1. 1. Translation Studies is a field of study that deals with the theory, description, and application of translation.

Because it examines translation both as an interlingual transfer, and as an intercultural communication, Translation Studies can
also be described as an inter-discipline which touches on other diverse fields of knowledge, including comparative literature,
cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric, and semiotics.
The skills of translation are becoming ever more important and desirable. Today’s multicultural and multilingual society demands
effective, efficient, and empathetic communication between languages and cultures.
2. Translation Studies is a multidisciplinary field of research which explores the various forms of interlingual and
intercultural communication. Translation Studies examines both oral and written communication (interpreting and translation),
and potential research themes may include linguistic characteristics of interpretations or translations, cognitive processes of
communication, actors and their roles, and the social effects of language contacts.
3. Karl Buhler put forward three functions of language: (1) representational – referring to objects in the real world;
(2) expressive – referring to the writer of the text; (3) conative – referring to the reader of the text.
Jakobson took Buhler’s three functions but expanded on them to give us six linguistic functions: (1) referential – referring to
objects in the real world; (2) expressive – referring to the writer of the text; (3) conative – referring to the reader of the text;
(4) phatic – where the function of language is to establish, maintain, prolong or discontinue communication; (5) metalinguistic –
referring to when the text is focused on the code itself; (6) poetic – when the text is focused on the message for its own sake.
The translator’s task is not only to transfer a message from one culture to another but to assess the functions of both the original
and translated text and assess the level of functional equivalence between the two.

2. 1. Simultaneous In this mode of interpretation the interpreter listens to spoken content through headphones, and speaks the
translated words into a microphone. As soon as the interpreter understands the general meaning of the sentence, he or she begins
the interpretation. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to target-language listeners via their earphones. Consecutive To
allow the interpreter to render what was said into the target language, consecutive interpreting relies on the speaker to stop
speaking frequently, on average, every one to five minutes. The speaker's pauses come at the end of a sentence or topic. While
waiting, the interpreter listens and takes notes as the speaker moves forward through the communication. A vital skill involved in
consecutive interpreting is note-taking, since few people can memorize a complete paragraph in a single hearing without losing
detail. This is the primary form of interpreting offered by the skilled language services professionals at Ablio. Whispered A variation
of simultaneous interpreting, whispered interpretation, involves the interpreter addressing a small target-language audience by
whispering a simultaneous interpretation. This method is generally used only when a few audience members do not speak the
source language.Relay A source-language interpreter transfers the message to a group of interpreters who have that language in
common and who each speak another language, as well. One at a time, these interpreters convey the message to their respective
audiences. For example, a German speech is first interpreted in English to a group of interpreters, and is then interpreted by each
into Arabic, French, and Russian.Liaison This type of interpreting is typically used for small, informal situations such as meetings.
However, an interpreter may shadow a client for several hours or all day long, throughout everyday activities.

1. TECHNICAL TRANSLATION The term “technical translation” is about translating user manuals, instructions leaflets, internal
notes, medical translation, financial reports, minutes of proceedings, administrative terms in general, and so forth.

2. SCIENTIFIC TRANSLATION As a sub-group of technical translation, as its name indicates, scientific translation deals with
documents in the domain of science: articles, theses, papers, congress booklets, conference presentations, study reports etc.

3. Financial or economic translation, of course, deals with documentation relating to the likes of finance, banking, and stock
exchange activity. This includes company annual accounts, annual reports, financial statements, financial contracts, financing
packages, and so forth.

4. LEGAL TRANSLATION Legal translation covers a wide range of different documents. These may include legal documents such
as summons and warrants; administrative texts such as registration certificates, corporate statutes and remittance drafts; technical
documents such as expert opinions and texts for judicial purposes; and a number of other texts in addition to reports and minutes of
court proceedings.

5. JURIDАCАL TRANSLATION Juridical translation refers to legally-binding documentation. For example, this could be the
translation of documents such as laws; regulations and decrees; general sales and purchase conditions; legally binding contracts
such as labor; license and commercial contracts; partnership agreements, accords; protocols and conventions; internal regulations;
insurance policies; and bail assurance, among others. The juridical translator must have a solid legal background in addition to their
linguistic training.

