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14 Protection and Control in Substations and

Power Networks
14.1 Overview and tasks
The task of protection and control in substations and in power grids is the provision of
all the technical means and facilities necessary for the optimal supervision, protection,
control and management of all system components and equipment in high and
medium-voltage power transmission systems. This also involves the incorporation of
the I&C system functions of centralized (hydro, coal or nuclear) and distributed (hydro,
wind or biomass, etc.) power plants in the overall management of the electricity grid.
Completing the distance between the generator and consumer, appropriate attention
must also be paid to the medium and low voltage distribution networks. Intensive use
of these facilities is a necessary condition for implementation of the network of the
future, known as the Smart Grid.
With the increase in automation functions, integration of the protection functions and
complex protection systems, substation control systems are now giving way to and
being integrated in substation automation systems. The terms ‘digital’ and ‘numerical’
apply for all microprocessor based devices with identical meaning.
The task of the control or automation system consequently begins at the process
interface, i.e. with the position indication of the HV circuit-breaker or in the local control
panel, and ends in complex systems for substation automation, network and load
management as well as for failure and time based maintenance. For all these
functions, the data acquisition at the switchgear and – if applicable - the command
execution at the switchgear, are part of network control and management. The
element which connects all these functions is digital communication.
Fig. 14-1 provides an overview of the functions and subsystems that make up the
protection and control technology in substations and networks in the context of
electric power transmission and distribution.
The purpose of the secondary systems or automation systems in substations is to
acquire information directly at the high, medium and relevant low voltage apparatus in
the substations and to allow their safe on-site operation, including the secure power
supply to all their components.
Modern automation technology provides all the means necessary to simplify and
secure normal routine operation. This allows more efficient use of existing equipment
and quick localization and disconnection in the case of disturbances. Processing and
compressing information at the actual switchgear locations can lead to decisions
being made autonomously by automatic systems and protection equipment. Other
data are transmitted to the central network control centers or maintenance centers,
with preprocessing significantly reducing the load on these centers and the
communication links.
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Protection devices are required to safeguard the expensive power equipment and
transmission lines against overloads and damages. Therefore, they have to switch off
short circuits and earth faults very quickly and to isolate the faulty or endangered parts
in the power system very selectively. They are thus a major factor in ensuring the
stability of the power system in the case of faults.
The purpose of power system control in control centers as a subdivision of power
system management is to secure the transmission and distribution of power in
increasingly more complex power systems by providing each control center with a
continually updated and user-friendly overall picture of the entire network. All
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important information is transmitted via the communication network from the

substations to the control center, where it is instantly evaluated and corrective actions
are taken. The growing amount of data acquired has resulted in the extensive
replacement of conventional mosaic panels for direct process control by computer
based control systems with video based displays.
The increasing performance and memory capacity of modern computers and the large
transmission capacities of optical communication links allow more and more data to
be collected by the substation automation system, transmitted and processed
centrally, for maintenance of both primary and secondary systems. This makes new
applications such as equipment management or online network analyses possible.
Load management directly influences the system load, e.g. with the aid of ripple
control communication via the power network. It selectively disconnects and re-
connects consumers or consumer groups. On the basis of actual and forecast load
figures it is possible to level out utility load curves, to make better use of available
power resources, or to buy or sell energy on the market. With the aid of “smart
meters”, on the one hand the utility can read the final customers’ meters remotely, and
on the other hand the customers can communicate with the utility and adapt their
consumption to meet their needs and optimize costs.
It would be beyond the scope of this book to describe in detail all the subsystems and
components belonging to network control. Therefore, the following chapters can only
serve as an introduction to the complex tasks, fundamentals, problems and solutions
encountered in power network management and its related systems.
Closer attention is devoted, however, to all components and interfaces which directly
concern the switchgear and the switchgear engineer, and which have to be considered
in the planning, erection and operation of substations.

Fig. 14-1
Functions and subsystems of automation in substations and networks

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14.2 Protection
Functions
Various protection devices in power systems with rated voltages > 1kV are available to
protect generators, transformers, cables, busbars and loads. The purpose of these
devices is to detect faults and to switch off and isolate these selectively and quickly
from the network as a whole so that the consequences of the fault are limited as much
as possible. With today’s high fault current levels and highly integrated networks,
faults have far-reaching consequences, both direct (damaged equipment) and indirect
(loss of production, or PC failures in the service sector). Protective devices must
therefore act very fast with the greatest possible reliability and availability.

From protection relays to protective devices

Relays can be divided into various categories.
A basic distinction with respect to function is made between switching (contactor)
relays and measuring relays. The relays used for protection purposes, together with
supervisory relays, fall into the category of measuring relays and appeared according
to their technology first as electromechanical and later as solid-state measuring relays.
Therefore, the term protective device is used more and more instead of protection
relay. More precisely, there are protection functions which are implemented in devices
singly or in combination with other functions. Protection functions supervise dedicated
values of the power system or of its components and respond very quickly and
selectively if critical limits are exceeded.

Interface to the switchgear system (process interface)

At the output of protective devices, there are switching relays which, for example,
open the circuit breaker by closing the trip circuit. These relays normally also act as
galvanic separation between power system equipment (primary technology) and the
substation automation system including protection (secondary system). It is important
that the output (trip) relays are able to switch the applied high currents and do not
“stick”. Because of their importance for the protection function, they are supervised in
most cases.
If not only the values from the instrument transformers but also the trip commands are
transmitted serially via the process bus, these switching relays are no longer
necessary or are integrated in the switching devices separately from the protection
system. Supported by the communication standard IEC 61850, such solutions will
dominate the future, especially since they also permit serial transmission of current
and voltage samples from both conventional and non-conventional instrument
transformers.

Protection in three-phase systems

Even though d.c. protective devices also exist, only a.c. protective devices are
14

considered here in connection with power supply. When measurements are performed
in a multiple phase system such as the usual three-phase system, it is important to
note that some measured values apply to one phase only and others to all three
phases. Furthermore, the currents and voltages in the phases are displaced by a
phase angle. In transmission systems, it is usually possible to switch the three phases
independently of each other. A distinction therefore has to be made between single
phase and multiple phase faults. Both phase to earth short-circuits and phase to
phase faults may occur. In addition, a single phase fault may develop into a multiple
phase fault before it is shut down.
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Without faults, the three phases are symmetrical, i.e. the amplitudes are equal and the
phase angle is 120°. In the case of a fault, asymmetries occur, with possible short-
circuiting of phase voltages. For simple detection of faults which result in asymmetry,
the three phases can be transformed mathematically into three “symmetrical
components” (positive-sequence components, negative-sequence component and
zero sequence component). Without a fault, the positive-sequence component is
identical to the original three-phase system, and the other components are zero. With
pure asymmetry, the negative-sequence component is not equal to zero, and with a
pure earth fault the zero-sequence component is not equal to zero. Usually, both
variables appear in combination. These details are not examined further here.

14.2.1 Protection functions, protective devices and protection systems

Today’s standard protective devices and protection systems are exclusively
numerically controlled (with microprocessors). Electromechanical and electrostatic
relays are no longer used in new systems.
Implementation of protection with microprocessors decouples devices and functions;
protection functions can be installed in various constellations in protective devices.
Attention is therefore devoted below to the fundamental protection functions. Various
protective devices can be used together in a coordinated manner, creating a
protection system which ensures protection even in complex situations.
Relays and protective devices have to meet the following specifications:
- IEC 60255 Electrical relays
This standard covers a broad range of requirements but has to be complemented by
the following standards where applicable
- IEC 60068 Environmental testing
- IEC 61000 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
- IEC 60870 Telecontrol Equipment and Systems
- IEC 61850 Communication Networks and System in Substations

14.2.2 Limit protection

These relays or protection functions detect when specified limit values or permissible
operating values are exceeded or not met. They can measure electrical variables such
as currents and voltages, and non-electrical variables such as temperatures and
pressures. Other functions monitor calculated values such as power or energy. With
some variables, such as frequency or thermal stresses, the values are either measured
direct or calculated in various ways. Directly measured values are normally available
rapidly, and calculated data after a short or longer delay.
Overcurrent and Time-Overcurrent protection
Single or three-phase currents above a set limit are detected and switched off after a
set time delay. The tripping time is independent of the amount by which the limit has
been exceeded (definite-time overcurrent-time relay).
The preference in English-speaking countries is for an overcurrent relay which
responds faster to higher currents (inverse-time overcurrent relay).
Time-overcurrent relays are mostly used in radial networks with single infeed. The
relays are connected via a current transformer. With a direction-sensing function
measuring current and voltage and considering changing phase relations in the case
of a fault, this function can be extended to provide directional time-overcurrent

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protection. Such protective devices are preferably used for parallel lines and for the
low voltage sides of transformers operating in parallel.

Fig. 14-2
Characteristics of overcurrent
protection
a) Definite-time relay, two-stage
b) Inverse-time relays with high-
current stage
I > Overcurrent stage
I Ⰷ High-current stage
tE Operating time
Overload protection
The temperature conditions at the protected object are simulated with the same time
constant in the relays. Any load bias is taken into account by this thermal replica in the
relay in accordance with the heating and cooling curves. Alarm signals or trip
commands are issued if a set temperature limit is exceeded. The relays are built as
secondary relays and operate usually in two or more stages. Overload relays are used
for objects that can overheat such as transformers and motors, but less commonly for
cables. The quality of this protection depends strongly on the accuracy of the thermal
replica.

Frequency protection
If the frequency (f) goes above or below set limits or changes at an unacceptable rate
(df/dt), this is detected and results in load shedding or disconnection of network parts
(islanding). The deviation from the rated frequency is a good indication for an
imbalance between produced and consumed active power (P). If e.g. the frequency
decays because of the loss of generating group, a corresponding load has to be shed
as soon as possible.

Voltage protection
Voltage deviations are reported, allowing the system load to be reduced as necessary.
Both overvoltages and undervoltages can occur.

Other protective devices

Other protective devices used for dedicated objects in the substation include e.g.
interturn-fault, negative sequence and reverse-power protection for generators.
Buchholz protection, temperature monitors, oil level indicators, oil and air flow
indicators are used for power transformers. Insulation monitoring is specifically for
14

conductors. All these protection functions monitor infringements of limits or

compliance with permissible operating values.

