal of a stand of trees or the forest itself from land. In can happen
naturally or caused by human activities. Natural causes of deforestation include cataclysmic events like
typhoons, landslides, earthquakes, and natural forest fires. Human-induced deforestation arise from
forestry activities (e.g. logging), development activities, and land use conversion, such as agricultural
farming, grazing, or settlements.
The large-scale removal of trees without adequate replanting results in loss of habitat and
biodiversity loss. The indirect effects of deforestation biodiversity include changes to climatic conditions
which may lead to displacement of populations, mass migration, or they can perish on-site due to harsh
environmental and climatic conditions. According to Smith (2017), the loss of biodiversity is one of the
many consequences of deforestation.
7.5 Pollution
There are many ways by which pollution could affect or threaten biodiversity: (a) interfering with
physiological processes, (b) habitat degradation, (c) alteration of animal behavior. In some cases, even
THE seemingly harmless light and noise could harm the wildlife directly. By creating light and noise
pollution, animal behavior may be changed as well as their movement patterns. This is especially true
for sea turtles where lights can disturb their nesting behavior (Meffe and Carroll, 1997).
Sometimes the effects of pollution may not be immediately felt, may even last long and change in
forms through time. In this case, their effects on biodiversity become largely unknown. The buildup and
mixture of chemicals in the environment continues to threaten biodiversity not only by contaminating
their habitats but also by disturbing their basic physiological processes, i.e. especially reproductive
successes, thereby threatening their overall survival (Eldredge, 2002).
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Lesson 8. Global Climate Change
The atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases have been considerably disturbed by

industrial development and expansion of domestic markets (Sharma, 2007). The most vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change are the developing countries, particularly the least developed countries (Misra,
2000) like the Philippines.
The Philippines is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. These impacts include sea
level rise, more frequent extreme weather events, and extreme rainfall in some areas and unusually
temperatures in some. The country is also inherently exposed to natural hazards such as landslides,
floods, droughts, and natural cycles of El Niño and La Niña. On the average, the Philippine Area of
Responsibility experiences about 20 typhoons per year, of which 7 to 9 make landfall. Rising sea levels
are also becoming an issue as the rise has been observed to be going faster than the global average. These
risks pose threats to properties and livelihoods through agriculture, forestry, fisheries, tourism, energy,
and mining. Lives are also at stake when calamities are becoming more unpredictable and stronger than
ever. Aside from threatened lives and provides, the Philippine environment is also at in danger. When this
happens, many ecosystem services are at risk such as soil stability, shoreline protection, flood control,
and biodiversity habitats (Climate Links, 2017).
Between 1990 and 2006, the Philippines has experienced a series of record-breaking typhoons,
which includes the strongest in terms of wind speeds, the most destructive in terms of economic damages,
and the deadliest in terms of recorded deaths, and one with the highest 24-hour rainfall ever recorded.
With rising global average temperature means an increase in the natural process of water cycle. When the
water cycle become abnormal, it has profound impacts on the weather patterns. Climate change is the
reason why typhoons are getting more and stronger and strong typhoons are becoming more and more
frequent. Of the 10 deadliest typhoons ever recorded in the Philippines, five of them have occurred since
2006. The top 10 list of deadliest typhoons in the country between 1947 and 2014 are the following:
Haiyan, Thelma, Ike, Fengshen, Washi, Durian, Bopha, Trix, Amy, Nina. Seven of these have killed more
than 1,000 people. The number one deadliest typhoon based on recorded history is Typhoon Yolanda
(internationally known as Typhoon Haiyan), which claimed more than 6,300
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lives, displaced about four million people, and caused damages amounting to $2 billion (The Climate
Reality Project, 2016).
Climate change does not only rains or flooding as it could also cause hotter nights and more hot
days, with the number of typhoons still increasing even during the El Niño season (USAID, 2017).
To address the emerging problems on climate change, the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was established in 1992 and was adopted as the worldwide basis for a
global response to the climate problem. The Philippines signed the UNFCCC in the same year and ratified
the treaty two years later. At present, the Convention has at least 194 Country Parties as its members. The
Country Parties have been active in discussing and negotiating to deal with the problem through the two
central strategies: (1) mitigation and (2) adaptation. Mitigation was a way to address the root cause by
reducing manmade greenhouse gas emissions through regulations on fossil fuel use, industry operations,
land use, and development. Adaptation was a way to respond to climate change by managing its impacts
(PAG-ASA, n.d.).
Locally, the Philippine Congress legislated the Climate Change Act in 2009 (RA 9729) which
institutionalized the Climate Change Commission (CCC). The CCC aims to develop policies and
coordinate government programs related to climate change. As a result, the National Climate Change
Action Plan was developed which provides some guidelines on how to integrate the climate change action
plan into the national and local development process, in order to ensure that the climate change plans are
properly translated into concrete actions at the ground level (World Bank, n.d.).
Lesson 9. Deforestation
9.1 Declining Forest Areas
The Philippines was once almost completely forested until the arrival of the Spanish colonists
who practiced massive logging and agricultural expansion which was followed by the widespread
commercial logging in the 20th century (Posa et al., 2008). Over the course of the 20th century, the
Philippine forest cover has been reduced to 20% of the total land area (Lasco,
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2001) with the primary forests covering only six to eight percent of the country’s land area (Posa et al.,
2008).
Philippine forests are threatened by mining and logging (Smith, 2017). The height of commercial
logging in the Philippines was during the 1960s and 1970s (Homer-Dixon, 2010) especially during the
Martial Law years when the industry reached its peak (Inoue and Isozaki, 2013). As a result, the
following decades saw a country experiencing deforestation rates that was three times as much as the
global average (Dauvergne, 1997) and losing more than 2% of forest cover annually between 2000 and
2005 – the second highest record in Southeast Asia (Smith, 2017). Since then, the anti-deforestation
policies of the Philippine government continue to evolve.
9.2 Policies and Laws to Combat Deforestation
1) Presidential Decree 705
The Presidential Decree (PD) 705 or the Revised Forestry Code of the Philippines was enacted in
1975 to set some policies on the development, rehabilitation, and protection of forest lands. In terms
of forest protection, Section 68 of PD 705 was explicit in penalizing cutting, gathering, or collecting
trees and other forest products without license or permit. However, there were loopholes in this
provision since the violators must be caught red-handed to be penalized and anyone who “just
possesses” illegal logs and lumber are not indictable. It has been reported that there were huts and
cabins which house illegal logs but due to such technicality, owners of the domicile are not
accountable.
2) Executive Order 277 s. 1987
Because of the abovementioned issues with PD 705, Executive Order 277 was signed in 1987
which amends Section 68 of PD 705 by adding the word “possession” in the list of criminal acts.
Specifically, the Section was revised as follows:
• Section 68-A: confiscation of any forest products that were illegally cut, gathered,
removed, abandoned, or possessed, including all the transportations used, and disposal of
the said forest products.
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• Section 68-B: Rewards to informants amounting to 20% of the sale of confiscated
products
3) Tree Planting Laws and Programs
Besides criminalizing the illegal acts stated in PD 705 and EO 277, the government has
also taken bold steps to obligate its citizens to plant trees. In 1977, the PD 115315 was enacted which
required every Filipino to the plant a tree every month for five successive years. Because of its
unreasonably harsh punishments, PD 1153 was repealed in 1987 by virtue of EO 28716.
In 2011, the goal of increasing the country's forest cover has been aggressively pursued by EO
2617 (National Greening Program) which aimed to plant 1.5 billion trees from 2011 to 2016. This was
to be later updated by EO 19318 (2015) expanding the program to cover more degraded forestlands
and extending its implementation from 2016 to 2028.
The tree planting law was again revived in 2012 by virtue of the Section 8 in RA 1017619 which
requires all able-bodied Filipinos 12 years old and above to plant one tree every year. This law
however, unlike PD 1153, does not contain any provision for enforcement and compliance
monitoring.
15 PD 1153. (1977). https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1977/06/06/presidential-decree-no-1153-s-1977/