6. LITERARY TRANSLATION This is probably the hardest of all the different kinds of translation, as obviously, the translator must
first try to render the semantic content of the original text (as should be the case for the translation of any kind of text), and then in
addition deal with a number of other difficulties.
2. TP is a science that requires the process and results of translation and translation activities. Sections: general theory of
translation (recognized theoretical principles, interlingual answers, special specifications of oral and written translation); history of
activity and theory of translation (researched with research levels and directions of activity); machine translation theory (attempt to
make natural translation possible); methods of teaching translation (developed a method that distinguishes between different
translations).

3. Stylistics – is a branch of general linguistics. It deals with 2 interdependent objectives  Investigation of special language media
which secure the desirable effect of the utterance – they are called stylistic devices(SD) and expressive means(EM). Stylistics
studies the nature, functions and structure of SDs and EMs  The second field of investigation is concerned with certain types of
texts which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication.
These types are called functional styles of language.

3.1. The connection between translation and ethnography, history and anthropology is due to the fact that the cultural and historical
variability of life and way of life, language and worldview of people is very different. The need to develop special methods of
teaching translation made it the object of pedagogy and methodology. Translation activity is studied by psychologists as a kind of
mental activity. For logic, translation appears as a process of transformation of meanings. Translation can be studied in medicine,
for example, to find out how translators' blood pressure and heart rate change during translation. Translation can be studied by
legal science in the aspect of the translator's responsibility for the result of his activity. Translation as a specific form of reproduction
of reality, which is based on categories that are close to the artistic image, may be interesting for art theory.

2. Methodology could be defined as the study of or the body of knowledge relating to method(s). Viewed in other terms, it can be
considered as the hallmark or defining feature of a discipline or an approach within a discipline. In this respect any methodology is
the site of constant contention, refinement and re-evaluation . So strictly speaking, a discussion of methodology should also include
the position of the scholar or school with regard to it, both inside any given approach and other approaches adjacent to it and within
the discipline as a whole. This has been the case in Translation Studies, viz. the long-standing debate on the use and effectiveness
of the Liberal Arts Paradigm and Empirical Science Paradigm in tackling and understanding translational and interpreting
phenomena. The same holds for the various turns in Translation Studies, all of which are manifestations of its attempt to expand,
define and establish itself as a specific academic discipline. Furthermore, an awareness of positioning and its ethical and political
implications for researchers has given rise to studies in this area. All of these turns have brought changes in methodology with
them or have rejected previous approaches and their respective methodologies.

3. There are three ways to define pragmatics. Supporters of the first direction define pragmatics as the study of the interaction of
language forms and contexts of their use, as well as the interpretation of language tools in communicative contexts. Another
direction considers pragmatics as real communication situation, which determines the choice of language tools for solving
communicative tasks. The third direction of pragmatics is interpreted as study of potential possibilities of language influence on the
person.

4.1The general theory of translation describes the basic principles which hold good for each and every translation event. In each
particular case, however, the translating process is influenced both by the common basic factors and by a number of specific
variables which stem from the actual conditions and modes of the translator’s work:

– the type of the original text he is to cope with,– the form in which ST is presented to him and– the form in which he is supposed to
submit his translation,– the specific requirements he may be called upon to meet in his work.

The human translation theories may be divided into three main groups which quite conventionally may be called transformational,
denotative, and communicative approaches.

The transformational theories consist of many varieties, which may have different names, but they have one common feature: the
process of translation is regarded as transformation.

According to denotative approach the process of translation is not just mere substitution but consists of the following mental
operations:

– translator reads (hears) a message in the source language; – translator finds a denotatum and concept that corresponds to this
message; – translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the above denotatum and concept.

The communicational theory of translation was suggested by O.Kade and is based on the notions of communication and thesaurus.
2. The human factor is a central concept in pragmatics. Pragmatics studies all the conditions under which a person uses language
signs. Under this is understood conditions for adequate choice and use of language units for the purpose achieving the ultimate
goal of communication - the impact on the partner. There is also the concept of "pragmatic translation factors", which covers facts
of both linguistic and non-linguistic order. Most often to the pragmatic factors of translation include genre and stylistic features of
language texts original and language of translation, their different pragmatic value, the functional role of the verbal sign in a
message, pragmatic task of the translator. To these factors as well take into account the national and cultural specifics of the
recipients of the original and translation, background knowledge of communication participants, their socio-psychological
characteristics. A. Schweizer wrote that the essence of pragmatic factors “Is that the source and final texts are usually addressed
differently recipients.Thus, pragmatic factors are a number of conditions that need to be used transformations in translation to
achieve equivalent communicative effect for both the recipient of the original and the translation receptor.

