INTRODUCTION TO INTERPRETING

Ikke Dewi Pratama

ikkedewi89@gmail.com

Interpreting is known as one of the most popular branch of translation studies. The
basic difference between translation and interpreting is that translation refers to
written practice, while interpreting is an oral form of translation. This basic difference
leads to distinctions in its modes, types, strategies, as well as code of ethics. As the
aims of this book is to provide students and lecturers with teaching learning materials,
this chapter presents an introduction to interpreting studies by displaying a brief but
comprehensive topics in interpreting. The discussions begin with the history and
development of interpreting studies, the difference of translation and interpreting,
modes and types of interpreting, interpreting strategies, and code of ethics in
interpreting. There are also some activities that can be conducted during interpreting
course which allow students to experience the practice of interpreting.

A. The History and Development of Interpreting Studies

Many experts believe that interpreter is one of the world’s oldest professions
(Niska, 2002; Cerezo, 2015). Though it is difficult to trace the history of early
interpreting activities (Phelan, 2001), the assumption that interpreting belongs to one
of the oldest profession in the world is due to the use of oral activities in transferring
messages from one tribes to others. Historians state that the oral era occurred first
before the written era. Meanwhile, the early occurrence of interpreting could be sign
language interpreting in which various tribes with different languages communicate
each other. During the development, sign language interpreting involves different
spoken language and develops into the practice of interpreting comprising the source
text and target text. This phenomenon leads to the statement uttered by (Shuttleworth
& Cowie, 2014) saying that translation appeared after the occurrence of interpreting
activities.

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 The roles of interpreters in ancient times can be found in social and political
aspects of humans’ life. In social aspect, for example, (Andres, 2013) mentions about
the evidence of the first, possibly, interpreters in Egypt where interpreters facilitate
foreigners to ask for foodstuff from Tuthankhamun. Alonso & Payas (as cited in
Cerezo, 2015) add the role of interpreters in Spain where interpreters helped the
communication of different three different cultures; including Christians, Jews, and
Muslims. Meanwhile, Wiotte-Franz (as cited in Cerezo, 2015) mentions that during the
Roman and Greece era, interpreters helped the government in political fields.
The proofs of the existence of the first interpreters are not clearly documented
as interpreters’ names were usually forgotten or, probably, were not mentioned. The
first interpreters usually became interpreters by accident as they were able to speak
more than one language and offered to do interpreting activities (Phelan: 2001).
Interpreting activities become very paramount during the colonial era. Consequently,
the documentation of the roles of interpreters started from the colonial era has been
recorded more vividly. At that time, people from different nations started to
communicate one another and the roles of interpreter took place. Bowen, et al (in
Phelan, 2001) explain about the expansion of Colombus in The New World who
brought several Indians when he came back to Spain. Colombus asked these Indians to
learn Spanish so that they could help him communicate with the indigenous when he
travelled back to Central America.
Conference interpreting appeared in 1919 after English started to be the first
international language replacing French (Phelan, 2001). At that time, the US President,
Woodrow Wilson, and The Prime Minister of the UK, Lloyd George, were unable to
speak French. That was the first existence of conference interpreting which was
conducted with consecutive interpreting. Bowen, et al (in Phelan, 2001) add that
simultaneous interpreting appeared after the invention of technologies for interpreting
in 1920s. Started from that era, interpreters has evolved into a prestigious profession
which is considered as a vital agent in international meetings. The phenomenon of
interpreters by accident has changed into professional interpreters following the

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establishment of interpreting trainings, interpreting organizations, as well as the idea
of founding interpreting course in universities.

Activity 1
Discuss with your group about the stages of the development of interpreting. After
that, present the result of your discussion in the form of a poster presentation.