14.2.3 Comparison protection

Differential protection
The currents measured at the beginning and end of the protected object (line,
generator, transformer, busbar, etc.) are matched in phase angle and magnitude and

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compared. If a set ratio of difference current to through current is exceeded, the relay
issues a trip command.
In numerical relays, all the classical components of differential protection like matching
transformers, alarm and trip elements and inrush current stabilization are realized by
algorithms in the microprocessor. The inrush stabilization prevents, for example,
tripping of the transformer differential protection by the harmonics of the current
caused by the magnetization behavior of the transformer. Differential relays are
available for both transformer and generator differential protection.
Line differential protection consists of a unit at each end of the line with current
detection, a comparison function and trip output for the local circuit-breaker. The
differential protection function compares either the polled values or phasor values
derived from these. For a.c. applications, this requires time synchronization of the
measured values from both ends within microseconds. This is achieved by suitable
“handshaking” or GPS synchronization. For maximum precision the devices on both
sides are commonly provided in pairs by one manufacturer.
In addition, the differential protection needs a communication link for the transmission
of the data to be compared, i.e. normally the currents. For long lines only serial
connections are used, nowadays mostly installed as fiber optic cables. These are also
increasingly replacing wires with analog values for the short links needed for
transformer or generator differential protection. From edition 2 onwards, the
communication standard IEC 61850 is preferably used not only for communication
inside substations, but also between them.
The differential protection function switches off the faulty object between the
measuring points very rapidly and selectively. For correct protection operation,
however, the communication link has to be supervised properly. To cope with a loss of
communication, the differential protection is complemented by a distance or
overcurrent protection function (see 14.2.4 and 14.2.2).
Busbar protection
The busbar in a substation is a node in the power grid. According to Kirchhoff’s law the
sum of all incoming and outgoing currents has to be zero. The busbar protection
system acquires and sums up all these currents. Therefore, busbar protection
represents a multi-leg differential protection.
The busbar is usually not a simple node but consists of bus sectionalizers and,
depending on the number of parallel busbars, of bus couplers. Double busbars are
common. In such systems, each feeder may be connected alternatively to one of the
busbars or busbar sections by busbar isolators. To identify the actual node
configuration, a dynamic busbar image (topology) is created from the positions of all
the isolators. This allows tripping of only the faulty busbar section in the case of a
busbar fault. Regarding the complexity of data acquisition (e.g. saturation of the
current transformers) and the high speed required to limit damage in the case of high
short-circuit powers, static electronic protection systems have been used. Today, only
numerical busbar protection systems are installed in new systems or retrofitted. This
allows for compensation of the behavior and saturation of different current
transformers. With the computation power available today, other functions like breaker
failure protection, timed-overcurrent protection, undervoltage protection and phase
discrepancy monitoring may be integrated. Busbar protection may consist of one
centralized unit with a number of inputs and outputs corresponding to that of the
connected lines. The decentralized solution comprises a central “decision-making”
unit with distributed field units, in which all line protection functions are often
integrated, at least for back-up protection.
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Comparative protection
The variables measured at beginning and end of the protected object are not
compared individually but as averages in a certain time window (e.g. for a half-wave of
sinusoidal values) checked for coincidence (phase comparison protection) or for equal
signal direction (signal comparison). These protection devices require only low
communication bandwidth and are very insensitive to interference, but . Since not the
raw data but calculated data are used this protection is slower than the differential and
busbar protection.

14.2.4 Directional protection

Distance protection
The distance of a fault from the relay is calculated by comparing the fault impedance
with the known line impedance. Therefore, voltage and current are measured and a
tripping range (protection zone) is assigned. A device for distance protection normally
has several forward zones and one backward zone. The tripping characteristics can be
represented in the impedance plane as complex polygons or circles and the
corresponding protection zones parameterized. In accordance with adjustable
distance-time parameters, the distance protection trips the allocated circuit-breaker
directly or with some delay as back-up protection. Distance protection operates
selectively and very fast in meshed networks with multiple infeed and needs basically
no communication. Since, however, some of the protection zones always extend
beyond the line end and detect more remote faults, releases or blocks are
communicated to increase the selectivity so that only the faulty line is isolated. Known
line and fault impedances also enable the fault location to be determined with
reasonable accuracy, facilitating the maintenance of long and not easily accessible
lines.
The graded tripping zones (distance-time characteristic) of a distance relay are shown
in Fig. 14-3.

Fig. 14-3
Tripping zones (forward) of a distance
relay with graded tripping time delay t(s)
Line length described by impedance Z(Ω)
A, B and C: Switchgear systems between
line segments
A: Relay location for the continuous characteristic line
B: Relay location for the dashed characteristic line
a-B corresponds to approx. 85 – 90 % of line length A-B
14

Directional earth-fault relays

An indication of direction is obtained from the sign of the angular difference between
the phasors of neutral current and neutral voltage. The side of the fault is identified by
comparing the values measured in the network. Other methods of measurement are
possible. As, in contrast to distance protection, the fault impedance is not calculated,
this function is considerably simpler but cannot identify the fault location.

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Object protection with directional comparison relays

If there are directional protection relays at all the boundaries of a network zone or a
busbar, a directional comparison can determine whether the fault is inside or outside
the object concerned. A common communication network is needed, but with a very
limited bandwidth as the amount of information to be exchanged (direction) is small.
Compared with differential protection, this simple solution is slightly slower because of
the time needed for fault direction evaluation. Again in contrast to differential
protection, it requires the current and voltage to be measured at each measuring point.
14.2.5 Autoreclosing
In the case of faults on overhead lines the line protection (e.g. time-overcurrent relay or
distance relay) interrupts one or all three phases to cut off the power infeed into the
fault. Assuming a transient fault, the power should be switched on again as soon as
possible. For this purpose, the protection-related function “autoreclosing” is used.
This function normally provides a reclosing sequence of one fast step and two slow
ones. If a closing step is successful, the autoreclosing function is reset. If the fault
persists, the protection trips again in one or three phases and the next autoreclosing
step is initiated. An unsuccessful closing sequence ends with a final trip of the breaker.
After the first unsuccessful step, tripping and autoreclosing is normally performed for
all three phases independently of the first step.
14.2.6 Advantages of numerical protective devices
The numerical relays or protective devices mentioned above with the latest
microprocessors (µP) provide considerable benefits: Analog variables are digitized at
the input card of the device and preprocessed as required. The trip decision is made
in the microprocessor, allowing any complex conditions needed by the protection
function to be taken into account. The resulting protection is much more adaptive
regarding the power system conditions than any previous protection technology. The
devices can be configured and parameterized locally with the aid of a laptop, or
remotely from a protection workstation with menu guidance and consistency and
plausibility checks. Automatically self-adapting protection is also feasible. Numerical
protection devices continuously monitor themselves. Fault signals from the devices
are issued in good time, and with rapid repair the correct function is available when a
protection trip is required.
Several protection functions can be combined in a single device and executed in
parallel (multi-functional devices). Functions may be activated from built-in libraries or
downloaded from external libraries.
The serial station bus interface (nowadays generally to IEC 61850) supports integration
in substation automation systems. Spontaneous transmission of events and
disturbance recorder files is therefore possible. Memories for events and disturbance
recording facilitate buffer storage of the data so that they are not lost if
communications are interrupted. They also permit the transmission of data on request
only. In substation automation systems all events and alarms are normally be
displayed in dedicated lists at the operator’s workstation. The event lists and
disturbance records can however also be transmitted to a central protection
workstation for detailed fault analysis.
Besides protection functions, the numerical protection devices can also perform
control functions. This is implemented above all in bay devices for medium voltage,
where control and protection functions are now mostly integrated in a single device.
Source transducers permit the interference-free acquisition of secondary side values
from current and voltage transformers. Optocoupler inputs facilitate isolated input of
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binary signals. Tripping circuits are monitored. These interfaces (process interfaces to
breakers and instrument transformers) can however also be implemented as serial
process connections to IEC 61850.
The power supply for these numerical devices and, where appropriate, the signaling
and tripping circuits is provided by batteries, so that the protection system can still
function reliably in the case of mains power failure.
14.2.7 Protection systems
As already indicated above for differential or directional protection, many protection
functions or protective devices do not operate alone, but are integrated in an overall
protection system. The implementation of such systems is greatly facilitated by
standardized serial communications.
In addition to the examples below, such systems also for example provide circuit-
breaker failure protection (when faults cannot be switched off as intended) and
temporary (inverse) blocking of protection and incoming feeders in radial networks.
It should also be mentioned that apart from linking of protective devices there is also a
demand for parallel protective devices such as main and back-up protection for high
voltage lines. Such redundancies must not be jeopardized by modern communication
architecture.
Protection of switchgear, lines and transformers
The basic scheme for protecting switchgear, lines and transformers is shown in
Fig.14-4.

10a

7 8 2 2

4 4

왘 10b 왘 10b 왘 10b

Recommended Optional Multifunction relays

standard with 1, 2 or 3 functions
14

Fig. 14-4
Basic scheme of protection system for switchgear, lines and transformers:
a) Cable, b) Overhead line, c) Transformer, d) Auxiliary line
1 Overcurrent-time protection, 2 Distance protection, 3 3 Autoreclosing function,
4 Differential protection, 5 Directional ground-fault protection, 6 Overload protection,
7 Frequency monitoring, 8 Voltage monitoring, 9 Ground-fault indicator monitoring,
10 Busbar protection (10a Central unit, 10b Bay unit), 11 Buchholz protection,
transformer temperature monitoring
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Q1

Protection group 2 1

Measure Measure
Distance
protection

Start-up
earth fault
Q2
Measure Differential
unit
Overcurrent
III
Measure Buchholz
services
Overcurrent
II
Measure Buchholz
unit
Overcurrent
I
Measure
Measure Earth fault

Differential
services
Overvoltage

Overcurrent
Measure services

Over-
excitation
Measure
Under-
frequency
Emerg. trip (ET)
Reverse
power I Integrator

Measure ET
Reverse
Voltage regulation power II Integrator
Turbine regulation
Count
Regulate
Stator
Measure earth fault

Q 100 Under- Integrator

excitation
Differential
generator
Station
disconnect.
K
G Extra for Rotor
rotor e.f. earth fault
I
Stage 1
Load
Stage 2
unbal.
Gen.
supervision
Measure
Minimum
impedance
Q 100

Fig. 14-5
Single-line diagram of generator unit protection system and single line diagram with
generator circuit-breaker
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Generator unit protection

The term generator unit protection is used when the protective devices for the
generator, the main transformer and the auxiliary transformer are combined with those
for the generator circuit-breaker or load break switch.
Today, numerical relays are exclusively used for generator unit protection. Important
factors influencing the form of the generator unit protection scheme within the overall
design of the electrical system include
– whether the generator is switched by a circuit-breaker or a load break switch,
– whether the auxiliary transformer has two or three windings,
– the number of auxiliary transformers,
– the method of excitation (solid-state thyristors or rotating rectifiers).
Therefore, the protection system is project-specific. As an example, Fig. 14-5 shows
the single-line diagram for a unit-type arrangement with generator circuit-breaker in a
large thermal power plant and the allocated protection scheme. It should be noted that
the protection blocks shown are not protective devices but protection functions which
may be implemented in various groups and in various devices.
The function diagram shows how the individual protective devices are linked to the
operating circuits. The allocation of the trip commands of the protection functions to
the switching devices (e.g. generator circuit-breaker, magnetic field switch, etc.) and
switching functions (e.g. automatic switchover of the auxiliary power) is implemented
with programmable logic as part of the numerical devices. In this way, the tripping
scheme may be easily modified if needed.
To increase the availability of protection, the protection system is split into two
separate and largely independent groups and the related devices installed in different
cabinets. This also requires separate power supplies and separate trip logics.
Protection functions which complement or back-up each other are to be distributed
over both groups.
Stationary or mobile test equipment permits testing of these two protection groups
independently with the generators shut down or running. During testing of one group,
the other group remains in operation, preserving a reasonable scope of protection
during the testing process. Testing may also be performed automatically, with all the
measured response values (current, voltage, etc.) and response times printed out by
the test equipment or mostly in the relevant automation system.

14.3 Instrumentation and control systems (secondary systems)

Secondary systems are all those facilities needed to ensure reliable operation of the
primary system, e.g. an HV substation. They cover the functions of controlling,
interlocking, signaling, monitoring, measuring, metering, recording and protecting. The
14

power for these auxiliary functions is taken from batteries, so that they continue to
work even in the event of network faults.
Substations are normally unmanned. Operation is controlled centrally via modern
network management systems from regional or national control or load distribution
centers. In the case of switchgear with conventional secondary systems, the network
management system is connected via a central telecontrol substation or remote
terminal unit (RTU). If there is a substation automation system, this telecontrol
substation is replaced by a telecontrol interface in the automation system.

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For various reasons, local operator control at an operator’s workstation in the

substation may repeatedly be necessary. This workstation is part of the substation
automation system, and is generally connected in parallel to the telecontrol coupler.
With mostly decentralized, bay-oriented automation technology, the interface is
moving ever closer to the primary system (process). How near this interface can be
brought to the process depends, for example, on whether suitable electronic
components are available and accepted for the switchgear system under
consideration. The communication standard IEC 61850 defines a standardized serial
interface to the process, i.e. for the connection between the local electronics and the
protection and control devices in the bays, for transmission of all binary and analog
signals.
Non-conventional instrument transformers do not – by definition – supply the
standardized values for current (1A or 5A) and voltage (110V or 220V) but signals
dependent on the measuring method. Serial connection in accordance with IEC 61850
is therefore the only appropriate method of connection for these transformers.