3. When a language is translated into another one, there is a problem: the meaning of a word or a phrase in the first language is not
the same as that of the word or phrase in the second language. The first language may also have words, phrases or grammatical
structures that do not exist in the second language. There are two possible ways to solve this problem: The translator can look at
what the text means. He or she can then try to find expressions in the target language that mean very similar things. With this
approach, the translation will sound more natural, and may be easier to read. This approach towards translation is known as
dynamic or functional equivalence.

It is possible to make a literal translation. The approach towards this kind of translation is called formal equivalence. A literal
translation may mean that the text is translated word-for-word. This will be harder to read, but it will be closer to what is written in
the source text. However, there may even be some expressions in the source language that are absent in the target language. In
that case, they are used in the translated text just the way they have been in the source text. But only the letters used in the source
language for those expressions are replaced with letters from the target language. And it is done in such a way that the expressions
used in the translation sound similar to those in the source text.

5.1 Adherence to the equivalence of the original and the translation is not important if it is not provided for the purpose, the main
thing - to meet the demand of translation customers, meeting the goals. This opinion is shared by Komissarov: "It is necessary only
that the translation retains the purpose of communication of the original, and the specific decision may be different. According to
Komissarov, the purpose of communication can be interpreted as part of the content a statement that expresses the main or
dominant function of that statement.

Distinguishes the concept of equivalence and adequacy OD Schweizer, followed by MK Garbovsky. "The adequacy of the
translation implies its compliance with the expectations placed on it by the participants of communication, as well as the conditions
in which it is created. Category adequacy is a characteristic of the degree of inconsistency of the translated text the text of the
original, and the degree of its compliance with the participants of communication, "- said Garbovsky. He notes that the adequacy
as a property of translation is more focused on the recipient translation.

2. To distinguish between the concepts of translation equivalence and relevance pragmatic influence of the original and translated
texts was introduced term adequacy.

The adequacy of translation is considered as: proximity of assessments of the content of texts by their addressees; compliance
with the goal set for the translator.

Given the distinction between the terms adequacy and equivalence, distinguish adequate and equivalent translation: adequate
meets the set goal, equivalent is based on the functional conformity of the original and translation.

3.Kruse asserts that there is “no neat way of characterising synonyms” . He says that “synonyms must not only manifest a high
degree of semantic overlap, they must also have a low degree of implicit contrastiveness” Synonyms are those lexical items “whose
senses are identical in respect of ‘central’ semantic traits, but differ, if at all, only in respect of what we may provisionally describe
as ‘minor’ or ‘peripheral’ traits”. Cruse also notices that synonyms occur together in certain types of expression. “A synonym is often
employed as an explanation, or clarification, of meaning of another word” When synonyms are used contrastively, the difference is
signalled by expressions such as more exactly, or rather. Ex: truthful: honest they are synonyms although they share only part of
their meaning; truthful: purple they are not at all synonyms. Cruse says that an important thing here is contrast.

When varying the order of words, it is a question of searching for similar syntactic constructions or structurally identical sentences
with the same way of describing the situation. Word order functions in the utterance:• draws up a certain grammatical category;•
provides a semantic connection between parts of speech and between related statements; • indicates the emotional nature of the
statement.

There are three types of changes:• in the direction of increasing the number of independent sentences;• in the direction of
reduction;• complex variation/
6.1 The problem of establishing the equivalence (correspondence) of texts original and translation will always remain debatable and
open to consideration, “because, when translating, the translator consciously or unconsciously draws on the text's own
understanding of the original and establishes a balance the ratio of two languages, cultures, ontologies "

Thus, the translation involves a triple correction of the content of the original text: with a reflective interpretation by its translator,
when it generates a translated text in a new semiotic form, in the perception of this form and the enclosed content by the addressee
of the translation

Equivalence of original and translated texts in translation studies considered: as a balanced ratio of the two most important
characteristics of the texts of the original and translation: completeness and accuracy the transmitted content ; as preservation of
relative equality of semantic, semantic, semantic,stylistic and functional-communicative information of the original and translation .

To distinguish between the concepts of translation equivalence and relevance pragmatic influence of the original and translated
texts was introduced termadequacy.

The adequacy of translation is considered as: proximity of assessments of the content of texts by their addressees; compliance with
the goal set for the translator.