B. The Differences of Translation and Interpreting

The main activity of both translation and interpreting is transferring meaning
from one language to others. The basic difference between these two forms of language
transferring is that translation refers to written activity while interpreting refers to
spoken one. The people who do translation is called as translator while those who do
interpreting is interpreter. A translator should be excellent in reading and listening
skills. On the other hand, listening and speaking skills is crucial for interpreters.
As the forms of the process are different, the competences required are also
different. The fundamental requirement of both translator and interpreter must be
bilingual competence. However, being a bilingual is not adequate. (Neubert, 2000)
composes five translation sub competences that must be maintained by a translator: the
grammatical knowledge of the source text and target text (language sub competence),
the ability of understanding the source text (textual sub competence), the ability of
apprehending the cultures of both the source and target texts (cultural sub competence),
the ability of understanding specific terms of given text (subject matter sub
competence), and the ability of using procedures in delivering meaning from the source
text to target text (transfer sub competence).
The translation sub competences as mentioned above is a general sub
competences that must be acknowledged by either translators, interpreters, or even
subtitlers. The underlying point is that interpreting must be considered as a social
activity. Consequently, some other sub competences are required to be a professional
interpreter. As the works of an interpreter always involves in a social context of

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interaction, being an interpreter means having a good ability as a public speaker
(Pöchhacker, 2004). Interpresonal skill or the capability of working closely with
various parties are also required (Angelelli, 2006).
Other distinction is that translation is a delayed-time activity while interpreting
is known as a real-time activity. Therefore, an interpreter must be trained to transfer
the source text quicker than a translator. (Angelelli, 2006) emphasizes that the real-
time language transferring demanded in interpreting forces interpreters to have
cognitive processing skill or the skill to focus, split, analyze, as well as retrieve
information.
The participants involves in translation are the author – the translator – and the
readers. Considering these three participants, there is no interaction between the
translator and the readers or, we call it as, a one-direction activity. Meanwhile, the
participants for interpreting are the speaker – the interpreter – and the listeners. Unlike
translation, interpreting is possibly conducted whether in a one-direction or two-
direction activity. Interpreters are sometimes required to merely interpret the speaker’s
utterances to the listeners (one-direction activity). Some other times, the clients may
ask the interpreter to orally translate for the listeners as well as for the speakers (two-
direction activity).
Based on the aspects of participants and the procedures as mentioned above, it
can also be concluded that translation is operated in a static environment whereas
interpreting is conducted in a dynamic environment. The gestures of the author is not
a paramount aspect that needs to be considered by a translator while doing his
translation job. Nevertheless, the gestures of the speaker, or sometimes listeners as
well, in interpreting is pivotal to be deliberated by interpreters. The paralinguistic
elements are sometimes needed to be interpreted verbally due to the cultural
differences, for example: when the speaker is a Korean who bend his body after giving
speech- culturally means showing thankfulness to the participants- the interpreter must
grasp this gesture and say “thank you” to the participants in order to deliver the
paralinguistic messages to the listeners.

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 Activity 2
1. Now you have learned several differences between translation and interpreting,
make a summary of the differences in the following table:
Aspects of Differences Translation Interpreting
main activities written Spoken
basic skills reading and writing listening and speaking
……. ……. …….
……. ……. …….
……. ……. …….

2. To find out the role of interpreter in communication, let’s watch videos from
Youtube below:
 The Mandarin Interpreter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rorlOlhXGSo
 A Day in the Life of An Interpreter
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mYoQGyJOoI

C. Modes and Types of Interpreting

Some references explaining the categorizations of kinds of interpreting overlap
each other. Several experts divides interpreting into modes whereas several others call
the categorization as types. Shuttleworth & Cowie (2014) mention the peculiarity of
these two terms by saying that modes of interpreting refers to the way in which
interpreting is conducted while types of interpreting means the context in which
interpreting takes place. I would like to add one more criterion for types of interpreting
which also means the media with which interpreting are used.
1. Modes of Interpreting
This sub chapter reveals the modes of interpreting which are divided into
consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting.
a. Consecutive interpreting

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 Figure 1: Consecutive Interpreting