QB1
QB2

QA1

B1

QB9

QC9

B5

Fig. 14-6
gives an overview of the SA functions in HV substations.
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14.3.1 DC voltage supply

It is essential that the components of the secondary systems have a secure DC power
supply. For HV and EHV installations, this means that the DC power supply must be
redundant so as not to be rendered inoperative by a single fault. Indeed it is advisable
to provide two separate infeeds also for the low-voltage three-phase network. If these
infeed is not very dependable, a diesel generator should also be provided for
emergency. The three-phase loads are connected as symmetrically as possible to the
two three-phase busbars formed; the battery rectifiers are also connected here, one to
each busbar.
With proper selection of the rectifier, the DC output from the rectifier and also the
battery can be connected independently to the DC busbars, so giving greater
flexibility.
It is best to use 220 V and 110 V for direct control. If these circuits for telecontrol and
process signals are now also used by the local electronic devices for direct control,
these must operate with the same voltages, thus simplifying the power supply system.
The same requirement applies to the power supply for communication equipment like
Ethernet switches for IEC 61850, at least near to the process. Remote terminal units
are generally not installed close to the process, and for historical reasons may still
need 60 V, 48 V and 24 V
With the aid of inverters, a secure AC busbar can be created from the DC busbar if
necessary. The computers at the operator workstations can be industrial PCs with DC
power supply. If not, they need this secure AC supply in the same way as conventional
systems and monitors.
The DC network must be carefully planned. The auxiliary circuits must be assigned to
each function and feeder, so that only one function or one bay is affected by a fault.
With this approach, faults in the signal circuit, for example, do not influence the control
circuit, and vice versa.

14.3.2 Interlocking
The reliability of the control sequence for switching operations is ensured not only by
the blocking of switches which may not be operated for inherent reasons, but also by
mutual interlocking of the HV switching devices within each bay and at a higher level
within the entire substation. The interlocking conditions depend on the effective switch
positions in the system (single line diagram at any one time). This is achieved most
simply throughout substations nowadays by the bay control units transmitting the
position signals from each bay to all other relevant bay control units, or alternatively to
a central interlocking device via the communication system. The interlocks in
switchgear systems must in particular prevent disconnectors from operating while
under load, or connecting power to earth.
There are a number of fundamental rules for secure interlocking. Rules related to the
14

operational philosophy of the utility may be added. If for example a substation with
bypass bus is to be interlocked, additional rules are needed for the security of the
bypass disconnectors as well as for protection selectivity. Depending on the
substation configuration, these rules can be expressed in substation-specific Boolean
algebra, or be directly applied to a particular single line configuration with its current
switch positions in a topology-oriented implementation. For the following example of
a double busbar with one feeder, one bus coupler and one bus earthing switch (see
Fig. 14-7) the specifically derived safety-related rules are listed for better
understanding.

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Fig. 14-7
QC11 QC21 QB1 QB2 QB1 QB2
Single line diagram of a switchgear
QC1
QA1 QA1 installation with double busbar, bus
QC2
QB9 coupler and line
QC9

The following conditions must be fulfilled in this case:

1. Disconnectors QB1, QB2 and QB9 can only be operated only when breaker QA1 is
open (protection against switching under load).
2. Breaker QA1 cannot be closed with disconnectors QB1, QB2 or QB9 in the
intermediate position (intermediate position indication).
3. Disconnectors QB1 and QB2 are mutually interlocked so that only one can be
closed at a time.
4. When the bus coupler is closed, the second bus disconnector (QB1 or QB2)
belonging to the connected busbar can be closed, irrespective of the status of
QA1. One of the two closed disconnectors can then be opened (change of bus
connection under load).
5. Disconnectors QB1 and QB2 can only be operated only if the related busbar
earthing switch QC11 or QC21 is open.
6. Disconnector QB9 can only be operated only when earthing switch QC9 is open
(taking into account the other end of line, if necessary).
7. Earthing switch QC9 can only be operated only when disconnector QB9 is open
(taking into account the other end of outgoing line if necessary).
8. Disconnectors QB1, QB2 and QB9 can only be operated only when maintenance
earthing switches QC1/QC2 are open.
9. Maintenance earthing switches QC1/QC2 can only be operated only when
disconnectors QB1, QB2 and QB9 are open.
10. The circuit breaker QA1 of the bus coupler can only be opened only if not more
than one busbar disconnector in each feeder is closed (bus coupler lock-in).
11. One busbar earthing switch QC11 or QC21 can be operated if in the respective
busbar section all busbar disconnectors of the corresponding bus system are
open.
12. All interlocking conditions remain active if the auxiliary power fails, or all operations
are blocked.
For the case that switch positions are wrongly detected and cannot be corrected or an
interlocking failure prohibits necessary switching, an interlocking release switch can
override the interlocking conditions. This override can be implemented either in
software at the central operator control station or on the display of the bay control unit,
or in hardware with a lock switch on the low voltage compartment of the panel,
depending on the operating philosophy and automation system used. Switching
operations are then within the responsibility of the person authorized. The exact
procedures for this situation are also defined by the philosophy of the operator.

14.3.3 Control
The purpose of a control device in a switchgear installation is to change a defined
actual condition into a specified desired condition.
The operating procedures of controlling, interlocking and signaling can be performed
either by simple contact-type electromechanical and electromagnetic devices such as
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discrepancy switches, auxiliary contactors and auxiliary relays, or by contact-less

electronic components. Both methods allow single switching operations and
programmed switching sequences up to fully automated switching routines. With
conventional control techniques, however, there are limits regarding automation.
Conventional control techniques have largely been replaced by substation automation
systems because of the space required, the equipment’s high power consumption,
wear due to constant operation and the fixed wiring.
Today, electromechanical controls are used mainly for local control within the
switchgear installation, or emergency operation directly at the switching device.
In general, the control equipment can be divided into equipment relating to
– switching devices,
– feeders and
– substations.
The equipment related to switching devices are contained in a box on the circuit-
breaker or disconnector. The feeder-related equipment is usually in a control cabinet or
local relay kiosk. Substation-related devices are located in central relay kiosks or in the
substation control building. In order to prevent the remote control system from
performing hazardous switching operations when maintenance work on the
switchgear is in progress, the levels close to the process have a local/remote switch,
which blocks control from higher levels in this special situation. This principle is often
also extended to transfer of control between the substation level and the network
control level. The local/remote switch at the lowest level close to the process is mostly
implemented electromechanically in the form of a key-operated switch, while at higher
levels such as substation/network control the switching is mostly implemented by
software in the appropriate processors and computers.
When setting up the control system concept, it must be considered whether the
substation is unmanned (the usual condition nowadays) or manned (maintenance or
emergencies), or whether it is to be remotely monitored and/or controlled. The control
modes can be generally defined as follows.
Local control
Here, the controls are close to the switchgear. They are mostly wired independently of
electronics, even today, and used mainly during commissioning and maintenance, and
sometimes for emergency operation. They are located on the apparatus itself or in a
feeder control panel, and work independently of higher-level control systems.
Selective control
This type of control is used both on the outgoing feeder level (local control), in local
control rooms and in network control centers. It is arranged in a number of steps, so
that from an operator’s position one can, for instance, pick first the substation, then
the bay and finally the switching device before initiating the actual switching operation
with the "execute" button.
14

Both substation-level and network control systems nowadays have computer based
workplaces consisting of a keyboard, mouse and one or more screens. If necessary
certain control sequences can be predefined. The feedback signals and indications of
switch positions are displayed on the screen.
Double command blocking
Although there may be several operator workstations with equal entitlements within a
system, often only one command is to be executed at any moment in time. This can
be achieved by double command blocking, implemented as close to the process as
741
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possible so that all control stations from the network control system to local control
devices can be included. If a switch is selected for a command, then a check is first
made to ensure that no other switch is currently selected or even operating. If this is
the case, then the selection is blocked. Such double command blocking functions are
nowadays performed by the bay control units. This is achieved most simply in
switchgear systems by having each bay control unit signal its selection to all the others
through the communication system.
Direct control
In this mode, the switchgear is controlled locally from the on-site central control point,
where each piece of apparatus has its own control switch. It may utilize the
switchgear’s control voltage or light-duty relays. Control from the substation panel
always includes indication of the switchgear’s respective operating positions. Today
this is mostly replaced by a substation level computer-based HMI with serial
connection to the bay or process electronics. Directly wired control systems are
nowadays only used at local level – often as a back-up for the bay control device.
Remote control
In this mode, the substation is controlled from regional and central control centers,
predominantly via telecontrol link or the communication network of the utility. The
interface between station and remote control is the network control gateway.
Control functions include a wide variety of dedicated applications intended to ensure
the security of commands; representative examples are the monitoring of tripping
circuits (Fig. 14-9), and the duplication of tripping circuits (Fig. 14-10).

QA1 T1 T2 QA2

Tripping circuit BB1 B5 to BB2

Indication Monitoring 1 L+
+
Battery 1 2
Trip
contact
TCS-relay

Protection 1 2

– CB auxillary
switches
DCV 1
TCS =
tripping circuit Trip coll DCV 2
TRIP 1 TRIP 2 TRIP 1 TRIP 2
supervision QA1 QA2
1 L–

Fig. 14-9 Fig. 14-10

Tripping circuit supervision for a circuit- Duplication of tripping circuits with
breaker in closed and open position 1¹⁄₂- and 2-breaker arrangement

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14.3.4 Signaling

Operating personnel must be informed of disturbances and faults, operational

conditions and the position of the switchgear.
Switch positions are indicated locally by LCD displays or position indicators and light
emitting diodes (LED), and displayed on a central screen for the system as a whole.
The switch positions must not be indicated until the switching device has reached its
final CLOSED or OPEN position; otherwise an intermediate position must be indicated.
Together with disturbance and condition signals, the switch position changes are time
stamped at source (1 ms resolution), entered in the event list at the operator control
stations and thus recorded (see section 14.3.8, Recording and logging).
For the acquisition of binary signals the signaling relays are equipped with potential-
free auxiliary contacts, which today means realization with optocouplers within the
computerized bay level devices or sensors close to the process. Group signals and
group alarms are calculated on the required hierarchical levels ranging up to the
gateways to the control centers.
Alarms are signals, which request actions by the operators. Therefore, all alarms have
to be acknowledged after observation, and after appropriate actions have been taken.
Alarm signals are entered in the alarm list at the operator workstations and can also be
grouped or selected there. They must always be acknowledged by the operator.
Unacknowledged alarms are retained on display even if the original alarm state has
disappeared. Alarms can additionally be signaled optically and acoustically as
required.

14.3.5 Measurement
Operating a substation involves measuring or calculating, recording and evaluating
operational quantities such as currents, voltages, powers, etc. For these tasks, the
primary system provides appropriate instrument transformers or sensors both for
voltage and current, which are installed at the busbar and/or in feeders. The kind,
number and position of instrument transformers depends on the operational
requirements as well as on the protection scheme. See sections 10.6.2 to 10.6.5 on
instrument transformer selection.
Voltage transformers in the feeders are useful for measurement and protection.
Voltage transformers at the busbar are convenient for synchronizing and measurement
purposes; there is then no need for calculation of missing values. The lower costs of
non-conventional instrument transformers frequently allow voltage transformers to be
installed on the busbars, but these then require a process bus, for instance to IEC
61850, and corresponding connections to the secondary system devices.
The secondary sides of current and voltage transformers must be earthed to avoid any
risk to equipment and personnel from unacceptably high voltages.
14

Current transformers must not be operated with open secondary windings, as the high
voltages occurring at the secondary terminals are dangerous to personnel and may
destroy the instrument transformer.
Current transformer circuits must be earthed at one point only. In high-voltage
installations this point should be in the feeder control cubicle wherever possible. The
relevant international standards must be fulfilled for export deliveries. It must be
ensured that the instrument transformer power rating is at least equal to the power
consumption of the measuring devices including the connecting lines. The dimensions
of the connecting lines can be determined with the aid of Fig. 14-10.