2. Lexical-semantic problems can be solved by consulting dictionaries, glossaries, terminology banks and experts. These problems
include terminology alternatives, neologisms, semantic gaps, contextual synonyms and antonyms, semantic contiguity and lexical
networks. Grammatical problems include questions of temporality, aspectuality, pronouns, and whether or not to make the subject
pronoun explicit. Syntactical problems may originate in syntactic parallels, the direction of the passive voice, the focus (the point of
view from which a story is told), or even rhetorical figures of speech, such as a hyperbaton (the inversion of the natural order of
speech ) or an anaphora (repetition of a word or segment at the beginning of a line or a phrase).Rhetorical problems are related to
the identification and recreation of figures of thought (comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, oxymoron, paradox, etc.)
and diction.Cultural issues may arise from differences between cultural references, such as names of food, festivals and cultural
connotations, in general. The translator will use language localization to correctly adapt the translation to the culture targeted.

3. In modern translation studies it is necessary to substantiate the principle of "sustainable translatability" of Werner Koller.
According to W. Koller, who finds from this side, "unsurpassed" shoe of the most natural language. True, but you see that a
particular language has its own picture of the world, which uses the true reality of its bearer, so the untested ability to obtain the
status of public action. That there is a contradiction, which is shifted, that transfers the linguistic content of modern language to the
linguistic content of another language, while the mentioned language remains spiritual, which supports the world, and perhaps the
real world is accessible for development and communication. Not to mention that L. You are looking for an answer to the question
of when you use your use of language in thought, but it is clear that language "captures" its function, which in some idea implies
that thinking.

7. 1. Untranslatability is the property of text or speech for which no equivalent can be found when translated into another
language. A text that is considered to be untranslatable is considered a lacuna, or lexical gap. The term arises when describing
the difficulty of achieving the so-called perfect translation. It is based on the notion that there are certain concepts and words that
are so interrelated that an accurate translation becomes an impossible task.
Linguistic Untranslatability: When there is no lexical or syntactical substitute in the TL for an SL item. Linguistically untranslatable
sentences are such as involves structures not found in English. By restructuring and adjusting the position to conform to English
norms a translator would unhesitatingly render two sentences. Professor Liu Biqing wrote in his Modem Translation Theories that
“The structure of language commonly shows the characteristics of the language, these characteristics only can be found in relative
language, the similar transfer is difficult to find in non-relative language, for it need to change the code completely.” View from the
etymology, English belongs to the Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language, so there exits the
linguistic untranslatability, which includes the following aspects: phonology, character, figure of speech, and so on.
Cultural untranslatability refers to the translation difficulties that originate from the gap between the SL culture and the TL culture.
This occurs specially in renderingcultural aspects of a language such as names of people, clothes, foods, and
abstractcultural concepts and terms.
2.-3. Otto Kade (in social communications theory), Gert Jäger (in structuralist linguistics) and Albrecht Neubert (in pragmatics and
text linguistics) sought a scientific approach to translation, requiring clear concepts. This led them to reshuffle and define many of
the common German terms. For example, “linguistic mediation” (Sprachmittlung) became the wider object of study rising above a
narrow conception of translation, and Kade coined the neologism Translation, in German, to cover both written translation and
oral interpreting. When Kade approached linguistic mediation as a social phenomenon, he sought the causes of translation
problems not in the mysteries of language but in the “non- corresponding” development of two historical societies. The systemic
thought is clear, wide-ranging and important, as indeed it is in Marx. The main work of Leipzig, however, was on non-literary
translation at text level, without major investigation of social systems.

8.1.2.3 The group of lexical transformations concerns such modifications as :

 1. Transliteration (spelling a foreign word using TL alphabet: bullying –булінг, kidnapping – кіднепінг,
London – Лондон, Macbeth – Макбет);
2. Transcription (pronunciation of the foreign word, represented by TL letters: Greenpeace –
Грінпіс, gentleman – джентльмен, businessmen  – бізнесмен, Sean – Шон);
3. Loan translation / calque (a new word unit, formed referring to the structure of SL: skyscraper –
хмарочос, green card – зелена карта);
4. Lexico-semantic transformations (depending on the context semantic meaning of a certain lexical unit in
a SL is transformed, thus corresponding notions in the TL are rendered):
5. a) concretization (a detailed description of a peculiar phenomenon / notion: Коли ми були в Києві, я
замовила борщ в ресторані традиційної української кухні  – As we visited Kyiv I ordered Borscht (red beet soup) in the
restaurant of traditional Ukrainian cuisine;
6. generalization (a SL unit/word combination, replaced by more general notion in the TL: I wouldn’t go
there, not for all the tea in China  –  я  ні за що на світі  не пішла б туди;
7. modulation (when conveying the meaning of a translated unit a logical assumption is made, thus the
meaning can be deduced and conclusions concerning some statements can be drawn:  Jane never blames
me  –  Джейн  завжди мене розуміє).