In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter starts speaking (translate the source

text orally) after the speaker finish speaking. The speaker usually divides his or her
utterances into some phases and give time for the interpreter to translate his or her
words consecutively. Saleskovitch (in Cerezo, 2015) says that as there are pauses
during the activity, consecutive interpreter has time to analyze and reconstruct the
source text into the target text. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is usually
visible or, we can say, the listeners may recognize his or her presence in the meeting.
Generally, a meeting which is conducted using consecutive interpreting only requires
single interpreter.
Although interpreting is a real-time activity, a consecutive interpreter are not
suggested to deliver only the summary of the speaker’s source text. A consecutive
interpreter must convey a full rendition of the source text. Since it is not an easy work
to do, consecutive interpreter sometimes uses note-taking technique in which he or she
takes notes of some important information using particular symbols when the speaker
delivers the source text and then delivers the target text by using the notes as the
guidelines (Phelan, 2001).
As there are pauses in consecutive interpreting, it is considered time-consuming
and, thus, it is usually conducted for small meeting. The participants in consecutive
interpreting, either the speakers or the listeners, may have interruptions during the
meeting. Therefore, consecutive interpreting can be organized for a one-direction or

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two-direction meeting. This kind of setting allows the interpreter to ask for repetition
or clarification when needed.
The following links are some videos of Consecutive Interpreting that you can
find in Youtube:
 Consecutive Interpretation with President Obama
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCbVvbH8qKI
 Consecutive Interpretation – Japanese
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KV3uozYI5Q
 English Arabic Consecutive Interpretation: Obama’s speech with Ameer of
Kuwait
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BW4W_O7g9Wc

b. Simultaneous interpreting

Figure 2: Simultaneous Interpreting

Unlike consecutive interpreting, in simultaneous interpreting the interpreter

speaks at the same time as the speaker deliver the speech. The simultaneous interpreters
do not speak directly to the listeners but they speak into a microphone. There are no
pauses or interruptions while the speaker delivers the speech and, therefore,
simultaneous interpreting is an exhausting job. Phelan (2001) states, for this reason,
simultaneous interpreting is usually conducted in team, usually in a group of two.

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Simultaneous interpreter has to focus on the speakers’ utterances for a quite long time,
usually around 30 minutes for each interpreter.
This type of interpreting is usually held for a large meeting or conference, where
there are a lot of participants from many countries who speak different languages. The
speaker stands on the stage while the interpreters commonly sits in booths. The booths
are located on the back side of the conference room, behind the participants (the
listeners). The interpreters may see the speakers through the booth window. The booth
is equipped with some tools, such as a microphone, a headphone, a mute button, and a
volume control. On the other hands, the listeners are provided with headphones that
they can switch to the language they want.
In simultaneous interpreting, the speaker and the interpreter speaks almost at
the same time. Consequently, the source text should be conveyed in shorter words
unless the interpreter will run out of time while doing the job. Simultaneous interpreters
usually apply note-taking technique or bring glossary which is related with the topic of
the conference in order to help their duties.
The following links are some videos of Consecutive Interpreting that you can
find in Youtube:

 Simultaneous Interpreter Example

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lK_GK_F3IoQ
 Simultaneous Interpretation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9BtRwvv8Ck

Activity 3
1. Discuss with a group of 4 about the differences of consecutive and
simultaneous interpreting.
2. Write the result of your discussion in an A5 paper stick the paper onto the
wall.
3. Then, explain the results of your discussion to other friends.

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2. Types of Interpreting
The next classification of interpreting is the types of interpreting which means
the media with which interpreting are used and the context in which interpreting takes
place. Experts divides the classification of interpreting into various types. This article
shows some of the mostly used types of interpreting as follows:

a. Conference Interpreting
As reflected by its name, this interpreting is used at a meeting or a conference
where the participants speaks different languages. Conference interpreting can be
conducted using consecutive or simultaneous interpreting. Nowadays, as the
participants of the conference can be very large, this type of interpreting usually uses
simultaneous interpreting in order to create a more effective agenda. Phelan (2001)
adds that conference interpreting is now the most prestigious form of interpreting and
the most financially rewarding.

b. Sight Interpreting
Generally, interpreting activity involves the activities of listening and speaking.
However, sight interpreting comprises reading and speaking. Sight interpreter is asked
to read a document and then translate it aloud. This type of interpreting may occur in
various settings, for examples: in a business meeting or in court. The interpreter may
also ask time to the clients to read and analyze the source text first before conveying it
into other language orally.

c. Escort Interpreting
Escort interpreting is a type of consecutive interpreting which is usually used
for a small informal setting. An escort interpreter does not only act as an interpreter
who translates the source text into other languages. The escort interpreter must also act
as the client’s assistant who helps the client’s needs during the trip. Escorts interpreters
may include: sightseeing tours, guided visits, business travels, and international fairs.