743
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lr I

Example:
A = 2.5 mm2,lr = 85 m:
then R ≈ 0.6 Ω
I = 5 A, R ≈ 0.6 Ω:
then S ≈ 15 VA

Fig. 14-10
Current transformer secondary lines; To determine resistance and power consumption,
R = line resistance Ω, lr = resultant line length in m, S = power in VA, A = line cross
section in mm2 for Cu and Al, I = sec. transformer current in A

Voltage and power problems are overcome by thee use of a fiber-optic process bus to
IEC 61850 for the connection to the primary system.
The measured values are displayed on analog or digital instruments in the panel
control cabinets or on the display of a bay unit and the screen at the substation’s
central control station.
Classification of measuring instruments and their principal applications
Electrical measuring instruments have a class coding. The classes are: 0.1; 0.2; 0.5; 1;
1.5; 2.5 and 5. These indicate the measurement or reading error in percent, in both
positive and negative directions. They always relate to the end of scale value.
Instruments of classes 0.1 to 0.5 are precision instruments, those above are industrial
instruments.
The following standards apply to electrical measuring instruments and recorders: IEC
61010-1, IEC 61010-1/A2 and IEC 60051; and also DIN 43781 (for recorders). These
standards contain the most important definitions, classifications, safety and test
requirements and forms of identification.

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Measuring transducers
Modern digital bay level IEDs can acquire currents and voltages directly from the
primary transformers, and therefore do not need transducers for these electrical
variables. They also have an interface to IEC 61850, which easily supplies the
measured values for further processing.
Any additionally needed transducers in the field of power engineering convert input
variables such as current, voltage, power and system frequency into analog electrical
output variables, usually in the form of injected direct current. Preferably these
transducers have also a serial interface according to IEC61850 to easily connect them
to the substation automation communication system. These values are then available
for processing functions and further transmission.
The most important parameters, device properties, designations and tests of
transducers for variables in power engineering can be found in the VDE 0411 Part 1
and VDE 0411 Part 1/A1 standards mentioned above in connection with instruments.
EN 50178 (VDE 0160) and the VDE/VDI Directive 2192 must also be observed.

14.3.6 Synchronizing
Synchronizing is also based on measurement. System components cannot be
connected in parallel unless their voltage curves coincide, otherwise the electrical
stresses on the equipment become too great. While with DC it is sufficient for the
voltage and polarity of the system components to be the same, with AC voltages the
frequency, the voltage and the phase angle must match; with three-phase current this
is also valid for the phase sequence.
Digital technology offers the option of feeding the input signals of the primary voltage
transformers directly to an automatic synchronization device, which independently
releases the closing operation at the right time.
Synchrocheck
An automatic synchronization device is always recommended for parallel switching of
generators with the power grid. This device automatically brings both the rotation
speed (frequency) and voltage of the generator into a preset tolerance range using
higher and lower commands.
Taking account of the voltage, phase angle, frequency and the mechanical delay of the
circuit breaker the command is issued or enabled such that the breaker contacts touch
at precisely the instant of time when the phase coincidence defined by the settings is
achieved.
The SYNCHROTACT® automatic synchronization device in its simplest form is a single
channel which takes care of measurement, voltage and frequency balancing, of
14

monitoring and command issuing with high security against maloperation. Depending
on the system size and safety concept, dual channel solutions are also used.
Measuring, microprocessor and command relays in both channels exist independently
in the SYNCHROTACT® dual-channel synchronization units. This independence
significantly increases security against maloperation in comparison to the single
channel system. Monitoring via the IEC 61850 communications protocol increases
availability.

745
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Network
N etz SYN C H R O TAC T

Fig. 14-11
Automatic synchronizer device. -
+
The synchronizer device issues higher and
lower commands to turbine controllers and
voltage controllers. When the paralleling G
conditions are met the circuit-breaker is
closed at the exact moment when the phases U N ITR O L f+/f-
are the same. Erregung
Excitation
U +/U - S 97022

Table 14-1
Selection criteria and alternatives for electricity meters (counters)
Criterion Alternatives
Connection direct or to instrument transformer
Type electromechanical or electronic
Mounting surface-mounted housing, live parts fixed
flush-mounted housing, live parts fixed
flush-mounted housing, live parts removable
subrack, live parts on circuit boards
Current alternating current
three-phase in 3- and 4-wire systems loaded
symmetrically and asymmetrically
Power active and reactive consumption, incoming and
outgoing1)
Tariff single or two-rate tariff2)
Accuracy class 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 3
Metering system primary system3)
semi-primary system4)
secondary system5)
Special meters maximum-demand meters6)
pulse meters7)
remote meters
1)
Reversal prevention is necessary where the power flow direction changes.
2)
Tariff changed with separate timer or ripple control receiver.
3)
The ratio of preceding transformers is accounted for in the meter reading.
4)
This takes account only of the ratio of preceding voltage or instrument transformers, the readingsmust
be multiplied by a constant.
5)
This does not take account of the ratio of preceding transformers, the readings must be multiplied by a
constant.
6)
The maximum rate is calculated from the price per kilowatt-hour (kWh) and per kilowatt (kW).
7)
These measure the power throughput and according to the units counted, emit pulses to the connected
remote meters, remote summation meters or telecontrol devices.
ASIC measuring chip

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14.3.7 Metering
General
Meters are used to record the amounts of power supplied by the energy provider or
distributor to the consumer. The selection criteria are shown in Table 14-1.
Meters for billing electricity consumption are in a special category.. In the Federal
Republic of Germany, for instance, they have to meet the requirements of the
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) to be certified and approved. Similar
institutions also exist in other countries. The voltage drop on the instrument
transformer line of billing meters must not exceed 0.1 %.
Electronic four-quadrant meters
The measured variables of current and voltage are acquired with the aid of instrument
transformers and digitized using high-precision A/D converters with a sampling
frequency such as 2400 Hz, and forwarded to a downstream digital signal processor
(DSP). This processor calculates the active, reactive and apparent power or the
corresponding energies and sends energy-proportional pulses to the rate module. The
advantages of this process are in the high integration of the measurement functions,
the low fault rate, the high measurement stability and the opportunity to perform a full
4-quadrant measurement.
The metered values can also be transferred via serial communication to IEC 61850
from the data acquisition equipment to the evaluation equipment (e.g. a tariff rate
processing module). If IEC 61850 is already used for a process bus at the instrument
transformer or sensor, there are no limits in voltage losses, distances and location.
Pilot installations of such systems today use separate communication systems.
Institutes like the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) investigate how
securely measured values relevant to revenue metering can be transmitted using the
communication system of the substation automation system.

power supply communications module

U1 왘
input-output module
U2 왘 audio frequency
ripple-control optical
U3 왘 receiver interface
➩
➩

electrical
instrument module rate module interface

➩
controller
ASIC microprocessor
U1 I1 왘
➩ ➩ logbook
load profile
inputs
controller

➩
U2 I2 왘 measuring outputs
max. demand
module 2
chip
➩
max. demand
module displays

➩
rate mechanism
U3 I3 왘
➩
14

time switch LED

clock measuring pulse
왖
buttons

Fig. 14-12 supercap EEPROM

Functional circuit diagram

power supply communications
module
instrument module rate module

747
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Measured value processing

The measured values may also be processed further and the derived values such as
instantaneous values, averages, minimum values, maximum values, etc. may be
calculated. Appropriate selection of the sampling frequencies (the international users
group of IEC 61850 recommends 80 samples per period) also allows recording of the
harmonics content within the specified accuracy class.

The calculated quantities are:

– Active power ...P, with direction also as +P and -P
– Reactive power ...as Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 individually or combined.

The instantaneous active power P is derived by multiplying the current and voltage
values:
p(t) = u(t) * i(t)

The reactive power Q can be calculated from the apparent power S and the active
power P applying the vector method as follows:
S = Urms * Irms
Q = √ S2 – P2

Because the harmonics contents is taken into account in the two rms values of current
(Irms) and voltage (Urms), and, therefore, also in the apparent power S and in the active
power P, the harmonic power is also included in the calculation of the reactive energy
Q.
Power quality
The quality of the electrical power supply is increasingly becoming a factor in supply
contracts. In earlier times it was focused nearly exclusively on reactive power. Today,
power quality also includes availability, harmonics and short time voltage dips. This
needs calculation of the energy contents of single harmonics, which means further
measurement processing and higher frequency range of the measurement chain. The
international users group of IEC 61850 recommends 256 samples per period. These
power quality related values can be provided by additional functions in protection,
control and measurement devices at bay level or within dedicated power quality
measurement devices. All of these devices should be connected according to the IEC
61850 communication standard. There are a growing number of standards with
relevance to power quality.
Standards for metering
The following standards must be taken into account in planning and installing AC and
three-phase AC power meters:
– DIN 43850 Watthour meters; technical values
– DIN 43854 Sealing bolts for watthour meters
– DIN 43855 Watthour meters; plates
– DIN 43856 Electricity meters, tariff time switches and ripple control
receivers; connection diagrams, terminal marking, circuit
diagrams

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– DIN 43857-1... Watthour meters in molded insulation case without instrument

transformers, up to 60 A rated maximum current; principal
dimensions for single-phase meters
– DIN 43862 Electricity meters - Plug-in static electricity meters - Principal
dimensions
– DIN 43863-1 Electricity meters; tariff metering device as additional
equipment for electricity meters
– DIN 43864 Electricity metering equipment - Pulse output devices for
electromechanical and electronic meters
– DIN 43860 Additional devices on watthour meters; ripple control receiver
– DIN 43861-1 Ripple control system, receiver to be mounted in lighting
columns; main dimensions
– DIN 43861-301 Ripple control receiver - Part 301: Transmission protocol for
ripple control type A
– IEC 60387 Specification for symbols for alternating-current electricity
meters
– IEC 60521 (VDE 0418 Part 12)
Class 0.5, 1 and 2 alternating-current watt-hour meters
– IEC 60687 (VDE 0418 Part 8)
Alternating current static watt-hour meters for active energy
– IEC 61036 (VDE 0418 Part 7)
Alternating current electronic watt-hour meters for active
energy (classes 1 and 2)
– IEC 61268 (VDE 0418 Part 20)
Alternating current static var-hour meters for reactive energy
(classes 2 and 3)
– DIN VDE 0418-4 (VDE 0418 Part 4)
Specifications for electric integrating meters; Maximum
demand indicators
– DIN VDE 0418-5 (VDE 0418 Part 5)
Specifications for electric integrating meters; Telemetering
devices
– IEC 61037 (VDE 0420 Part 1)
Electricity metering - Tariff and load control - Particular
requirements for electronic ripple control receivers
– IEC 61038 (VDE 0419 Part 1)
Electricity metering - Tariff and load control - Particular
requirements for time switches
14

– IEC 61107 Data exchange for meter reading, tariff and load control. Direct
local data exchange
– IEC 61142 Data exchange for meter reading, tariff and load control. Local
bus data exchange

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First standards for power quality

- IEEE 519: 1992 IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems
- IEEE 1459 2000 IEEE Trial Use Standard Definitions for the Measurement
of Electrical Power Quantities under Sinusoidal, Non-
sinusoidal, Balanced or Unbalanced Conditions
- IEC 61000-4-7 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) – part 4: Testing and
measurement techniques – Section 7: General guide on
harmonics and interharmonics measurements and
instrumentation for power supply systems and equipment
connected thereto.