16 EO 287 . (1987). https://lawphil.net/executive/execord/eo1987/eo_287_1987.html
17 EO 26. (2017). https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2017/05/16/executive-order-no-26-s-2017/
18 EO 193 (2015). https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2015/11/12/executive-order-no-193-s-2015/
19 RA 10176. (2012). https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2012/ra_10176_2012.html
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Lesson 10. Manila Bay “White Sand” Controversy
10.1 The Manila Bay Rehabilitation Project
In September 2020, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) began
implementing the controversial “white sand” project, which subjects a portion of Manila Bay into
aesthetic beautification by transforming its naturally gray sands into artificial white beach (Fernandez and
Mayuga, 2020). The objective of the artificial makeover, besides beautification of the scenery, was to
encourage the public to protect the coastline, touting the project as the “beach nourishment, coastal
restoration, and Manila Baywalk area enhancement” (Subingsubing, 2020).
The project construction began in early September 2020 when the artificial “white sands” were
dumped along the coastline of Manila Bay. It turns out that the white sands were crushed dolomite rocks
that were mined and transported from the province Cebu (Erram, 2020). Dolomite is a type of mineral
that is composed of calcium magnesium carbonate (Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020).
The project has since been criticized by environmental groups and experts who asserted that the
artificial makeover has little to do with rehabilitation and only focuses only on aesthetics (Reuters, 2020).
Despite criticisms, however, the DENR has vowed to complete the beach nourishment project (Moaje,
2020).
10.2 Environmental Issues of the Project
1) The artificial sands will be washed away by the sea
According to one of the country’s leading geologists Dr. Mahar Lagmay, the artificial “white
sand” will only be washed out by high tides and transported by storms (Punzalan, 2020). When this
happens, the artificial sands will only mix with the natural black sands of Manila Bay (Rafales, 2020).
The Manila Bay particularly along the Roxas Boulevard is known to be constantly exposed to storm
surges and coastal erosion caused by strong typhoons (Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020). Dr. Lagmay argued
that continuous replacement of the white sand is not sustainable (Punzalan, 2020).
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Some environmental groups have also cited data from the National Mapping and Resource
Information Authority (NAMRIA) which shows that the rising sea levels will only submerge the
beautification project as the sea level rise has been observed to be four times faster than the global
average rate of 3.2 mm per year (Sabillo, 2020).
2) Dumping unnatural sands will harm the existing ecosystems
Dumping of sands that are not natural to the area can cause negative effects to the ecology of the
Manila Bay. According to the Greenpeace Philippines, a new species of sardines (Sardinella Pacifica)
was discovered in the waters of Manila Bay in 2019. The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources also
identified the Manila Bay waters as a sardine spawning ground (Sabillo, 2020) and potential conservation
areas for sardines (Rafales, 2020).
Environmental groups believe that the dumping and filling of dolomite can also lead to aquatic
pollution, degradation of marine habitats, loss of globally important wetland areas, and loss of mangroves
(Sabillo, 2020). On September 17, 2020, an incident of fish kill has been reported leaving hundreds of
dead fish floating in Manila Bay. The incident has been associated by critics to the dolomite project and
the residents have appealed to the government to investigate (Pedrajas, 2020).
3) Mining will harm the coastal ecosystems
The artificial sand project is also said to cause negative impacts not only on the bay but also on
the area where the sands was mined stating that mining could lead to erosion harming the coastal
ecosystems and exposing the coastal communities to tsunamis and storm surges (Subingsubing, 2020).
4) Address the pollution problems instead
The Greenpeace Philippines argues that the white sand does not really add to the overall
cleanliness of the Manila Bay (Rafales, 2020). Pollution from industries and communities kills the fish
stocks in Manila Bay and its waters are still heavily polluted by oil and wastes from
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adjacent ports and residential areas (Reuters, 2020). Covering the beach with artificial white sand will do
no good if the waters remain polluted (Rosario and Torregoza, 2020).
Environmental groups have written a position paper asking the government to focus instead on
ecological degradation and pollution problems in the area (Sabillo, 2020). According to Buhay Party-list
Representative Lito Atienza, the waters of Manila Bay will remain deadly and un-swimmable for as long
as the waters are not cleaned by Metro Manila’s two major water concessionaires (Rosario, 2020).
5) Dolomite is more suitable for agricultural use
According to geology professor Carlo Arcilla, former chief of the National Institute of Geological
Sciences, dolomite is more suitable for use in agricultural lands to improve fertilization, further stating
that limestone is the better option which is cheaper compared to dolomite (ABS-CBN News, 2020b).
Social Issues Related to the Project
According to the Philippine Vice President, the PhP389 million funds reportedly allocation for
the Manila Bay's 'white sand' project could have been used instead to feed the 80,000 poor and hungry
families (Jalea, 2020). Thus, the beautification project at this time of public health crisis is not just ill-
timed (Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020) but also totally inappropriate and unnecessary (Rosario and
Torregoza, 2020). It can be remembered that in the previous months, the Philippine President has
repeatedly declared that the government was running out of funds and had no money left for COVID-19
response (Jalea, 2020).
While critics have demanded that the government resources should have been allocated to the
COVID-19 response (Punzalan, 2020), the Mayor of Manila insisted that the funds used for the
rehabilitation project cannot be used elsewhere since the “makeover” has been planned long before the
COVID-19 pandemic and (ABS-CBN News, 2020a). Numerous programs and projects have been
cancelled in the 2020 budget to fund the COVID19 response, but the white sand project still pushed
through (Rosario and Torregoza, 2020).
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Health Risks of the Project
Atty. Jay Batongbacal of the University of the Philippines Institute of Maritime Affairs advised
about the serious public health hazards of the proposed project (Rosario and Torregoza, 2020). The
Department of Health (DOH) even issued a warning that the dust from crushed dolomite may cause
health problems to people such as eye irritation, gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, stomachache, and
adverse respiratory reactions (Aquino, 2020; Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020).
According to Infrawatch Philippines, exposure to dolomite may even cause cancer (ABS-CBN
News, 2020b). However, the DOH retracted its position days later and declared that dolomite is not a
health hazard in bulk state (De Vera, 2020).
Laws Concerning the Project
1) Republic Act 7942
Under the Philippine Mining Act of 1995 or Republic Act 7942, transporting of natural coastal
white sand is illegal. For this reason, the project implementers choose to use the synthetic “white sand” or
crushed dolomite for the project (Rafales, 2020; Subingsubing, 2020).
2) Permits from the Local Government
The legality of the dolomite mining and transport has been questioned by the province of Cebu
board members who revealed that the extraction of dolomite did not have any permit from the local
government. As of this writing, the said local officials are still demanding for an investigation on the