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d. Whispered Interpreting
Whispered interpreting is a form of simultaneous interpreting which is usually
used for a small group meeting. This type of interpreting is also known as chuchotage.
The interpreter does not actually whisper to the listeners as it will be difficult to hear
the whisper. Unless, the whispered interpreter sits or stands near to the listeners and
translates the source text in a low voice. Although it is a form of simultaneous
interpreting, no equipment is needed during the process as it is usually conducted for a
small number of participants.

e. Liaison or Bilateral Interpreting

In liaison or bilateral interpreting, the interpreter translates two parties or more
in two languages. In other words, the interpreter acts as a mediator who translate each
participant’s speech and, thus, must switch from one language into other. Phelan (2001)
explains that this type of interpreting is used in informal situation, for example in
business meeting or in community interpreting.

f. Telephone Interpreting
Telephone interpreting is actually a bilateral interpreting which uses telephone
as the media. Telephone interpreting is probably not popular in Indonesia. However, it
is widely applied in USA especially for business, court, and even medical fields. Phelan
(2001) gives example on the use of telephone interpreting:

If a factory manager in the United States needs a component that is

manufactured in Japan, he contacts a telephone interpreting service and asks for
an English-Japanese interpreter. The interpreter interprets everything that is
said.
Telephone interpreting is very advantageous for emergency needs. It is also
available anywhere around the world as the facility of telephone is easy to find.

g. Television Interpreting
Television programs often invites foreign speakers and, therefore, interpreter is
needed. As the program is broadcasted through television, it is called as television

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interpreting. Phelan (2001) explains that television interpreting is a common type of
interpreting in mainland Europe. Television interpreting is a type of simultaneous
interpreting that uses simultaneous interpreting equipment. In TV program which is
recorded inside the studio, the interpreter sits in a booth where he or she is able to see
the speakers. Equipment are provided inside the booth. Meanwhile, if the program is
recorded outside the studio, the interpreter sits and watches the speaker through a
monitor.

h. Videoconference Interpreting
As technology develops rapidly, equipment for interpreting activities develops
as well. Videoconference interpreting make uses of internet technology. This remote-
interpreting activity enables participants to have an online face-to-face meeting.
Besides internet connection, Phelan (2001) adds other basic equipment for
videoconferencing, such as: a camera, a codec, a monitor, a microphone, and an
equipment control pad at each location.

i. Community Interpreting
Community interpreting takes place in community-based setting situation. This
includes education, housing, legal, social security, and police. Medical and court
interpreting are usually included in community interpreting, though some believe that
medical and court are separated branches of interpreting. Community interpreters must
work for a particular community, for example becoming language mediators for
immigrants and the immigration staffs. Therefore, Niska (2002) mentions that the basic
competences of a community interpreter is not only the linguistic competence, but also
socio-cultural competence and cognitive competence. Linguistic competence refers to
the understanding of language skills and discourse. Socio-cultural competence refers
to the ability of understanding the setting, the status of the participants, the purpose of
the agenda, social norms, and interpreting ethics. Meanwhile, cognitive competence
means the understanding of the topic, situation, participants, interpreting techniques,
and strategies (know what and how to do). This type of interpreting is very popular in

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countries which have a large number of immigrants, such as Australia and United
States.
Community interpreting may apply various methods. It can make use of the
combination of whispered simultaneous and consecutive modes. Sometimes, it is only
conducted using consecutive mode. Sight interpreting is also ordinarily applied in
community interpreting. The main goal of community interpreting is to help
communication among the people who do not speak the same language for their
personal matter.
Community interpreting has many terms in different countries. United
Kingdom uses the term public service interpreting. In Australia it is called as
community-based interpreting. Some people prefers to use the term ad-hoc to refer to
this type of interpreting.