The group of grammatical transformations comprises such modifications as:

1. Word-for-word translation (syntactic structure of a SL sentence, preserved as corresponding

grammatical constructions of the TL; g. He read a newspaper – Він читав газету);
2. Partitioning (inner partitioning – a conversion of a simple SL sentence into a complex or compound
one  (I want you to listen to this song– Я хочу, щоб ти послухав цю пісню); outerpartitioning – a SL sentence is divided into
two or more.
3. Integration (two or more SL sentences, translated as one TL sentence: That was long time ago. It seemed
like fifty years ago. – Це було так давно, що здавалося, ніби з того часу минуло вже більше 50-ти років).
4. Grammatical replacement (substitution of SL grammatical structures by constructions peculiar to the TL;
therefore parts of speech are changed, noun number is replaced, voice is transformed, a sentence is modified
etc.: money– singularia tantum in English and гроші – pluralia tantum in Ukrainian, police– pluralia tantum in English
and поліція – singularia tantum in Ukrainian).

9. At the sentence level, the most common transformations every translator makes are 1) omission, 2) addition, 3) transposition,
4) change of grammatical forms, 5) loss compensation, 6) concretization, 7) generalization 8) antonymic translation, 9) meaning
extension, 10) metonymic translation, 11) sentence integration, and 12) sentence fragmentation.
These transformations are caused by differences in the grammar and vocabulary of the source language (SL) and target
language (TL). In order to avoid an inadequate, word-for-word translation (grammatical “over-literal rendering”) it is necessary to
apply translating grammatical transformations. As a result a literal translation is adapted to the standards of the language of
translation and becomes adequate. Under grammar transformation one envisages a change of the grammatical characteristics of
a word, word combination or a sentence in a translation.

They differentiate a few grammatical transformations: a transposition or permutation, a replacement or substitution, addition,
exclusion, complex transformation, generalization, integral transformation etc. Here are some examples of them cited below.
Permutation is a grammatical transformation due to which the word order in a word combination or a sentence changes, e.g:

1. Omission. 2. Addition. 3. Transposition. Transposition involves changing the order of words in the target text (TT) as compared
to the Source text (ST). 4. Change of grammatical forms. 5. Loss-of-meaning compensation involves adding to or reinforcing a
TT in one place to compensate for something that hasn't been translated in a different place in the ST: 6. Concretization is used
when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with narrower meaning or when preserving the original concepts
with broader meaning would result in an awkward translation: 7. Generalization is used when something in the TL is usually
expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when preserving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in
an awkward translation: 8. Antonymic translation involves translating a phrase or clause containing a negation using a phrase or
clause that does not contain a negation or vice versa: I don't think you're right. - Я думаю, что вы не правы. 9. Meaning
extension or sense development involves translating a cause by its effect or vice versa: 10. Metonymic translation. A metonymic
translation is similar to meaning extension. 

10. Literary Translation is a genre of literary creativity in which a work written in one language is re-

created in another. Because literature is verbal, it isthe only art that is subject to linguistic barriers. Unlike music, painting, sculptur
e, or dance, the literary work is accessible onlyto those who know the language in which it is written. The specific characteristics o
f literary translation are defined by I ts place among other types of translation and by its relationship to original literary creativity.
The first problem faced by the prose-translator is finding terms in his or her own language that express the highest level of
faithfulness possible to the meaning of certain words. For example, there are some words that are related to typical fabrics,
cookery specialties, or jobs; they also represent specific culture and the translators should be very careful in translating such
words. They also find it difficult to render ambiguous puns.
 The opponents of poetic translation such as W. B. Bateson and Turco propose their reasons: when poems, especially
philosophical ones, satires, lyrics, etc, are translated into another language, they become not only flabby poems, but rather new
ones in a new language. They stress that poetry in translation surely loses its basic elements. Such views go with the belief that
poetry is wholly lost in translation.
As a result of the interweaving of the dominant features in the text of a dramatic work in different types of communication with the
reader and the viewer - there is a kind of double standard for translators: on the one hand, theatrical practice is definitely needed
a reliable textual basis, and in this sense the translation must be focused on the thoughtful perception of the reader-director and
the reader-actor that involves commenting on culturological gaps, allusions, puns, etc .; on the other - staging of the translated
play is aimed at one-time and instantaneous perception text by ear, the forefront here is the performance of communication with
the spectator, which is most often achieved through the techniques of pragmatic adaptation, significantly transforming the original.
11.1. Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT is a sub-field of computational linguistics that
investigates the use of software to translate text or speech from one language to another.On a basic level, MT performs
mechanical substitution of words in one language for words in another, but that alone rarely produces a good translation because
recognition of whole phrases and their closest counterparts in the target language is needed. Not all words in one language have
equivalent words in another language, and many words have more than one meaning.Improved output quality can also be
achieved by human intervention: for example, some systems are able to translate more accurately if the user has unambiguously
identified which words in the text are proper names. With the assistance of these techniques, MT has proven useful as a tool to
assist human translators.