extraction and shipment of the crushed dolomite (Nakpil, 2020). The Mines and Geosciences Bureau
(MGB) Region VII also insists that the shipment had complied with all the regulatory laws and
procedures mandated by the government (Erram, 2020).
3) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Law
The Greenpeace Philippines has similarly started to question if the “white sand” project has
undergone EIA, environmental impact statement (EIS), and procedures on social acceptability (Rafales,
2020). It should be noted that projects like this are required by law to
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undergo EIA, secure EIS, and subsequently obtain an Environmental Compliance Certificate which were
required as per the Presidential Decree 1586, Presidential Proclamation 2146, and the DENR
Administrative Order 2003-30 (Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020).
However, the DENR appears to have not complied with the said requirements (CNN Philippines,
2020). The said project also did not have any participatory or consultative process, both in Manila and in
Cebu (Sabillo, 2020). Senator Nancy Binay also said that the plan was not comprehensive, and the project
did not have any public consultation nor environmental clearance (Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020).
4) Other Laws
Environmental groups believe that the “white sand” project potentially violates the National
Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) Resolution 19, s. 2012 which requires preservation of
the bay as a historical landmark and is also protected by the National Cultural Heritage Act of 2009, the
Fisheries Code, the Clean Water Act, and the Local Government Code. The Clean Water Act prohibits the
act of depositing any material into the bodies of water (Sabillo, 2020).
Possible Alternatives to Dolomite
Geology professor Carlo Arcilla suggests that if the government really wanted something white,
limestone could be the better and cheaper alternative compared to dolomite (ABS-CBN News, 2020b).
According to the fishermen group PAMALAKAYA, mangroves and seagrasses would have been more
useful to the bay instead of artificial white sand (CNN Philippines, 2020).
But the Greenpeace Philippines believes that the “white sand project” is totally unnecessary since
the clean-up of the coastal area is still an ongoing issue and the dumping of the sand does not really
contribute to the cleanliness of the Manila Bay (Rafales, 2020). The group called Nilad Metro Manila
Environmental Network advised that the government should cancel all the ongoing reclamation projects if
it is sincere in rehabilitating the bay (Fernandez and Mayuga, 2020). Other environmental groups have
asked the government to focus on ecological degradation and pollution problems (Sabillo, 2020).
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Lesson 11. “Plant Parenting” And the Republic Act 9147
Since the start of the first lockdown in March 2020 followed by a series of community
quarantines due to the COVID-19 pandemic, “plant parenting” has increasingly become a popular trend in
the Philippines (Bulgar Online, 2020; CNN Philippines, 2020). Plant collectors are fondly known in
Filipino slang as “plantitos” and “plantitas” who claims that the plant collecting hobby has therapeutic
effects on their mental health by helping them relax and relieve their stress – a much needed respite
during the quarantine period (Antaran, 2020).
Unfortunately, the increased popularity of plant collection has also resulted to an increase in
demand for certain species of plants. This increased demand also led to a spike in prices of plants
compared to the pre-pandemic rates. According to reports, caladiums, ferns, and rubber trees have been
sold for as much as 35 to 40 percent more (Cosmopolitan Philippines, 2020).
Because of this, people have been reportedly taking plants from the forest since plant collection
has become a trend and the public is now being reminded of the species of plants that should not be
collected or taken from their natural habitat (Alivio, 2020). Among the threatened and critically-
endangered plants that are prohibited from being collected are the giant staghorn or the Capa de Leon
(Platycerium grande), Staghorn fern (Platycerium coronarium), and the Waling-waling (Vanda
sanderiana) under the under DENR Administrative Order (DAO) 2017-11 (Garcia, 2020; CNN
Philippines, 2020).
The government has since started to monitor protected areas to prevent people from illegally
collecting plants, especially those species that are endangered such as the Alocasia Zebrina and the
Alocasia Sanderiana (Cosmopolitan Philippines, 2020). The public is now being reminded that the illegal
trade of threatened plants is punishable under RA 9147 or the Wildlife Resources Conservation and
Protection Act and the collection of said plants will require permits from the DENR (Garcia, 2020).
The RA 9147 punishes violators with possible imprisonment of at least six months to twelve
years and/or a fine of P20, 000 to as much as P1,000,000 depending on the conservation status of the
plant species gathered or collected.
Back in August 2018, the DENR has confiscated 34 sacks of illegally collected stems of
“bantigue” (Pemphis adicula) in the province of Quezon which amounted to PhP 300,000. Bantigue is
listed under the DAO 2017-11 and is commonly used for creating bonsai. The
189
violator has been reported to serve a 6-year imprisonment and pay a fine amounting to P200, 000
(Rappler, 2018).
190
Assessment Task
Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Define “anthropogenic” in your own words [5 points].
2. Read up on the “Kaliwa Dam” issue. Is the proposed construction of the Kaliwa Dam needed? Do
you think it is necessary? Why or why not? Discuss briefly [5 points].
3. Read up on the “Canada-Philippines Waste Dispute”. Discuss what happened in your own words.
[5 points]
4. Choose two contemporary issues discussed in this module. Are the two issues related? How are
they related? [5 points]
191
Summary
Environmental problems do not exist in isolation and most of them are interconnected.
Environmental science looks at issues using the eccentric approach. For instance, a runaway forest fire is
a result of hotter and drier climates while the increase in global temperature can also be traced further
back deforestation and ecosystem degradation that emit copious amounts of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. What happens in the uplands also affects the downstream communities as well as the coastal
ecosystems? Environmental issues are intertwined, and the cause and effect may not be evident at times.
What makes the issues even more complex are the differences in priorities, cultures, belief systems, and
politics which shape how we respond to a problem.
As countries and regions interact, more environmental issues also arise. Increasingly, it is
becoming more evident that the environment knows no boundaries. Countries have been slowly becoming
more aware of their planetary footprints and how their economies affect the rest of humanity in general.
Now more than ever, the “Think Global, Act Local” adage is much needed in our approaches towards
addressing global environmental problems.
Science has been providing us with greater understanding on the nature of the environmental
problems. As the most intelligent animal species on Earth, our self-awareness and ability to make
conscious decisions put us in the unique position to explore the many options on how to best address the
root causes of those problems.
192
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MODULE 8
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND CONTROL
Introduction
Environmental pollution is associated with adverse health effects experienced or
measured in the short or long term that clinically may be described as either acute
or chronic. Usually acute effects follow sudden and severe exposure and rapid
absorption of the substance. On the contrary, chronic effects may not be
immediately observed and follow prolonged or
repeated exposures over more or less relatively long periods.
With an ever increasing population, we would never be able to control pollution