j. Court Interpreting
Interpreting is an undoubtedly paramount activity either in formal or informal
settings. However, interpreting is certainly important in court setting where the
situation depends on what people said, whether he or she tells the truth or not (Phelan,
2001). Therefore, court interpreter is a very crucial job. Court interpreter usually works
with lawyers, witnesses, or defendants. It includes the areas of criminal and civil law,
as well as issues on asylum, immigration, and legal co-operation (Hertog, 2002).
In the trial of Wayan Mirna Salihin murder; who died on January 2016 due to
drinking cyanide poisoned coffee; for example, one of the witnesses, an Australian
Police named John Jesus Torres decided to use a court interpreter to make the
communication in the trial runs effectively. The use of the court interpreter in this case
is to be the communication bridge between the Indonesian court and the witness who
do not speak the same language. Based on this example, we can imagine the pivotal
responsibility hold by the court interpreter. Therefore, a comprehensive competence as
a professional interpreter is needed in order to avoid miscarriages during the trials.

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 Certified interpreters are mostly hired for court interpreting activities. The most
important role for a court interpreter is that he or she must be the neutral party. A court
interpreter must remember that he or she do not have any rights to judge or questions
the clients. Besides, accuracy is very essential in court interpreting. There is a common
rule for any court interpreters around the world that they cannot add or omit words
which may change the meaning of the original source. Professional court interpreters
must comprehend both the source and target languages as well as understand court
terminologies.
Various modes can be applied for court interpreting. Consecutive interpreting
can be used for question and answer session. Note-taking techniques can be applied
when the speakers’ speech is very long. Simultaneous interpreting, whether with
simultaneous interpreting equipment or whispered interpreting, may also be in court
setting. Sight interpreting can also be applied when the court asks the interpreter to
translate legal documents orally on court.

k. Medical Interpreting
As from now, we have found out that interpreting may happen in various
settings and aspects of human life. Now imagine if there is a Spanish patient, who
cannot speak any Indonesian or English words, hospitalized in a hospital in Indonesia
where none of the medical staffs are able to speak Spanish. There will be glitches when
the doctor needs to deliver the diagnosis to the patient. In this kind of situation, medical
interpreters are needed.
The roles medical interpreters are crucial. They must have the background of
professional interpreter and master the medical terms. This surely is not a job that any
bilinguals can do. Medical interpreting is necessary in medical fields so that doctors,
or any medical staffs, and patients may have a good communication regarding the
patients’ health condition. The doctors need the help of the medical interpreter to
deliver the diagnosis, the medical record, as well as the correct treatment. The failures

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of delivering these information can be a fatal damage for the patients. Therefore,
accuracy is crucial in medical interpreting.
In fact, the need of providing medical interpreter is a serious problem in medical
field. For example, when there is an emergency condition where a foreign patient needs
to be informed about his physical condition as soon as possible. If a medical interpreter
is available or at least easy to contact, the problem can be solved. However, the practice
of medical interpreting is probably not very popular in Indonesia. Phelan (2001) says
that some countries such as Canada and USA have realized the importance of providing
medical interpreters in hospitals. Consequently, a number of hospitals in Canada and
USA has provided training for medicals interpreters and even hired medical interpreters
as their staffs.
Medical interpreting can be conducted in various ways. In-person medical
interpreting is done when the interpreter is in the same room with the medical staffs
and the patient. Medical interpreting can also be done by applying telephone or
videoconference interpreting.

l. Sign Language Interpreting

Sign language interpreting is a type of interpreting which is used for the deaf
and hard of hearing people. This type of interpreting does not employ the use of source
and target languages as we can find in the aforementioned types above. However, as
the barriers of communications are the same, the inability of the speaker and hearer of
understanding the same language, sign language interpreting is also a branch of
interpreting though it is not part of inter language translation. Sign language
interpreting is done using the gestures of hands and faces. This type of interpreting is
developed rapidly in Indonesia. Some of the developments that we can find are the
occurrences of sign language interpreters in news television programs or government
official speech to provide access of information for the deaf and hard of hearing people.