11.2 interpretation is the act of explaining, reframing, or otherwise showing your own understanding of something. A person who
translates one language into another is called an interpreter because they are explaining what a person is saying to someone who
doesn't understand. Interpretation requires you to first understand the piece of music, text, language, or idea, and then give your
explanation of it. A computer may produce masses of data, but it will require your interpretation of the data for people to
understand it.
11.3 Translation criticism is the systematic study, evaluation, and interpretation of different aspects of translated works. It is an
interdisciplinary academic field closely related to literary criticism and translation theory. It includes marking of student
translations, and reviews of published translations.
The concept itself of "translation criticism" has the following meanings:
Quality assessment of the target text, especially of its semantic and pragmatic equivalence regarding the source text.
Assessment of the proceeding followed by the translator in order to translate the text.
One of the goals of translation criticism is to raise awareness of the delicacy involved in translation and to explore whether the
translator has achieved their goals or not. Whether or not translation criticism should be considered a separate field of inquiry
from translation theory is a matter of some controversy.
A very influential author in the field was Antoine Berman, who claimed that there may be many different methods for translation
criticism as there are many translation theories; therefore he entitled a model of his own as an analytical path, which can be
modulated according to the specific objectives of each analyst and adapted to all standardized text types. He further insists that
every translator shall develop first a translation project, prior to the translation process itself.

12.1 Good translation entails accurately communicating meaning from one language (the source) to another language (the
target). It must convey the original tone and intent of a message, while taking into account cultural and regional differences.
High-quality translations should:

 Effectively communicate the original meaning to the target audience in a manner that is both readable and
comprehensible.

 Follow all grammatical conventions and adhere to rules for line breaks, punctuation, alignment, and
capitalization.

 Use proper conventions for addresses, dates, and measurements.

 Use accurate and consistent terminology; if a glossary is utilized, the translation must adhere to all
terminology established in the glossary.
 Reflect the style of the source material.

 Adhere to current acceptable usage of the language and use the appropriate register for the target
audience.

 Meet all of the client specifications.

 Take any cultural factors into consideration.

Ultimately, a translation should read as though it was written in the target language. A good translation should NOT add
information to the source content or modify the style, tone, or meaning of the original in any way.

12.2 Mykola Lukash Translation Studies Department

The Department has a considerable scientific potential. The research is conducted in two main directions: 1) Translation Studies
and Translation Teaching Methods; 2) Regulatory Linguistics. For the last five years the findings within the first research
direction headed by Full Professor Leonid Chernovaty have been presented in over 50 publications, as well as have been
implemented in teaching materials for training future interpreters/translators.
The department offers a Major in Philology with a prospective employment as interpreter/translator or teacher of two foreign
languages and provides the following courses: Theory of Translation, History of Translation, Translation Teaching Methods,
Practical Courses of Translation/Interpreting from and into English at all departments of the School of Foreign Languages,
courses of Contrastive Lexicology, Grammar and Stylistics, special courses in Translation Editing, Adaptive (Abstract and
Annotation) Translation, Patent Translation. Leading members of the Department stimulate postgraduate students’ research by
providing special courses and exercising scientific supervision of their research projects.

12.3 Translation demands a deep understanding of both grammar and culture. Translators need to know the rules of a language
as well as the habits of the people who speak it. And even for the most experienced professionals, confusion and frustration are
familiar feelings.

Translators face many challenges when creating accurate, quality translations for clients. Translator’s job is capturing the
meaning of words from the source to the target language.