problems. Water is a precious resource and without it life is not possible on earth. Water
is getting polluted day by day due to excess and careless use so the percent of available
drink or water is reducing
There are many ways which causes water pollution the effects of it are very
harmful for all living and non-living objects
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Define environmental pollution;

2. Distinguish each of the types of Environmental Pollution;
3. Determine the general classification of pollution;
4. Compare each of the different types of pollution, its causes and effect to human and
environment; and
5. List ways of controlling water pollution at home and in your community.
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Lesson 1. Environmental Pollution
Environmental pollution is the addition to the natural environment of any substance or energy form
(e-g. heat, sound) at a rate that results in higher than natural concentrations of that substance. It is the sum
total of the unhealthful elements in the environment (water, air, land) in concentrations higher than
natural (Ordonez, n.d.).
Biologists define pollution as the undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of an ecosystem that injures or kills living organisms and makes part of the ecosystem
unfit for the use we want to make of it
Pollutants are substances that cause pollution and can get into our water supply in thousands of
different forms. These include dust, soil run-off from mines, effluents from factories, industrial emissions,
industrial wastes, oil spills, etc. It may cause primary damage with direct identifiable impact on the
environment or secondary damage in the form of minor perturbations in the delicate balance of nature
(Ordonez, n.d.).
Environmental Pollution is any