14.3.8 Recording and logging

Event recorders
Recording and archiving of events in time order are standard substation automation
functions. In rare cases, e.g. if there are special requirements for high accuracy or
independence, stand alone recorders or loggers are used. The time stamp resolution
is normally 1 ms. Event signals following each other at this time interval are then shown
in correct time order. The list of events is normally shown as a text record with time
stamps at the screen of the operator’s workplace, and may be printed. Binary and
analog signals are processed. Time stamped events come from state change of binary
signals, or from limit crossings of analog signals. This is a basic functionality of
computerized substation automation systems. In distributed control systems an
accurate time synchronization between the devices is needed, e.g. according to IEC
61850 class T1, meaning ± 1 ms accuracy. To receive this accuracy within the power
network across different substations, a master radio clock is normally used within any
substation, receiving the time signal either from satellite (GPS, globally applicable) or
from ground-based transmitters like DCF77 in Germany.
Disturbance recorders
As well as recording routine measurements, in case of a fault it is also important to be
able to reconstruct and verify the time sequence of all signals and events related with
that fault. This is accomplished by means of disturbance recorders. They register the
variation in time of currents, voltages and binary states (e.g. switch positions or
protection trips) shortly before and after the fault. In this way, it is possible to analyze
faults, determine their causes and avoid them in the future as far as possible.
Disturbance recorder functions are nowadays integrated in numerical protection
devices, and in some cases in control devices. If higher accuracies for the analog
values or their sampling rates are needed, separate devices are available for this
purpose, frequently combined with event recorders.
To compare the disturbance recordings from different bays or even substations, the
disturbance recorders also need to be time synchronized.
The disturbance recorder data thus generated in the case of a fault can be transmitted
as files via the communication system to the relevant evaluation station automatically
or on request.

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Fault locators
The availability of transmission lines is particularly important in HV and EHV networks:
it can be improved by fast detection of the fault location and clearing the fault. The on-
line determination of fault distance is based on the comparison of impedance
measurements with and without the fault.. Measurements of the fault impedance have
to be done very fast as the time available is only that from the fault’s occurrence until
its isolation. Many numerical protection devices can provide fault location as an
additional function, and it is a standard function in distance protection devices. The
distance of the fault may be read out directly at the device, and is transmitted by the
communication system to station level or even network level.
There are also evaluation programs for disturbance recorder data, which can
subsequently calculate the fault location (offline) from the disturbance record. This
analysis can be more accurate than the location identified by the protection device if
the data is taken from a dedicated disturbance recorder with a higher sampling rate, or
if different disturbance records, e.g. from the two ends of the same line, are combined.

14.3.9 Automatic switching devices

An automatic switching or transfer system is a system in which switching or transfer
operations are performed automatically in the case of clearly defined deviations from
standard operational conditions, without action by the operator. Controlled directly, for
example by measuring relays, its task is to restore a fault-free supply.
The auxiliary power supply systems of substations can include automatic transfer
facilities which, for example in the case of an incoming feeder failure, quickly close
couplers, connect standby transformers or start emergency diesel generators.
High-speed transfer devices
The auxiliary power supply systems of thermal power plants include high-speed transfer
systems to ensure a secure power supply to the motors for the boiler ancillaries. If the
power supply is interrupted, the high-speed transfer device ensures that important loads
such as high voltage motors are switched to a back-up network as quickly as possible
and without impact on the operation of the plant (see also Section 15.2).
This functionality is also used by industry, especially by the chemical industry, where it
is essential that processes continue without interruption. The 15 kV systems of the
German Federal Railway include automatic line testers so that the trains can keep
running. A fault on the contact wire (earth fault) first trips the circuit-breaker in the
substation, but the control system immediately closes it again. Only if it trips again is the
line finally disconnected.
It has to be considered that during any power failure synchronous motors work as
continuously slowing down generators. Therefore it is essential that before any
restoration of power the voltage curves have to be checked by a special synchrocheck
14

function.
Autoreclosing
In overhead line networks, autoreclosing plays an important part in maintaining the
power supply. Experience shows that faults in these networks are often only transitory
and can be cleared if the breaker opens for a brief interval during which the arc can
extinguish and the insulating distance reseal before it automatically closes again. The
timing of a successful reclosing operation is shown in Fig. 14-13. Generally, rapid

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Fig. 14-13
Simplified time diagram of successful
reclosure:
AB OPEN command, EB CLOSE
command, LS Circuit-breaker, I Close,
O Open, SP Dead interval, F Onset of
fault

reclosing is first performed once without checks on the synchronization conditions. If

this fails, multiple shot slow reclosure with checks on the synchronizing conditions is
performed. Reclosing can be performed on one or three phases, depending on the
type of fault and network conditions, with interval times of 0.2 s to 2 s for rapid
reclosing and between 10 seconds and several minutes for slow reclosing. For further
details, see Sections 14.2.1 and 10.4.5.
Automatic feeder-switching sequences
Automatic switching sequences executed locally can ease the load on operating
personnel and telecontrol facilities; for instance, all the switching steps needed to
connect a feeder or to change the busbar, can be preprogrammed and the sequences
started either locally by the operator or remotely by the network control center with a
single command. Such switching sequences can easily be implemented in substation
automation systems. The sequences can be implemented in bay level devices in
distributed automation systems, or in the substation computers as sequencer
functions. With sequences involving more than one bay in particular the second variant
is easier to configure and to maintain, but requires more communication facilities if it is
also to be used remotely.
Modern RTUs also provide the opportunity to program and execute such sequences.

14.3.10 Transformer control and voltage regulation

An important function in the operation of power transformers is changing the
transformation ratio. This function serves to adapt the voltage in case of load
fluctuations, to distribute load, to adjust active and reactive currents in interconnected
systems and to control the voltage for electric furnaces and rectifiers. To maintain the
defined voltages on the load side, the transformer’s high-voltage winding is provided
with taps (main and control windings) which are connected in different orders according
to the load. The respective winding sections are selected by means of off-load or on-
load tap changers.
Off-load tap changers
Off-load tap changers are used in networks with low fluctuation in load. This tap
changer covers a band of ± 5 % of the operating voltage to be guaranteed. The taps
are changed off-load in 2 x 2 stages of 2.5 % Each. This is normally done manually
close to the transformer.
On-load tap changers
On-load tap changers are used in networks with frequent short-time load fluctuations.
The control range is normally max. + 16 % of the operating voltage to be guaranteed

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in a total of 2 x 16 stages of 1% each. The tap changer operates while the windings are
under voltage and load. For this operation the tap changer has a drive with power
storage (e.g. spring) which is charged with the aid of an electric motor.
Tap changer control
1. Local control
The tap changer can be operated directly at the transformer with the aid of a crank
handle (emergency operation). Electrical local control by pushbuttons is also
possible. In this case, each switching step from one tap to another requires a
separate command. The tap changer is designed so that a single command cannot
execute more than one step change. Today, the electric local control is mostly
replaced by an automatic voltage controller with additional manual control mode.
2. Remote control
Remote control is possible from the substation level or from the network control
center. The same control authority principles are applied as for controlling a breaker.
If there is an automatic voltage controller, it is controlled by voltage setpoints.
3. Parallel tap changer control
Where several transformers are connected in parallel without automatic voltage
regulation, the taps must have an interlocking system which is active only in parallel
operation. The interlocking has to prevent different tap positions on the paralleled

Fig. 14-14

Basic diagram of local / station / automatic parallel tap changer control

H -T higher-lower,
Höher-tiefer, ST selected tapping shown,
Stufenstellungsanzeige
M mechanical
mechanisch E electrical
elektrisch
ST Stufenstellungsanzeige
selected tapping shown, V Voltmeter
voltmeter
M mechanical
mechanisch
14

G Kontaktgeber
contact transmittler
Wahlschalter
O-F selector Ort-Fern
switch local-remote
LL Lauflampe
H-T higher-lower, running light
Höher-tiefer,
E electrical
elektrisch MZ Meßzusatz
measurement unit
M drive motor
Antriebsmotor REG/ Autom. Sp.-Regler und
SE automatic voltage regulator and
Sollwerteinsteller
KB contact strip,
Kontaktbahn setpoint adjuster
B active
beschaltet H-A Wahlschalter Hand-Autom.
selector switch,Einzel-Parallel
Wahlschalter manual-auto
KB contact strip,
Kontaktbahn E-P
und Führung
selector switch single
UB inactive
unbeschaltet
Stufenverriegelung
VER parallel and master selector

AL tapping interlock Stufe

Alarm ungleiche
tapping discrepancy alarm
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transformers giving rise to an excessive reactive current which could damage the
transformers. If the tap positions become different in parallel operation (fault), an
alarm is sent to the control room.
Today, parallel transformers are equipped with automatic voltage regulation, see
Fig. 14-14, and the tap interlocking system is not needed anymore. In parallel
operation, however, a function is necessary which individually corrects the taps to
minimize the reactive current circulating between the transformers. This function
permits parallel operation of transformers with design differences such as differently
set taps and different winding impedances. In principle, however, parallel
transformers should be as similar as possible.
Parallel operation of identical transformers can however be implemented more
simply by having the controller of one transformer act as the master and specify the
tap settings, with the other transformers connected in parallel following. Modern
voltage regulators for parallel transformers communicate with each other and can
function in master or slave mode.
4. Voltage regulators
Voltage regulation by means of tap changers is – as already mentioned above –
mostly performed automatically. The numerical device contains all the necessary
functions such as
– voltage regulator,
– setpoint adjuster for load-dependent setpoint adaptation, and
– compensation of the voltage drop for long lines.
The following operating conditions are taken into account:
– parallel busbar operation,
– parallel network operation, and
– networks with widely varying active and reactive power components.
Switching to manual mode is possible.

14.3.11 Local control rooms

The equipment in the control room of the substation provides control and supervision
of the complete substation at one point. Besides technical performance, the design
must also take into account ergonomic aspects such as clear arrangement, ease of
access, proper lighting, freedom from glare, acoustic properties, climate and comfort.
In the case of today’s computerized distributed substation automation systems the
control room essentially contains a station computer (single or redundant) with one or
two, and rarely up to four screens with keyboard, mouse, and printer. The industrial PC
and the communication interface can be conveniently installed in a cabinet beside or
even below the operator’s desk. If substations are normally manned, there may be
several operator workstations and large screens with single line diagrams.
Especially in the highly industrialized countries the substations are mostly unmanned,
and, therefore the control room shrinks to a PC based operator’s workplace and a
gateway to the network control center. In order to increase availability, these two
functions can be run on a single computer, with two computers forming a redundant
system. Caution: Redundant systems must be installed at separate locations to
prevent them from being simultaneously damaged or destroyed by physical damage
or fire.

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14.4 Substation automation with microprocessors

14.4.1 Overview
Substation automation systems using microprocessors and serial data communication
perform all the functions of the secondary systems in transformer and switching
substations as described above, i.e. open loop control, interlocking, measurement,
closed loop control, indication, signaling, protection (feeders and busbar) and
operational metering etc., however still with the exception of revenue metering (see
section 14.3.7).
These are supplemented by new functions for process diagnostics, functions for the
automation of autonomous substations, and facilitation of the general task of power
system management by distributed preprocessing.
An essential feature of this new technology is its self-diagnostic capability, which has
operational and maintenance benefits for the user, even if he decides against the other
new possibilities available.
Summarizing, the new technology offers
– rapid fault detection,
– a simple physical system structure, and
– high operational reliability,
resulting a significant improvement of substation availability.