A bilingual dictionary or translation dictionary is a specialized dictionary used to translate words or phrases from one language
to another. Bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional, meaning that they list the meanings of words of one language in another,
or can be bidirectional, allowing translation to and from both languages. Bidirectional bilingual dictionaries usually consist of two
sections, each listing words and phrases of one language alphabetically along with their translation. In addition to the
translation, a bilingual dictionary usually indicates the part of speech, gender, verb type, declension model and other
grammatical clues to help a non-native speaker use the word. Other features sometimes present in bilingual dictionaries are lists
of phrases, usage and style guides, verb tables, maps and grammar references. In contrast to the bilingual dictionary, a
monolingual dictionary defines words and phrases instead of translating them.

13. 1. Text editing is a kind of literary activity, in the process of which the editor always solves creative tasks, but, at the same
time, acts as a researcher. Editing is defined as viewing (in other words, analysis, control) and correction of messages.
According to most researchers, the subject of editing is to bring the object of editing in line with the rules in force at a certain
time and in a particular society, as well as its creative optimization, the purpose of which is to obtain a given social effect. The
editing process is to check the information in order to improve or correct its structure, content, relevance, completeness, logical
sequence, presentation methods.

There are two types of translation editing, ie improvement of an existing version. First, it is the author's editing, when the editor
of his text is the translator himself. Secondly, it is the editing of the finished text, which is done by another person, ie the editor.
The question arises as to how much it is necessary to involve an editor who is an outsider, and the editing can be done by the
translator himself. Unfortunately, authoring alone is not enough to ensure a high quality translation. Author's editing is no
different from searching for new options in the translation process. The problem is that the translator cannot give an adequate,
objective assessment of his text, it is difficult for him to imagine the mechanisms of perception that will be in the recipients, just
because he is the author of the text. The editor is always the first recipient of the message and seems to test its perception on
himself. Editing a message by a professional editor is objectively necessary and mandatory. This, of course, does not imply a
categorical denial of the possibility of self-editing. Self-editing by the author and editing of the same message by a professional
editor should complement each other, because both types of edits are aimed at improving the quality of the text, achieving its
perfection.

13.2 Bibliography as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is
also known as bibliology. Carter and Barker (2010) describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing
of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as objects (descriptive bibliography).

Enumerative Bibliography A writer of an enumerative bibliography lists references according to some specific arrangement.
These academic writers arrange enumerative bibliographies by author, subject, date or some other scheme. The items they list
share a common theme, such as topic, language or time period. The writer of the bibliography gives enough information about
the source to direct readers to this source.

Analytical Bibliography

A writer of analytical bibliographies uses them to critically study books. The writer of an analytical bibliography may include
information about printers and booksellers, descriptions of paper and binding, or discussions of issues that unfolded as the book
evolved from a manuscript to published book. Three types of analytical bibliographies include descriptive, historical, and textual.
A descriptive bibliography closely examines the physical nature of the book. A historical bibliography discusses the context in
which the book was produces. A textual bibliography compares the published work to the author's original manuscript.

Annotated Bibliography

In this type of bibliography, a writer creates an alphabetical list of sources. The writer of an annotated bibliography outlines the
type of research done on a certain topic. The writer annotates, or adds notes about, the sources. Therefore, in addition to
information about the research sources, the writer comments on the source. The writer may summarize. This means she gives
information about the content of each reference. The writer may assess. This means she will evaluate the usefulness of the
source. The writer may also reflect. This means she will give her perspective on the usefulness of the text to her particular
research.

13.3 The translation appeared immediately after the birth of writing. The oldest form of writing - Sumerian cuneiform - originated
in Mesopotamia. The first translator we know by name is an Egyptian. This is Anhurmes, high priest in Tinis (XIV century BC) [1,
p. 7]. In Egypt, translators were called dragomans, their services were used for trade. Dragomani accompanied trade caravans
and assisted in buying and selling goods needed for Egypt.

The Middle Ages are characterized by general stagnation many spheres of life and intellectual passivity, including in the sphere
oral and written translation, which was still practiced in the church case. Official translations from Greek are historically
important Latin, which were carried out under the auspices of the church during the reign of the pope Roman Martin I (in office
from 649 to 655). Church translations were distributed and translated into other languages in various countries of the world by
religious missionaries.Interpretation and translation continued to exist internationally relations, foreign trade, military affairs. In
the Middle Ages there were translations of church literature from the so-called "saintslanguages "(Hebrew, Greek, Latin).