undesirable change in physical,
chemical, or biological
characteristics of any component of
the environment.
Figure 8.1. Environmental Pollution

Source: (https://www.daily-sun.com/post/21096/Environmental-Pollution-and-Its-Effects-, n.d.)
203
Pollution – when harmful substances contaminate the environment is called Pollution. It refers to a
very bad condition of environment in terms of quantity and quality.
Lesson 2. Types of Environmental Pollution
1. Soil Pollution/Contamination it refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous

concentrations of toxic substances. It is a serious environmental concern since it harbors many health
hazards. For example, exposure to soil containing high concentrations of benzene increases the risk of
contracting leukemia. The presence in land of any solid waste is such quantity, of such nature and
duration, and under such conditions that would be injurious to human health or welfare, animal or plant
life, or property (Banerji, 2014).
Figure 8.2. Soil Pollution

Source; (https://allamericanenviro.com/types-and-sources-of-soil-pollution/, n.d.)
204
What are the Processes that Cause Soil Pollution? (Banerji, 2014)
Soil pollution can be broadly classified into two categories:
a. Naturally caused soil pollution. In some extremely rare processes, some pollutants are naturally
accumulated in soils. This can occur due to the differential deposition of soil by the atmosphere.
Another manner in which this type of soil pollution can occur is via the transportation of soil
pollutants with precipitation water (Banerji, 2014).
b. Anthropogenic soil pollution (caused by human activity). Almost all cases of soil pollution are
anthropogenic in nature. A variety of human activities can lead to the contamination of soil. Some
such processes are listed below (Banerji, 2014).
• The demolition of old buildings can involve the contamination of nearby soil with asbestos.
• Usage of lead-based paint during construction activities can also pollute the soil with
hazardous concentrations of lead.
• Spillage of petrol and diesel during transportation can contaminate soils with the
hydrocarbons found in petroleum.
• Activities associated with metal casting factories (foundries) often cause the dispersion of
metallic contaminants into the nearby soils.
• Underground mining activities can cause the contamination of land with heavy metals.
• Improper disposal of highly toxic industrial/chemical waste can severely pollute the soil. For
example, the storage of toxic wastes in landfills can result in the seepage of the waste into
the soil. This waste can go on to pollute groundwater as well.
• Chemical pesticides contain several hazardous substances. Excessive and inefficient use of
chemical pesticides can result in severe soil pollution.
• Sewage produced in urbanized areas can also contaminate soil (if not disposed of correctly).
These wastes may also contain several carcinogenic substances.
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Causes of soil pollution (Banerji, 2014)
Domestic and municipal waste, industrial wastes and agricultural wastes are responsible for soil
pollution. Not only land but fresh water and local marine environment are also polluted (Banerji, 2014).
a. Domestic and municipal waste. Household wastes are waste which are produced by households.
These waste contain many substances and materials such as fruit and vegetable peels, unused
food products, newspapers and plastics which are mixed in the soil. These are not dealt with
properly and become home for rats, flies and mosquitoes.
b. Industrial waste. The main sources of soil pollution are industries such as oil refining, chemical
and fertilizers, food processing, iron and steel, pulp and paper, textile and mining, etc. Millions of
tons of industrial wastes are mixed in the soil, thus increasing the extent to the soil pollution.
c. Agriculture Pollution. The salinity of soil from irrigation increases to such levels that its
productivity decreases. Intensive use of fertilizers causes damage to nitrogen fixation. Pesticides
residues stay in the soil for a long time.
d. Mineral production. Mineral production is always associated with solid waste generation in the
form of overburden, tailing and slim. Areas surrounding the smelting and mining premises are
usually soaked by metals. Mining is done as a result of soil erosion, loss of fertile land and soil
pollution.
e. Biological agent. The problem of improper emission disposal can be the reason for soil pollution,
water pollution and the spread of flies. Diseases that can be caused by pollution are a host of
typhoid and paratified fever, dysentery, diarrhea, cholera, hookworm disease, ascariasis, viral
hepatitis and other intestinal infections.
f. Radioactive material. Nuclear waste is harmful because they contain radioactive substances that
emit nuclear radiation. If these radioactive nuclear waste is put into the waste bin, they will emit
nuclear radiations and threaten the lives of men and animals.
2. Air Pollution - the physical and chemical alteration of the properties of air which is harmful to
human health, vegetation and animals. It is a mix of chemicals, particulate matter, and biological
materials that react with each other to form tiny hazardous particles. It contributes to breathing problems,
chronic diseases, increased hospitalization, and premature mortality (International Association for
Medical Assistance to Travelers (IAMAT), n.d.).
206
Figure 8.3 Air Pollution
Source: ( https://www.news-medical.net/news/20191128/Air-pollution-could-be-associated-with-more- health-
problems-than-previously-thought.aspx, n.d.)
Symptoms
Short term symptoms resulting from exposure to air pollution include itchy eyes, nose and throat,
wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, headaches, nausea, and upper respiratory infections
(bronchitis and pneumonia). It also exacerbates asthma and emphysema. Long term effects include lung
cancer, cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory illness, and developing allergies. Air pollution is also
associated with heart attacks and strokes (International Association for Medical Assistance to Travelers
(IAMAT), n.d.).
Prevention (IAMAT, n.d.)
• Comply with air pollution advisories - ask around and observe what locals are doing and avoid
strenuous activities.
207
• Travelers with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) should carry an inhaler,
antibiotic, or oral steroid - consult your doctor to see what is best for you.
• Older travelers with pre-existing conditions should get a physical exam that includes a stress and
lung capacity test prior to departure.
• Newborns and young children should minimize exposure as much as possible or consider not
travelling to areas with poor air quality.
• Ask your medical practitioner if a face mask is advisable for you.
3. Water Pollution. Any physical (temperature, oxygen), chemical (mercury), or biological