14.4.2 Microprocessor and conventional secondary systems compared

With conventional secondary systems, the various functions considered in section 14.3
are performed by separate devices (discrete components) which mostly work on analog
principles and represent different technologies.
The resulting situation is as follows:
– Each task is performed by devices using different technologies (electromechanical,
electronic, or microprocessor-based).
– These discrete devices may require many different auxiliary voltages and power
supply concepts.
– The connections between the devices and with the switchgear require a great deal of
wiring or cabling, and adaptation.
– The data from the switchgear has to be supplied several times, i.e. separately for
protection, control, interlocking etc., making the supervision of interfaces difficult.
– Checking the function of the individual devices is accompanied by more difficult
verification of the overall performance.
With the new automation technology for substations, the focus is on the system and
its function as a whole. Process-related functions should be implemented as close to
14

the process as possible, on the one hand to reduce the amount of wiring and cabling
work required, and on the other hand to increase availability without duplicating
devices in order to achieve redundancy.
Numerical methods are employed for functions close to the process, using
programmable modules based on microprocessors.
The distinguishing features of the new automation technology are:
– Use of the same microprocessor-based platform for the implementation of all
functions, either singly or in combinations.

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– Standardized power supply and common supply concept.

– Serial data transfer (bus system) minimizing wiring.
– Use of fiber optic cables in the substation, reducing the cost of establishing
adequate electromagnetic compatibility.
– Multiple use of the data from the switchgear.
– Self-diagnosis with continuous function checks reducing the periodic testing of
overall system and subsystems.
– Ease of recording events in the correct time order with a resolution of approx. 1 ms.
– Reduced space requirements.
Another major innovation of the new approach is the screen based human-machine
interface (HMI). While the access interface to conventional secondary technology is
focused on switchboards or mimic control panels with switches, buttons, lamps and
analog instrumentation, access to the new automation systems is usually provided by
monitors and keyboards. Operator control is mostly menu-guided and close to the
application, and no special programming skills or data processing knowledge are
required.

14.4.3 Structure of the new automation systems

A substation can be broadly divided into the areas of the bays (feeders, bus couplers,
sectionalizers and earthing panels) with the following secondary functions:
– Control, monitoring and interlocking
– Control of transformers and earthing (Petersen) coils
– Automatic bay-level functions
– Signal acquisition and processing
– Measured value acquisition and processing
– Local control
– Autonomous bay protection and a higher-level, substation-related part with functions
such as:
– Centralized local control
– Telecontrol connections
– Connection to central systems
– Station level functions such as higher-level interlocks
– Busbar protection.
Accordingly, the logical structure of the substation automation system has two
hierarchical levels: The bay level with the bay units (BU) and the station level with the
station unit (SU), see Fig. 14-15. If data, for example, are already digitized directly within
the primary system via a process bus and serially communicated, a third level, the
process level, is added. Therefore, the communication standard IEC 61850 provides for
three general classes of function blocks: data acquisition, operator control, and the
function proper.

756
 central
network control
network fault
centres
Fig. 14-15
analysis

network fault control station station busbar

local controller
analysis coupling device functions protection

secondary
installations
ABB_12_E_14 30.08.12 14:36 Seite 757

data exchange

control protection control protection

Logical structure of a digital substation automation system

switchbay 1 switchbay n

757
14
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On the process side of the control system, the bay units are assigned to the process
(bays, feeders). The result is that between every bay and the associated bay unit(s)
there is either a parallel connection, i.e. a direct connection between the bay
switchgear and bay unit is established for every data point such as position indicators
and encoders for analog values, or a serial connection, i.e. the data is supplied to the
bay unit by actuators and sensors via a process bus.
The functions performed in the bay units are basically those which require data from
their associated bay only (e.g. line protection, bay interlocking) and for which short and
fast functional loops are preferable.
The functions in the station unit, in contrast, are those which need data from the whole
substation (e.g. busbar protection, priority treatment of alarms, indication of busbar
voltage), or have a central function (connection to network control center, master clock
(DCF77 or GPS), central operator control station).
Serial links are used throughout for transferring data between bay and station units.
These serial links are normally buses, in star, tree or ring topology. The star can be seen
as a shrunken tree, having only the tree roots.
In the case of protocols such as IEC 61850, in which all connected devices have the
same communication rights or roles, the station unit and the gateway to the network
control center are normally connected to different physical points within the LAN, so as
to increase availability. The exact physical architecture of the communication system
depends not only on the required availability, but also on the number of
communicating devices, the distances between the different connected parts of the
switchgear, the communication load between the devices and the physical
environment, inclusive possible electromagnetic interferences.
For large distances and unscreened regions, normally optical fibers are used as
physical connections (see also section 14.4). A simplified rule for design and
implementation of the physical communication system is that connections within
screened cubicles may be electrical; outside cubicles optical fibers have to be used.
The bay and station units are built up from modular components, possibly as
combined bay control and protection units. The number of modules used depends on
the required quantity of functions, the desired structure and specified aspects of
system quality, such as availability.
However, for safety reasons, in the high-voltage area beyond 72 kV the protection
components are generally designed to operate independently of the other
components of that bay unit.
The autonomous protection devices are all realized today in modern digital technology,
even from different manufacturers or different device generations. At transmission
level the line protection has to be doubled, and supplied by different manufacturers to
avoid the impact of hidden systematic failures. IEC 61850 allows protection devices
from different manufacturers to be integrated without problems in a single automation
system. It thus replaces the IEC 60870-5-103 interface, which does not support all
protection functions in a standardized way and is restricted to master-slave
communication with a single master, as the standard for serial integration of protection
devices. Under the former system, the protection devices could not communicate
directly with each other, but only respond to the master. As a pure information interface
this might be sufficient, but it does not permit the implementation of protection
concepts with autonomous communication (see 14.2.7), which need a real time
communication interface as offered by IEC 61850.
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14.4.4 Use of fiber-optic cables

In modern substation control systems, the links between the individual components
usually carry information serially. Fiber-optic cables are used for these serial
connections, at least outside the cubicles as mentioned above.
Properties and principle
Fiber-optic cables (FOC) are composed of fibers made of glass or plastic, having the
property of total reflection allowing the transmission of light over long distances. They
consist of a core with a high refractive index surrounded by a cladding with a low
refractive index and a mechanical protective coating (primary coating). The light is
conducted by the core subject to certain boundary conditions. Generally, light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) serve as the light source, but laser diodes are also used in
special cases. Fig. 14-16 shows an optical transmission link.

Fig. 14-16
Optical transmission technology with fiber optic cable, 1 Input, 2 Signal conditioning, 3
Electro-optical converter, 4 Connector, 5 Fiber optic cable, 6 Opto-electrical
transducer, 7 Output

A very important feature regarding the application of optical cables in substation

automation systems is their complete immunity to electromagnetic interference and
14

the absence of any problems with earthing and equipotential bonding (maximum
galvanic isolation).
Other important advantages are their large transmission bandwidth, low signal
attenuation (regardless of transmission speed) and ease of handling. Fiber optic
cables are thin and flexible, and can be bent to relatively small radii.
Glass fibers fundamentally differ from plastic fibers in that their attenuation is
significantly lower, so the cables can be much longer, normally up to nearly 2000 m
without any additional measures. Further, they have a longer life than plastic fibers.
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Therefore, glass fibers are normally used in substations. Another criterion for optical
fiber selection is the way how the light is distributed internally. Within multimode fibers
the light is distributed in several modes, which then have parallel attenuation. This
allows distances up to 2000 m, which is normally sufficient for communication within
substations. With monomode fibers, however, distances up to 100 km can be bridged
without amplifiers in between. It should be noted that also the wavelength of the light
is important for the achievable range.

14.4.5 IEC 61850 – the communication standard for electrical substations

Each new substation automation system should use IEC 61850 as its communication
protocol. This only globally recognized communication standard for switchgear is
Ethernet-based, allows direct communication between any of the connected devices
and supports communication both within and between the system hierarchy levels as
well as process-related applications. To guarantee real time performance, not classical
Ethernet buses but only switched Ethernet networks have to be used. To optimize real
time behavior, the priority handling features as defined in the Ethernet standard have
to be supported by the switches. For availability reasons these networks mostly have
ring topology instead of tree topology. As an alternative, a double tree configuration
can provide maximum availability without switchover times in the case of failures. The
serial point to point connections between devices can be electrical for short distances
within a screened environment such as a cabinet, or otherwise optical as described
above.
IEC 61850 offers much more than just a communication protocol for connection of
devices from different manufacturers. Its uniform data model with standardized
semantics and the standardized description of substation automation configurations
including their functional connection to the switchgear supports extensively uniform
maintenance of all secondary devices, provides long life of engineering data within a
system configuration, supports the exchange of engineering data between the
engineering tools of different manufacturers, and reduces the amount of work involved
in engineering and maintenance.
Because of its flexibility and comprehensive features, further standardization work is in
progress for use of IEC 61850 for communication to the network control center and
between protection devices in different substations (line protection interface). Data
model extensions for hydro power plants, distributed energy resources and wind farms
are also in progress.
A good if brief overview of IEC 61850 is provided in Praxis Profiline, July 2005,
IEC61850, “Basics and user-oriented project-examples for the IEC61850 series for
substation automation”.
The parts of the standard are as follows. For Edition 2, the designation “substation
automation” has been replaced by “utility automation”.
Common title for all parts: Communication networks and systems for power utility
automation
Part 1: Introduction and overview
Part 2: Glossary
Part 3: General requirements
Part 4: System and project management
Part 5: Communication requirements for functions and device models

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Part 6: Configuration description language for communication in electrical

substations related to IEDs.
Part 7-1: Basic communication structure – Principles and models
Part 7-2: Basic communication structure – Abstract communication system
interface (ACSI)
Part 7-3: Basic communication structure – Common data classes
Part 7-4: Basic communication structure – Compatible logical node classes and
data object classes
Part 8-1: Specific communication service mapping (SCSM) – Mappings to MMS
(ISO/IEC 9506-1 and 9506-2) and to ISO/IEC 8802-3
Part 9-1: Specific communication service mapping (SCSM) – Sampled values over
serial unidirectional multidrop point to point link
Part 9-2: Specific communication service mapping (SCSM) – Sampled values over
ISO/IEC 8802-3
Part 10: Conformance testing
The process bus already described in Edition 1 of IEC 61850 (2003-2005) is now
completing the pilot stage. It is the only accepted interface for non-conventional
instrument transformers. Small signals are and will remain proprietary, and boosting to
the conventional 1/5 A or 110/220 V is disproportionately costly and therefore not an
option. The outputs of conventional instrument transformers can however also be
converted into the same serial messages. The unit which converts conventional and
non-conventional signals into a synchronized data flow is the merging unit (MU), which
merges all the currents and voltages from a bay. If the signals from several MUs are to
be compared consistently in time, they must be synchronized with an accuracy in the
order of 1 µs, currently with one pulse per second via an additional optical waveguide,
and in the future directly via the serial bus to IEEE 1588.
As regards the architecture of the substation automation system, it is important that
redundancy with two device interfaces is supported as standard from Edition 2 of IEC
61850 onwards.

14.5 Network control and telecontrol

14.5.1 Functions of network control systems

The purpose of network control systems is to operate transmission and distribution
networks economically and reliably with the help of data processing and information
technology. The principal aim under normal conditions is to minimize overheads and
capital costs by optimizing the utilization of the equipment, and, under fault conditions,
to secure the supply of power at all points of the network and restore the situation to
normal with interruption times kept to a minimum.
This must also hold for the highly dynamic requirements of energy trading in the
14

deregulated market, and must support this.

In order to achieve this, the status of the (usually extensive and closely intermeshed)
network regarding topology, voltage and load must be known at all times. Abnormal
values must be instantly detected and signaled, and countermeasures taken. As supply
systems become ever more complex, this is done at control centers which are fed by
telecontrol links with all the information from the substations (switchgear) necessary for
appraising and controlling the network’s status.