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 Activity 4
Divide the class into some groups (one group consists of 3-5 students). Search more
information about the modes and types of interpreting from various resources. Make
a presentation about the information you have found. Provide your presentation with
some videos of the practice of various interpreting modes and types that you can
search via Youtube.
This activity will give you more insight about the modes and types of interpreting.
Don’t forget to be active during the discussion session.

D. Interpreting Strategies
Interpreting activities needs a full concentration of the interpreter to convey the
speeches of the speakers and hearers. In the case of conference interpreting, for
example, the interpreters must be in a group of two who work for about 30 minutes for
each interpreter. This job is very exhausting. Thus, some strategies need to apply. The
strategies include the strategies before the agenda and the strategies while speaking.
Before the interpreters do their job, they need to prepare some important things.
The first is the interpreters’ physical condition. As stated before, highest concentration
is needed for interpreters to accomplish their duty. Consequently, a good physical
condition is needed. Nolan (2005) says that interpreters need to maintain their physical
condition by applying healthy life style. Besides, punctuation is also necessary.
Professional interpreters should come at least 30 minutes before the agenda starts. They
should prepare and check all the equipment needed before they accomplish their duty.
Note-taking tools are also needed to be prepared, especially for consecutive
interpreting, including notes and stationeries. Translation brief may also be conducted
before the agenda. Translation brief activities may include the communication between
the interpreters and the speakers, or at least the committee of the event. This
communication will help interpreters gain information about the issue of the agenda,
the speakers, as well as the participants. Translation brief can make interpreters familiar
with the vocabularies that will be used during their duty.
On the day of the event, the interpreters must be able to apply various strategies
according to the context of interpreting they are encountered with. The while speaking

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strategies for consecutive and simultaneous interpreting might be a little bit different.
Below are some while speaking strategies for consecutive and simultaneous
interpreting.
In this article, I would like to present the theory of while speaking strategies
composed by Clarity Interpreting Youtube channel on its videos entitled Interpreting
Training 1 and Interpreting Training 2: Interpreting Protocol and Standard of Practice
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3wg-qZjMhU4 and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9e_nIDJV-Lk). The strategies discussed in the
video are very practical so that students can learn and watch the examples of the
practices. The standard strategies are listed as follows:
1. Body positioning
An interpreter should sit the side or slightly behind the target language speaker.
This body positioning aims to: (1) emphasize the message, not the interpreter,
(2) reduce distractions, and (3) increase engagements of the parties, not the
interpreter. In the case of simultaneous interpreting in conference, the
interpreters sit in a booth. They are also equipped with simultaneous
interpreting equipment.
2. Speaking in first person
Trained or professional interpreter should always interpret in first person or use
I when referring to the speaker, instead of using he or she. The purposes of
speaking in first person are to: (1) allow interpreter to become transparent, (2)
allow for more accurate message, and (3) reduce third person confusions.
3. Never add, omit, or substitute the message
Although there is an opinion stating that fluency is above accuracy in
interpreting, an interpreter should not ignore the importance of accuracy. The
transfer of meaning in any forms of translation is important. Therefore,
interpreter should never add, omit, or substitute any part of the messages even
if it is redundant, irrelevant, or rude. Addition, omission, and substitution of

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 information may lead to the distortion of meaning which is risky in interpreting
activity.
4. Side conversation
Side conversation means the conversation between the interpreter and one of
the participants. This kind of practice reduces the professionalism of an
interpreter as it is usually exclude the other party. If an interpreter needs to do
side conversation, he or she has to make sure that all participants understand
the topic as well as the necessity of the conversation.
5. Clarifying
Students who learn interpreting usually ask about whether interpreters ever
experiences problems and difficulties in completing their job. The answer of
this question is that the interpreting session would not always run smoothly.
Sometimes, interpreters may encounter some problems, for examples: difficult
vocabularies or dialect that may reduce their understanding of the source text.
The problem solving for this case is by doing clarifying. Clarifying is allowed
but should never happen every minute to reflect the interpreter’s
professionalism. The key point of clarifying is that the interpreter should never
do it by excluding the other parties. Appropriate clarifying can create less
disruption, occupy the better flow for the session, it will also prevent the
exclusion of one party from the conversation.
6. Managing the session
Participants involved in interpreting session must understand that pauses are
needed during the session. Participants must allow the interpreter to take time
to analyze the source text and transfer it in the target language. Unfortunately,
some people often continue to talk without giving time to interpret the message.
An interpreter may ask the participants to give pauses during the speeches and
explain that he or she needs the pauses to transfer the messages. The ability of
managing the session like this will create better flow and reduce the need to
summarize parts of the message.