(disease, sewage) change to water that adversely affects the use by living organisms. It can also be
defined as presence of solid, liquid or gaseous contaminants in such concentration that may alter the
quality of water (IAMAT, n.d.)
Figure 8.4 Water pollution

Source: ( https://www.aplustopper.com/causes-water-pollution/, n.d.)
208
Major sources of water pollution and their classifications
Point source is a source that discharges pollutants or any effluent, waste water, through pipes, ditches,
and sewers into bodies of water at a specific location. Sources: Sewage treatment plants of factories;
electric power plants, active and abandoned underground coal mine; oil tankers; and offshore oil wells.
Non-point source is one of many widely scattered sources that discharge pollutants over a large area.
Sources: Runoffs into surface water; seepage into groundwater in urban and suburban lands; construction
areas; parking lots; and roadways.
Common types of water pollutants and their sources
a. Disease-causing organisms (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasites).

b. Oxygen-demanding wastes (domestic sewage, animal manure, and other biodegradable organic
wastes that deplete water of dissolved oxygen)
c. Water soluble inorganic chemicals (acids, salts, toxic metals, and their compounds)
d. Inorganic plant nutrients (water soluble nitrate and phosphate salts)
e. Organic chemicals (insoluble and water soluble oil, gasolines, plastics, pesticides, cleaning
solvents, etc.)
f. Sediments of suspended matter (insoluble pesticides of soil, salt, and inorganic and organic
materials that can remain suspended in water)
Measurement of water quality
Scientists measure a variety of properties to determine water quality. These include temperature,
acidity (pH), dissolved solids (specific conductance), particulate matter (turbidity), dissolved oxygen,
hardness and suspended sediment. Each reveals something different about the health of a water body.
209
Figure 8.5. Measurement of water quality
Source:(https://www.globalspec.com/learnmore/sensors_transducers_detectors/environmental_sensors/
water_quality_measurement_instruments, n.d.)
Four Categories to describe water quality

1. Physical
• Related to the quality of water for domestic use
• Associated with the appearance of water E.g. Color, turbidity, temperature and odor
2. Chemical
• Sometimes evidenced by their observed reactions (comparative performance of hard and soft
water in laundering)
3. Biological
• Very important in their relation to public health
• Significant in modifying the physical and chemical characteristic of water
4. Radiological
• Considered in area where there is a possibility that the water may have come in contact with
radioactive substance
Effects of Water Pollution

1. Death of aquatic organisms
2. Diseases like Cholera, Malaria, Typhoid (spread during the rainy season)
210
3. Shortage in drinking water
4. Increase in BOD (biochemical oxygen) demand is defined as the measure of dissolved

oxygen required to decompose the organic matter in water biologically.
211
Lesson 3. Issue on Solid Waste
The solid wastes management is a pressing problem in the country especially in highly urbanized
areas. Solid waste as defined under RA 9003, it refers to all discarded household waste, commercial
waste, non-hazardous institutional and industrial waste, street sweepings, construction debris, agricultural
waste, and other nonhazardous/non-toxic solid waste (Legislature, 2001).
3.1 Focal Problems

The primary roots of the solid waste problems lie on the following factors: high volume of solid
waste generation, lack of proper disposal facility and economic development.
3.2 Waste sources, composition and generation