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Initially, all functions were centralized in the control station. However, the increasing
volume of information soon resulted in a shortage of processing capacity. The current
trend is to decentralize most individual tasks at the point where they occur by
implementing intelligent telecontrol stations (RTUs) or, more powerful substation
automation systems, and to forward only the compressed information essential for
centralized control of the overall network.
The exact tasks to be performed by the network control systems depend on the type
and size of the network, on the installed power equipment, and on the operational
strategy adopted by the network operator (utility).
In supraregional networks, the electric energy is transported from the power plants to
the load centers at voltages of 220 kV and 380 kV, or higher (up to 1200 kV in some
countries). This transmission network in turn supplies the distribution systems,
operating at 110 kV, 60 kV, 20 kV, 10 kV and also other voltages, which carry the electric
energy at regional level from the interconnected network grid to the consumers. HVDC
links have also been established, not only between asynchronous networks, but also for
load support. The same applies to submarine cables, for example to connect offshore
wind farms to the grid.
The entire control and supervision of the machinery and equipment in the power plant
itself, such as turbines and generators, is the dedicated task of power plant control and,
therefore, not considered further here.
The application of network control begins with transmission of the electricity. For this, a
load-dispatching center controls the output of the power plants and the flow of power in
the grid to meet the demand at any moment, based on equivalent load curves from
previous periods and according to mutual agreements with other electrical utilities and
large customers, and together with various other parameters, in order to provide the
most economical and secure service.
Network control centers monitor and control the switch position and the loading of
switchgear and lines in the transmission and distribution systems. When faults occur, it
is possible with the help of high-speed data processing to obtain an up-to-date picture
of the network’s general status and the situation at the site of the fault immediately.
Based on this, all the necessary switching operations can be performed in a secure way.
At the lowest distribution level, the supply of all forms of energy, i.e. gas, water, district
heating, etc. as well as electricity, may be controlled from one single multi-purpose
control center if applicable.
The exact performance required from such a control and management system
determines the equipment needed in the control center. Today this consists almost
exclusively of computer systems with distributed functionality, and with color screens
displaying the network and its status. Because of the continuous increase of the
information to be processed in the control centers, it would no longer be possible for the
operators to monitor and control the system without the help of advanced information
technology. Process computers take over routine tasks from operators and quickly and
safely prepare the data for processing. In addition, control rooms may be also equipped
with control panels or large displays with group information for emergency operation or
a geographical overview.
The different internal data processing and information systems in many utilities are
interconnected by company-owned data networks. This provides an opportunity to use
operational information from the network control system for planning tasks, e.g. for

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network and maintenance planning, and for management decisions. Alternatively, this
information can be obtained directly from the substation automation system by means
of the IEC 61850 communication protocol, if optical connections with sufficiently high
data throughput are available.
Practical experience shows that the design of a new network control system requires
close cooperation between the operator and supplier so that the individual functional
parts of the system, such as data acquisition, transmission and processing, can be
ideally matched to each other and to the tasks to be performed.
14.5.2 Telecontrol and telecontrol systems
Along with data processing, telecontrol plays a vital role in central power system
management. Its purpose is the economical and reliable transmission of data (such as
switching and adjustment commands, signals and measurements) between the
decentralized substations and the centralized network control system.
At the transmitting side of a telecontrol system, the relevant information is prepared for
transmission, i.e. it is coded and secured with additional redundancy so that errors due
to disturbances along the transmission path can be detected at immediately and
unwanted outputs are prevented. At the receiving side, the incoming information is
decoded, checked and, if free from errors, handed over as a command, signal or
measured value to the process modules or to the master computer.
The most important telecontrol terms can be found in the “International electrotechnical
vocabulary – Chapter 371: Telecontrol” as IEC publication IEC 60050 (371) (1984),
published in Germany as IEV 371 (1989), and in the associated revision 1 as supplement
IEC 60050 (371) dated 1997. A further interesting document on this subject is “Begriffe
der Fernwirktechnik”, published as ntz-report No. 26 by VDE-Verlag GmbH, Berlin-
Offenbach 1991, containing all definitions in English and German.
The growing size and complexity of power systems and the increased volume of
information has required an appropriate structuring of the telecontrol network. In the case
of small control centers with few substations, all substations can still be connected
directly to the control center by dedicated telecontrol links, either point-to-point (the
control center communicates only with one substation over each link) or according to the
multi-point principle (the control center interrogates a number of substations one after the
other over the same link for new information). For medium or large network management
systems with many or distant substations, however, a hierarchically structured telecontrol
network is unavoidable because of the usually limited number of available
communication channels and also to relieve the load on the control center. In this case,
the information from several substations, for instance, can be collected, combined and
compressed in so-called concentrator stations.
Choosing the most suitable telecontrol system depends on its required functionality and
performance. The main criteria are the volume of information and speed required.
14

Incorporation into the hierarchy of the overall control system is equally important.
The standards from IEC’s TC 57, “Power Systems Control” have up to now been
dominated by the series IEC 60870-5 (international) and EN 60870-5 (European), entitled
“Telecontrol equipment and systems, Part 5 – Transmission protocols”. The individual
parts describe and define the following subjects:
Part -5-1: Transmission frame formats
Part -5-2: Link transmission procedures

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Part -5-3: Structure of application data

Part -5-4: Definition/coding of elements
Part -5-5: Basic application functions
IEC 60870-5-101 “Companion standard for basic telecontrol tasks” (1993, 2nd ed.
2003), also published as EN 60870-5-101, is particularly interesting and important for
telecontrol. This standard is intended to lead to a unification of the transmission
protocols of various manufacturers of telecontrol systems and to make it easier to
combine different telecontrol systems in the same network control system.
The usual transmission speeds employed for telecontrol are between 50 and 1200 Bd
(baud) ). In large network control systems and in special applications, e.g. where system
protection information with very short reaction time is transmitted, transmission speeds
of 2400, 4800, 9600 and even 19200 Bd are also standard if permitted by the available
transmission channels.
With the advent of optical fibers for long distances, e.g. integrated into the earth wire of
an overhead line, much higher transmission speeds are possible. In this case the
following standards apply: IEC 60870-6 for communication between network control
centers, IEC 60870-5-104 for communication to the substation, and nowadays IEC
61850 for communication from the substation to the network control center. All these
protocols are based on the TCP/IP network and transport protocol, so that the
telecontrol network can be built with commercially available components for internet
technology. If public networks are used additionally, e.g. as redundant channels, then
naturally all the security problems known from the internet also have to be dealt with.
In spite of the higher transmission capacities, the following tasks for communication
gateways and nodes are still relevant:
- Information compression
- Data flow reduction by means of information connection
- Information distribution to several control centers and substation automation systems
- Performance of (local) emergency operation.
A new series of standards is IEC 61970, in which a “common information model” for
network control technology on the transmission level is defined. This model is also
incorporated in the IEC 61968 series of standards for automation of distribution
networks.
14.5.3 Transmission technology
Communications links are required to transmit the telecontrol signals between the
control centers and the various stations of the telecontrol network normally located in
substations. The nature and capacity of these links also determine the maximum
speed of transmission of the signals.
Audio-frequency (AF) transmission by means of voice-frequency telegraphy (VFT) or
modem over the following paths is generally preferred:
- Telecommunication lines or cables with copper wire or fiber-optic conductors,
- PLC links (power-line carrier transmission over high-voltage lines),
- VHF and radio relay links.
1) 1 baud = 1 digital encoding step (usually 1 bit) per second.

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Direct-current data transmission is also used for short distances (≤ 10 km), in this case
usually with only low transmission speeds.
The communication channels are either owned by the system operator (utility) or
rented from a telecom company. Typical examples of transmission links belonging to
the utility are telecommunication cables in the form of buried or aerial lines running in
parallel with high-voltage cables or overhead power lines. Aerial cables are divided
into autonomous cables, earth-conductor cables and phase cables.
Other examples are multi-channel microwave links, mainly at transmission level and
PLC communication using the owned power lines themselves. If no telecontrol
transmission links are owned by the utility, data links can be leased from a telecom
company. Note that telecom links (especially current paths) should not be
interconnected with utility owned links. Interfaces between both systems should be
carefully designed based on a stringent concept.
With the establishment of communication systems with high bandwidth by the utilities
themselves optical fibers will more and more replace all other technologies.
For Germany, the most important provisions and recommendations for the
transmission paths are presented together in Volume 1, Chap. 1.1 of the VDEW
recommendations. This includes the provisions of VDE 0800 (telecommunications),
VDE 0228 (influence by power systems), VDE 0816 and DIN VDE 0818 (for cables),
VDE 0850 or EN 60495 and VDE 0851 (for TFH (power line telephony) and VDE 0888
or EN 187000 (fiber optics for telecommunications).

14.5.4 Technical conditions for telecontrol systems, automation systems and

interfaces with substations
Volume 1 of the manual “Netzleitsysteme in Elektrizitätsversorgungsunternehmen
(EVU)” (Network control systems in electrical utilities) contains recommendations
regarding the technical conditions that telecontrol systems have to fulfill. The different
interfaces, e.g. to the substations, and the requirements for power supplies are also
described. There are various international standards concerned with this subject, such
as IEC 60870-1- 1 and IEC 60870-1-3. The following principal conditions for
interfacing with the switchgear are also taken from these documents.
Secondary system/substation interface
This interface carries information passing between the secondary system equipment
and the primary devices in the substation. For the conventional, microprocessor
controlled equipment, there are the following 4 kinds of data input/output:
– digital inputs,
– analog inputs,
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– digital outputs,
– analog outputs.
The classes for noise voltage limit values and insulation requirements are shown in
Tables 14-2 and 14-3. The choice of class depends on the characteristics of the
switchgear.

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Table 14-2

Noise voltage limit values and insulation requirements for binary signals

Transverse voltage Longitudinal voltage

Operating limits 10 % power frequency

voltage peak / peak 25 V AC
relative to UN 65 V DC
0.2 kV H.F. (1) 0.3 kV H.F. (1)
0.3 kV IMP (1) 0.5 kV IMP (1)

Destruction limits + 200 % UN DC (2)

class 1 – 125 % UN DC (2)
200 % UN A. (2) 0.5 kV N.F. (1)
0.3 kV H.F. (1) 0.5 kV H.F. (1)
0.5 kV IMP (1) 1.0 kV IMP (1)

Destruction limits + 200 % UN DC (2)

class 2 – 125 % UN DC (2)
for telecontrol equipment 200 % UN AC (2) 0.5 kV N.F. (1)
with series 0.5 kV H.F. (1) 1.0 kV H.F. (1)
EMI barrier 1.0 kV IMP (1) 2.5 kV IMP (1)

Destruction limits + 200 % UN DC (2)

class 3 – 125 % UN DC (2)
for telecontrol equipment 200 % UN AC (2) 2.5 kV N.F. (1)
connected direct to the 1.0 kV H.F. (1) 2.5 kV H.F. (1)
switchgear 25 kV IMP (1) 5.0 kV IMP (1)

Insulation between (a) min 1 MΩ at 500 V AC (3)

inputs and/or (b) min 10 MΩ at 500 V AC (3)
outputs and/or (c) min 100 MΩ at 500 V AC (3)
earth

Notes:
(1) N.F. = System frequency (usually 50/60 Hz)
H.F. = Damped high-frequency oscillation, see IEC 60255-4
IMP = High-voltage pulse
(2) The equipment must withstand this voltage for 1 min without damage.
(3) Insulation class (a) is for normal applications. Insulation classes (b) and (c) may be used in special
cases.