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 7. Tone, register, and style
Interpreters must imitate the speaking style of the speaker. Consequently,
professional interpreter must imitate the register, style, and tone of the speakers.
This would prevent confusion, ensure accurate and clear message, and instill
confidence of both parties that what they are saying is truly being conveyed.
Another while speaking strategy that can be applied is adjusting the volume of
the interpreter’s voice according to the settings. Interpreters need to make sure that the
listeners are able to hear their voice clearly.
Activity 5
Consecutive Interpreting practice
 The lecturer reads an English paragraph. Some pauses will be applied for
every 7-8 words. Students need to repeat the lecturer’s speech in English.
After that, the lecturer read the paragraph again and the students try to
interpret it consecutively in Indonesian.
 Make a group of two and prepare a speech in English consisting of 15
sentences for each student. The theme of your speech is Describing Yourself.
Make sure you have a correct English grammar. After that, come forward
with your partner and read the speech in turn. Uses pauses and let your
partner to translate your speech consecutively.
 The lecturer plays an audio or video with English narration on it. Pause the
speech every 7-8 words, or according to its segmentation. The lecturer ask
the students to interpret the speech into Indonesian consecutively.
 Invite an English native speaker in class. Ask him or her to make a speech in
class and invite some students to be the interpreters. Try a one-direction
interpreting session first, then try the two-direction session afterwards.

Simultaneous Interpreting Practice

 The lecturer reads an English paragraph without any pauses. Students need
to repeat the lecturer’s speech in English simultaneously. After that, the
lecturer read the paragraph again and the students try to interpret it
simultaneously in Indonesian.
 The lecturer plays an audio or video with English narration on it. This task
is best practiced in English laboratory. Students use headphones to listen to
the audio or video. Microphones are used to record students’ translation into
Indonesian orally. The lecturer play the results of students’ simultaneous
interpretation in class. Discussion is conducted by asking the class to analyze
students’ simultaneous interpretation.

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E. Note-taking Technique in Interpreting
Nolan (2005) states note-taking is a method used by interpreters to shorten
sentences that expressed by speakers into ideas. These ideas should not be written word
by word but into certain symbols to be expressed in the target language.
Practicing a short term memory is important in interpreting training. For
consecutive interpreting, note-taking technique can be a helpful technique to complete
the short term memory ability as the interpreter has time to write down symbols or
abbreviation while the speaker delivers the speech. When it comes to the speaker’s turn
to convey the message, the consecutive interpreter reads the symbols and abbreviations
written in the note.
There are some common symbols and abbreviation in note-taking technique.
However, it is also possible for interpreters to develop their own symbols and
abbreviation. It must be highlighted that the need of doing note-taking technique is not
to make the job of an interpreter becomes more complicated. Indeed, note-taking
technique must be conducted to ease interpreter in translating what the speaker said.
Phelan (2001) states that:
Some (interpreters) use a great number of symbols while others hardly use any.
One person’s notes would probably be totally unintelligible to any other reader.
Some interpreters even manage to write down everything they hear although
this is not generally recommended because it is so important to be able to
analyze the speech and its theme or argument. Most interpreters take notes in
the target language rather than the source language as this approach saves time
and effort when the time comes to deliver the interpretation.