Solid waste refers to wastes from households, municipal services, construction debris and the
agricultural sector. This also includes non-hazardous, non-liquid wastes from institutions and Industries
(Legislature, 2001).
3.3 Lack of Disposal facility
Disposal facility refers to waste disposal methods such as sanitary landfill, incinerator, or other
facility which receives waste for disposal. The facility may have one or many disposal methods available
for use (Enviro-Glossary, n.d.).
212
3.4 Causes and Effects/Impacts of Solid waste
Figure 8.6 Causes and Effects/Impacts of Solid waste (Legislature, 2001)
Solid wastes issues are greatly affected by socio-economic development and the degree of urbanization.
As World Bank says, the greater a country’s economic prosperity and the larger its urban population, the
greater the amount of solid waste generated.
Causes
a. Rapid urbanization affects waste generation
The Philippines today is one of the countries in the East Asian and Pacific that has the highest
rates of urbanization region at roughly 53 percent (INQUIRER.net, 2007).
Urbanization refers to the process in which an increasing proportion of an entire population lives
in cities and suburbs.
Rapid urbanization in these regions is fueled by fast economic growth. People move into cities, seeking
economic opportunities to somehow improve their standard of living. Given the opportunity, now a
person is more capable to purchase anything he needs and even his wants.
As the study showed, (World Bank, n.d.) people living in urban areas produce solid waste
between 0.5 to 0.71kg/person/day, while those in rural areas generate 0.3kg/person/day.
b. Rapid Economic Development affects waste generation
213
Economic opportunities are the driving force of people living in rural areas to move in urban cities
for the quest of improving the standard of living. It is true that opportunities exist in cities, but severe
negative environmental externalities are no exception such as pollution, increasing solid waste generation,
increasing growth of slums thus threatens human health.
c. Financial, technical limitations and insufficient capacities of LGUs

The lack of proper facilities causing severe stress on the lake and its watershed areas,
these limitations are due to lack financial capital and technical expertise in the investment of disposal
facility. In the Philippines, local government units (LGUs) are responsible for garbage collection and
disposal by a virtue of RA 9003 or Ecological Solid Waste Management Act. However, the challenge is
its implementation since the proper disposal of waste such as sanitary landfills or controlled dumpsites
has not been strengthened, taking financial mechanism constraint as one factor.
3.5 Effects and Impacts of Solid Waste to Human Health
The wastes that are not properly managed are threat to human health. Inadequate course of action
towards the issue and weak enforcement of law in solid wastes management would lead to other
environmental problems such as pollution in water, air and land. Solid waste, a major environmental
pollution, flooding in effects from contamination and clogging would cause spreading harmful and
infectious diseases in which eventually hazardous to human health (Legislature, 2001).
1. Water & Air Pollution Affects Human health

Pollution has negative impact on human health and its impact will depend on the type of pollutant
and how it is delivered. Solid waste and other wastes thrown in to landfills, dumpsites, streets, roads
could result to both air and water pollution (Legislature, 2001).
2. Contamination of heavy metals in surface and ground water

Heavy metals such as cadmium (Cd), mercy (Hg), hexavalent chromium (Cr); dissolved copper (Cu), lead
(Pb) and others in high concentration are toxic and notable effects to consumers’ are
214
nervous, renal, respiratory, muscular, reproductive, skeletal, and circulatory systems disorders and in
worse cases, death (Legislature, 2001).
3 . Flooding
The lack of attention to waste management, improper management of uncollected wastes and
inadequate/lack of maintenance of drainage channels or could say the loose implementation of waste
management laws that resulted to flooding problems especially in congested urbanized areas triggered
public health (Legislature, 2001).
215
Lesson 4. Key Feature of Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 (Legislature,
2001)
The Republic Act (RA) No. 9003 or otherwise known as “The Ecological Solid Waste
Management Act of 2000” was signed into law by the Philippine Government on January 26, 2001. This
is the first legislation that supports an integrated approach to solid waste management. The ecological
solid waste management (SWM), it is the systematic management of solid waste which provides for
waste reduction at source; segregation at source for recovery of reusable, recyclables, and compostable;
segregated transportation, storage, transfer, processing, treatment and disposal of solid waste; and all
other waste management activities which do not harm the environment (Legislature, 2001).
The Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003) provides the legal framework
for the systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program of the Philippines,
which shall ensure protection of public health and the environment. It emphasizes the need to create the
necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives, and imposes penalties for acts in violation of any of its
provisions (Legislature, 2001). In addition, RA 9003 is the core environmental policy in institutionalizing
a national program in managing the transfer, transport, processing, and disposal of solid waste
(Legislature, 2001).
4.1 Salient Features of the Act (Legislature, 2001)
The Act mandates the State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid
Waste management program which shall (Legislature, 2001):
• Ensure the protection of public health and environment;
• Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resource

reduction and encourage resources conservation and recovery;
• Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through source
reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling, reuse, recovery,
green charcoal processes, and others, before collection, treatment and
216
disposal in appropriate and environmentally-sound solid waste management facilities in
accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;
• Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste
through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practices in ecological waste
management excluding incineration;
• Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and
resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and
improved methods of waste reduction, collection separation and recovery;
• Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;
• Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government
units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local
government units, non-government organizations, and private sector;
• Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the application of
market-based instruments;
• Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national and local
integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste management programs; and
• Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and
recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal education in order to
promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry.
It mandates the various government agencies to do the following in support of the Act (Legislature,
2001):
✓ Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) – act as overall of the