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Table 14-3
Noise-voltage limit values and insulation requirements for analog signals

Transverse voltage Longitudinal voltage

Destruction limits + 50 mA DC (2) 25 V AC

class 1 + 24 V DC (2) 65 V DC
0.2 kV H.F. (1) 1.0 kV H.F. (1)
0.3 kV IMP (1) 2.0 kV IMP (1)

Destruction limits ± 50 mA DC (2) ± 0.5 kV DC

class 2 ± 24 V DC (2) 0.5 kV N.F. (1)
for telecontrol equipment 0.5 kV H.F. (1) 1.0 kV H.F. (1)
with series EMI barrier (4) 1.0 kV IMP (1) 2.0 kV IMP (1)

Insulation between (a) min 1 MΩ at 500 V AC (3)

inputs and/or (b) min 10 MΩ at 500 V AC (3)
outputs and/or (c) min 100 MΩ at 500 V AC (3)
earth

Notes:
(1) N.F. = System frequency (usually 50/60 Hz)
H.F. = Damped high-frequency oscillation, see IEC 60255-4
IMP = High-voltage pulse
(2) The equipment must withstand this voltage for 1 min without damage.
(3) Insulation class (a) is for normal applications. Insulation classes (b) and (c) may be used in special
cases.
(4) The values for class 3 in Table 14-8 apply here if telecontrol equipment is connected direct to
control devices at the switchgear.

With the use of the process bus to IEC 61850, the secondary system/substation
interface is moved closer to the primary equipment. If the local electronic devices are
seen as part of the switchgear, the requirements for noise voltage and insulation can
become a question of primary technology; the secondary system is then isolated by the
fiber-optic cable link.
General conditions for substations
In substations, all the circuit-breakers and disconnectors which are to be remotely
controlled and have no process bus connection must have a power operating
mechanism and a potential-free make and break contact for switch position indication.
Transformers, arc-suppression and charging-current shunt coils must be provided with
additional potential-free contacts to indicate tap position and running status. All
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signaling relays working together with telecontrol devices must have a potential-free
normally open (NO) contact. To detect new changes of state the signaling contacts
must be closed only while the coil is energized. Relays isolating against external
interference must be mounted close to the telecontrol equipment. For measurement,
these devices are directly connected to current and voltage transformers.
As part of the power equipment, all these interface devices must conform to the
relevant IEC standards, for instance IEC 60364, and all interface electronics to IEC
61010.

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Commands
Commands to switching devices and transformers or step controlled Petersen coils
are transmitted by the appropriate bay units via digital outputs as two-phase pulsed
commands of 110 or 220 V DC lasting 100 to 500 ms. Other voltages may also be
used.
Single-phase and one-and-a-half-phase output arrangements should be fitted with a
switching monitor in the process-side circuit. The operation or running time of all
switching devices (disconnectors and earthing switches) should to be supervised by
the bay control units.
Plunger core earth-fault neutralizer coils are operated by the allocated control units
either continuously or stepwise. A local/remote switch must be provided to block
remote commands for any switching device, for instance for safety during
maintenance. Suitable software functions must be provided for blocking of several
objects (command groups) or the entire telecontrol through the gateway. The same
requirements apply to RTUs.

Signals
Signals are acquired individually via digital inputs to the secondary device. Normally,
these inputs are galvanically separated by means of optocouplers, whereas the
annunciator contacts can be grouped with a common root. For switch position
indication, both positions must be acquired, and are usually obtained from a
changeover contact or a normally closed (NC) and a normally open (NO) contact. For
disconnectors which operate slowly, the detection and transmission of the
intermediate position should not be suppressed. Signals indicating trips should,
wherever possible, be generated locally in each bay.
The signals can be continuous, of short duration or as transient signals with times of
around 1 ms. The signal voltage used should principally be the battery voltage of 110
V or 220 V DC, which is compatible with all bay units. For dedicated telecontrol
equipment like RTUs, other voltages might be needed.

Measured values
The process interfaces in the digital (numerical) units of substation automation systems
take voltages and currents directly from the instrument transformers. Dedicated
telecontrol systems might need additional interposing transformers. Via the
communication system in the substation and the telecontrol gateway, all measured data
may also be used for remote measuring.
The inputs of bay units must be suitably protected properly against overvoltages.
The entire measurement and transmission chain, from switchgear to control center,
should conform at least to accuracy class 1.

Meter values
If the metering is not already integrated into the secondary system, metered values are
fed to the secondary system as counter pulses or coded counter totals. The counting
devices (primary encoders) usually have 6 decades and BCD coding at the output. For
these counters potential-free inputs are required, and this is normally provided by
optocouplers at the binary inputs.

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Connecting conductors
Only insulated wires and cables may be used to connect the devices of the secondary
system with the switchgear components. Cables with conductors whose insulation is
not moisture-proof have to be suitably sealed at the ends if necessary. The wires and
cables are best installed in underfloor gulleys or on trays or racks. If no gulley is
available, the wiring to the apparatus must be protected by cable channels, cable
ducts, or similar. Earthing wires and cable screens must be connected by low-
impedance connectors to bars linked to the protective earth conductor. To avoid
interference from high-frequency noise created for example by switching operations,
all relevant cables have to be screened and grounded properly.

Power supply, premises

The devices of the secondary system are usually connected to a secure power supply
so that data can still be sent if the power in the switchgear system fails. This is
generally the 110 V or 220 V station battery, and a secure 220 V AC supply for
computers and monitor screens.
In addition to electrical requirements, the premises in which telecontrol systems are
installed and operated must also fulfill certain conditions. The bay units and equipment
close to the process must fulfill the usual requirements for numerical protection
devices (- 40 °C to + 85 °C). For station level equipment such as operator workstations
and telecontrol gateways, the premises must be dry with room temperature between 0
°C and + 55 °C, in large substations + 5 °C to + 40 °C. Generally the telecontrol
equipment and substation automation equipment should be able to operate without
air-conditioning, possibly with the exception of some station level equipment such as
PCs.

14.6 Load management and ripple control

Ripple control enables power suppliers (utilities) to control their sometimes widely
dispersed consumers from a central point. The main objective of this control is load
management, i.e. the utility can influence the consumption of electric energy by
connecting and disconnecting suitable objects such as storage heaters, hot water
heaters, heat pumps etc.
Fig. 14-17 shows the uncontrolled load pattern between midnight and 3 p.m., the lines
representing quarter-hourly averages.
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Fig. 14-17
Load pattern between midnight and
3 p.m., shown as quarter-hourly averages

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Electric energy consumption throughout the day can be made more even by
connecting consumers when load is low – in the afternoons and at night – and
disconnecting them at peak times – in the mornings and evenings. In this way, power
plants and transmission/distribution networks are loaded more uniformly. Depending
on the network management policy, the system, comprising the load management
center, ripple-control equipment (transmitter and coupling) and ripple-control receiver
can be operated on either the open or closed loop principle.
In the first case, the loads are switched on and off according to a fixed timetable. In the
second case, the computer also measures the effective network load, calculates the
trend in order to establish, in relation to a set value, the necessity for connections or
disconnections, and chooses the loads to be affected by any correction required. The
system thus functions like a digital feedback circuit.
Although the main objective is load management, the power utilities also use ripple
control for other purposes, e.g. tariff control (peak rate, off-peak, special rates, etc.),
control of street lighting, neon signs or building illumination, and in special cases also
fire and other alarms, and for operating switchgear where there are no telecontrol links.
With the use of public communications networks such as the internet in most
households, and with inexpensive microprocessor-based metering equipment, “smart
metering” can also be used for control. The deregulated energy market allows such
smart meters to switch loads on or off automatically in response to the electricity price
at the time.

14.7 Smart Grid – the network of the future

In the electricity grid, primary equipment has always developed relatively slowly, and
secondary equipment relatively fast. The ecological pressure toward CO2-free power
generation and the free market for energy have led to demands being placed on the
power network which can only be met by a “smart grid”. Cigre terms this the “power
system/network of the future”, meaning however the same thing. The fact that billions
have already been invested in this development is evidence of the inescapability of the
move to a smart grid. The problem is that different people have different ideas of what a
smart grid is.
Motivation
The demand for CO2-free power generation has led to the “alternative energy sources”
such as wind, solar power, biogas, etc., with wind energy currently playing the most
important part. Wind energy is characterized by being generated not in a few large-scale
power plants, but rather in a highly distributed manner, and by being volatile, as the wind
does not always blow at the same strength. A similar situation applies to photovoltaics,
and at least volatility is a characteristic of solar thermal power plants. Biogas power
plants are not volatile, but they are distributed.
The deregulation of the energy market has resulted in consumers having greater choice
as to sources of power and conditions of supply. This requires two-way communication
between the utility and the consumer, with a smart meter as the terminal at the
consumer side.
Requirements
Systems for distributed power generation, especially wind farms in coastal waters, are
generally connected to the distribution network at medium voltage level. If this power is
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not used locally, there is an energy flow from the distribution to the transmission level,
i.e. in the reverse direction to the flow previously assumed for network design. This is
already observable at times in the night when consumption falls but the wind continues
to blow strongly, and requires adaptation of the network structure with its protection and
control systems. Similar effects are encountered in some countries with power
generation from small plants using coastal gas deposits where purchase of the power is
guaranteed.
The volatility of wind and solar energy means that generation and consumption cannot
be brought in line with each other. The result is a demand for sufficiently large storage
capacities to take the surplus energy which is urgently needed at other times. One
familiar solution is pumped storage hydro power plants (which require hills and water).
New solutions can be discerned in the development of large-scale batteries which is
currently taking place (which, apart from inexpensive batteries, require only space).
If the network – as is conceivable for example with the European interconnected network
grid – has hundreds of thousands of distributed, volatile generation facilities, special
attention has to be devoted to ensuring large-area barrier-free exchange of energy and
the stability of the network. In addition, there is the future volatility of the consumers,
which however will be damped by market prices.
Definition of “smart grid”
The intelligent electrical network of the future will guarantee reliable and cost-efficient
energy supply to all users, even with a very large number of distributed generation
facilities and a host of smart options for consumers. It will therefore promote ecological
power supply, and motivate users of energy to be thrifty. This will be achieved by
optimum use of information technology. This “smartness” is required all the way from the
producer to the consumer, as a collective effect of the network as a whole, and not
merely limited to the distribution network.
Effect on primary systems
The network nodes, i.e. the substations, will remain extensively the same. On account of
the problems of infeed on the distribution level as mentioned above, however, they will
be much more tightly meshed than at present. In this way, the structure of the
distribution network will adapt to that of the transmission network. The number of
voltage levels may be reduced, as is already happening in some countries. Generators
will be connected to the network via the power electronics of the converters, which will
also take on the function of generator circuit-breakers. Power electronics will also be
required for DC links in the grid and for the implementation of FACTS (Flexible AC
Transmission Systems), modifying line impedance electronically and thus controlling
and limiting the load flow. All other line compensation systems such as SVC, TCSS,
STATCOM and UPFC can be regarded as FACTS with a special, limited scope of
function. New elements of primary systems will include storage facilities with familiar
and new technologies, such as advanced batteries.
14

Effect on secondary systems

The importance of Wide Area Monitoring (such as PSGuard) with the phasors of current
and voltage at the network nodes as input data for monitoring and control of the stability
of the network will increase. Over and above this monitoring function, these data will
also be used for automatic grid-wide functions such as load shedding and islanding to
preserve stability. This also includes optimum control of the FACTS units for load flow
control.

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Meshing of the distribution network has an effect on protection; protection systems will
become similar to those in the transmission system. The small, distributed generation
units with converters which do not supply any notable short-circuit current and which
can be disconnected from the network very rapidly present a problem for protection
systems.
As already mentioned, the consumers in the low voltage network require smart meters
with two-way communication with the utility.
With increasing complexity, automation on all levels will become more and more
important.
The role of standardized communication
Consistent communication is a must in the management of such a smart grid. No matter
whether a function is more local or global (throughout the grid), it must receive all the
data required simply and clearly. It is important to have a powerful communications
infrastructure, which may be composed of different media. The decisive factor is
however a consistent data model for the entire electrical power system. This current
challenge is being addressed by IEC TC57, and the most important components in the
work are the data models of IEC 61850 and IEC 61970 (the Common Information Model
for network control technology).

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