As it is impossible to write down everything the speaker said, it is more

effective to write down only some key information. The key information are: the main
ideas, opinions, numbers, proper names, what and when something happens. Videos
about examples of note-taking symbols and the application of note-taking technique
can be found on Youtube:
 Note-taking in Consecutive Interpreting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KuqvsjWsRE&t=41s

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  Note-taking for Consecutive Interpreting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gG65XDLIeEU
 Consecutive Note-Taking
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-_5FheanaY&t=149s

F. Code of Ethics in Interpreting

Nowadays, there are many translation and interpreting agencies that establish
their own code of ethics. The establishment of the code of ethics aims to guarantee the
work or the translators and interpreters to be professional and transparent. Among those
various code of ethics, several core ethics for interpreters are presented as follows:
1. Accuracy
In any forms of translation activities, accuracy is the paramount aspect.
AUSIT or Australian Institute of Interpreters and Translators (in AUSIT
Code of Ethics, 2012) defines accuracy as the obligation of interpreters to
struggle to render faithful messages to the target language without adding,
omitting, or substituting meanings. Accuracy also means that interpreters
must imitate the spirit and the tone of the source text. Meanwhile, HPI (in
Kode Etik Profesi Penerjemah Himpunan Penerjemah Indonesia, 2016)
also emphasizes that interpreters, as well as translators, must not manipulate
the meanings of the source text unless it is a necessity as part of
interpreters’ effort in forming legitimate creativity as stated in their job
description.
2. Confidentiality
HPI (in Kode Etik Profesi Penerjemah Himpunan Penerjemah Indonesia,
2016) emphasizes confidentiality as keeping all information gained during
the translation and interpreting sessions. Interpreters must maintain every
single information they have gained during the session of their works. These

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 information should not be disclosed to other parties, either in the form of
written or spoken documents.
3. Proficiency
Proficiency deals with language competence. HPI (in Kode Etik Profesi
Penerjemah Himpunan Penerjemah Indonesia, 2016) underlines the aspect
of proficiency as mastering a high level of languages, understanding the
terminologies and subject matters, having access on references and
knowledge on its supporting equipment, and maintaining knowledge on
translation as well as interpreting studies. AUSIT (in AUSIT Code of
Ethics, 2012) adds about the needs of passing certification tests for
professional interpreters.
4. Non-Discrimination and Conflict of Interest
Interpreters, as well as translators, must also become neutral in every single
situation they are engaged with. They must remember that their job is to
convey meaning and tone of the source text. AUSIT (in AUSIT Code of
Ethics, 2012) states that in some cases, interpreters may feel that there is a
conflict of interest with the clients, for example being an interpreter for a
family member. It this kind of conflict happens, interpreters must consult it
to the clients with the intention of maintaining professionalism and
impartiality.
5. Cultural sensitivity
The understanding of language includes the apprehending of culture. As
interpreters often work within a particular community, they must be very
sensitive in understanding cultural differences that may be varied among
regions or countries. Cultural sensitivity will guarantee the flow of the
communication between clients during the session.

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 Activity 6
Search more references about Interpreter Code of Ethics from various interpreting
agencies. Make a summary on the common aspect that must be obeyed by all
interpreters to fulfill their professionalism.

Bibliographies
Andres, D. (2013). History of Interpreting. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of
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Angelelli, C. V. (2006). Designing Curriculum for Healthcare Interpreter Education:
A principle approach. In C. Roy (Ed.), New Approaches to Interpreter
Education (pp. 23–46). Gallaudet University Press.
AUSIT Code of Ethics, (2012). https://ausit.org/code-of-ethics/
Cerezo, L. (2015). Interpreting. In M. Lacorte (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of
Hispanic Applied Linguistics (pp. 313–331). Routledge.
Hertog, E. (2002). Language as a human right: The challenges for legal interpreting.
In G. Garzone & M. Viezzi (Eds.), Interpreting in the 21st Century (pp. 145–
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Kode Etik Profesi Penerjemah Himpunan Penerjemah Indonesia, (2016).
https://www.hpi.or.id/kode-etik-penerjemah
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John Benjamin Publishing Company.
Nolan, J. (2005). Interpretation: Techniques and exercises. Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Phelan, M. (2001). The Interpreter’s Resource. Multilingual Matters Ltd.
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Dictionary of Translation Studies. Routledge.

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