Commission to be created; prepare a National Solid Waste Management Status Report; provide
technical and capacity-building assistance to local government units; issue rules and regulations
in the implementation of the Act (Legislature, 2001).
217
✓ Department of Health (DOH) – in coordination with the DENR and other concerned agencies
prepare the National Solid Waste Management Status Report which shall be the basis for the
National Solid Waste Management Framework; and together with the DENR and DILG shall
publish the inventory of all solid waste disposal facilities (Legislature, 2001).
✓ Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) – shall formulate and implement a coding system for
packaging materials and products to facilitate waste recycling and reuse and with DENR establish
and manage a solid waste management information database and publish a study of existing
markets for processing and purchasing recyclable materials and the potential steps necessary to
expand these markets (Legislature, 2001).
✓ Department of Interior and Local Governments (DILG) - together with the DENR and DOH
shall publish the inventory of all solid waste disposal facilities (Legislature, 2001).
✓ Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Technical

Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) and Philippine Information Agency
(PIA) with the DENR – shall conduct continuing education and information campaign on solid
waste management (Legislature, 2001).
✓ DepEd and CHED – the national government through the DepEd and in coordination with
concerned agencies, non-government organizations and private institutions, shall strengthen the
integration of environmental concerns in school curricula at all levels (Legislature, 2001).
218
Assessment Task
1. List some ways to stop AIR and WATER pollution that must be initiated by the: a.
Government (10 points)
b. Industries (10 points)
c. Ordinary citizen (10 points)
219
Summary
One of the changes in the Earth’s atmosphere is in the composition of air, particularly
the entrance of substances (such as carbon monoxide and lead vapor) that are harmful to
people’s health and to the environment.
Those substances are generally referred as air pollutants. Aside from being
harmful themselves, some of them after the properties of air and thereby cause additional
harm.
We have seen the wilderness disappearing, along with the natural resources of the
environment. Our concern has led to laws that would help protect the environment through
conservation and correct management.
Despite government laws and private voluntary efforts, there are still problems in
preserving environmental quality for out children and future generations.
Natural resources can be classed into four: renewable, non-renewable, recycled, and
inexhaustible.
Global cooperation is necessary to solve modern problems. One country alone cannot
curb worldwide pollution nor ensure preservation of endangered species. To succeed, there
should be the cooperation of all countries.
220
References
Banerji, Samir K.; Environmental Chemistry, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
Enviro-Glossary. (n.d.). http://www.green-networld.com/facts/glossary.htm
International Association for Medical Assistance to Travelers (IAMAT)

https://www.iamat.org/country/philippines/risk/air-pollution
Ordonez II, J.A. (n.d). Environmental Biology, Philippine Setting, Echini’s Press
Republic Act No. 9003 “Ecological Solid Waste Management Act”, January 26, 2001, retrieved from
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2001/01/26/republic-act-no-9003-s-2001/
Soil Pollution. (n.d), https://byjus.com/chemistry/soil-pollution/
221

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1

Module 5: Environmental Geoscience 108

Figure Description Page

Environmental geoscience is concerned with the interaction between humans, natural

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. Develop an understanding of the Earth’s basic geologic features,

Environmental Geology is an applied science which objectively studies geologic information to

Lesson 2. Ecological Succession

Terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and the environment. This

3.3 Temperate Forests

6.1 Landslides and Debris Flow

Research is particularly needed to show cause-and-effect relationships with other geological

6.2 Land Subsidence

Earthquake hazard evaluation involves determinations of the specific location, frequency of

Answer the questions below:

Alexander, D. (1999). Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Springer. ISBN 0-412-74050-8.

Aquatic Ecosystems. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

Community and Ecosystem Dynamics. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

Environmental Geology Introduction Module 1. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

Flood Basics. (2020). Retrieved 4 October 2020, from

Land Subsidence. (2020). Retrieved 4 October 2020, from https://www.usgs.gov/mission-

National Geographic Society. (2011). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

Succession in Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecosystems. (2013). Retrieved from

Terrestrial Ecosystem. (2020). Retrieved 20 October 2020, from

Vaccari, D. (2005). Environmental Biology for Engineers and Scientists. Wiley-Interscience.

1.1 Environmental Management

1.2 The Department of Environment and Natural Resources

In the Philippines, the country’s main environmental regulator” is the Department of

a) The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)

b) The Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB)

c) The Land Management Bureau (LMB)

d) The Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB)

e) The Forest Management Bureau (FMB)

1.4 Attached DENR Agencies

a) The Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)

c) The National Water Resources Board (NWRB)

• PD 424 – created the National Water Resources Council (NWRC).

• Conduct research and development on natural resources-based products;

e) The National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA)

As a DENR-attached “mapmaking” agency, the NAMRIA is the central depository and

• EO 192 section 22 – creates the NAMRIA

f) The Philippine Mining Development Corporation (PMDC)

2 (“Executive Order NO. 786”, n.d.)

The RA 7160 also mandates the municipalities to establish an environmental management

2.1 Government Regulations on Corporations

2.2 Environmental Permits

1) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

3) Other Permits and Licenses

1) Hazardous wastes production (RA 6969)

3.1 Laws versus Policy

3.2 Sources of Philippine Laws

3 University of Melbourne Library, 2020

3) Treaties and Conventions

A treaty refers to “draft agreement between countries” or sometimes referred to as “international

4) Judicial Decisions (Shaw, 2019)

5) Customary Law (Shaw, 2019)

3.3 Lawmaking Powers in the Philippines

4 “Administrative Code of 1987, Book III, Title I, Chapter II”, n.d.

4.1 Treaties, Protocols, and Conventions

• Convention. This is an international meeting of country representatives which results in general

6 International Protocols, Treaties, and Conventions, 2009

1) UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

4) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

6) Kyoto Protocol (1997)