The Renaissance began in the XIV century in Italy and was marked by great discoveries and inventions. One of the most
significant is the discovery of printing by the German Johann Gutenberg in the middle of the XV century. The result of this
discovery was the emergence of cheaper printed books and the rapid growth of readers in the West Europe. The need for books
to read caused a rise translation activity and increasing the number of translations of fiction. Also, the growth and strengthening
of European states raised the status of national languages and reduced the role of Latin. Now translations were made not only
from classical languages, but also from new European languages. These global changes have resulted in an intensification of
translation activities.

14.1 In the XVII-XVIII centuries in translation circles there was a lively discussion with following the advantages and
disadvantages of three main trends in translation: metaphrases, paraphrases and imitations. Followers of the third method,
which was used in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
But not all translators supported this idea. Along with these tendencies, free interpretation was also practiced.
Romantics are well aware of the problems of translation (increasing the requirements for translation has exacerbated the
realization of its difficulties), and therefore the question of the possibility of translation is of great interest to them. The main task
of the translator, according to Schlegel, is to convey all the beauty of foreign poetry without any additions and corrections, while
maintaining the poetic size. But the translation must be refined. Translation is not allowed poetic works of prose.
In post-Romantic times, there is a need to use the principle of uneven translation accuracy, according to which the translator of
the play has with absolute accuracy convey key points that influence the interpretation of characters and genre features of the
dramatic work, and is entitled to more freedom reproduction of passable fragments. This position is deeply subjective, because
it allows the translator to decide for himself what is in the play important, and what - no, and this in turn leads to translation
arbitrariness and dismantling of the entire original. T. Severi refuses formulation of any new principles of translation. It is limited
an indication that the translator must find a middle ground between literal and free translation, for which its translation, on the
one hand, should be read as the original text on the PM, and on the other hand, be true to the original, as far as the norms of
the PM allow.

14. 2. Translated literature is set of texts, first written in one language and then translated into another. The division of
literature into translated and original in most cases is not very fundamental for scientific literature (although in some
humanities disciplines in different countries are dominated by different scientific schools and approaches, so the translated
monograph can be very different from written within the country in its language). However, for fiction, the division into
translated and original can be very important: in particular, the ratio of translated and original works in the total number of
publications (both in number of titles and circulations) is an important indicator of the state of national culture. In some
epochs in some national cultures translated literature plays no more important role than the original - and this is not an
indicator of the weakness of national culture, but, on the contrary, a symptom of its rapid growth and significant social
change: hence the need to quickly master and transfer diverse new experiences , and this is realized as soon as possible
through translations and translations, than through the original work of writers who need more time to comprehend new
phenomena and processes. Translation of literature is fundamentally different from other categories. This is because the
main principle of literary translation is the dominance of poetic communicative function. It means that in addition to
rendering information to the reader, literary translation also has aesthetic functions. The artistic image created in the
particular literary work ( be it the image of a character or nature) will certainly have an impact on the reader. under national
literature understand the literary achievements of the nation.

14. 3. Transfiguration as a subtype of free translation du also originates from arbitrary translation. which was first introduced
by such famous posts and writers of ancient Rome. like Horace, Quintilian, Apuleius and others. As a kind of free translation,
the transfiguration is carried out exclusively on works of art, and on the most popular works of world-famous writers and
posts of the ancient world of the Renaissance and so on. Facing was especially common during the Late Renaissance,
Classicism, and Enlightenment

Travesty (from Italian travestire - to disguise) - one of the varieties of burlesque, humorous or satirical poetry, in which the
work of serious or heroic content and appropriate form is reworked, "transformed" into a work of comic nature using
panibratic, slang inversions.

Free translation / interpretation is a way of reproducing language units, in which any of the constituent components of these
language units, namely: structure, content, functional meaning, etc., is transmitted freely.Imitation is the use of either a
metaphrase or a paraphrase, but the translator is free to choose what is more appropriate for him and how the message will
be conveyed.A refrain is a poem written on the basis of a poetic work by another author, with elements of imitation of
versification elements, close to the translation, but different from it in the absence of equirhythmicity.Translation -
reproduction of the original by means of another language while maintaining the unity of content and form. This unity is
achieved by a holistic reproduction of the ideological content of the original in its characteristic stylistic originality on a
different linguistic basis. The way to achieve such unity does not lie through the establishment of formal equivalents.
Comparison of the means of different languages, even the most remote, is possible only by comparing the functions
performed by different language means. Hence, the accuracy of the translation lies in the functional rather than the formal
correspondence of the original.

15 білет

1. The history of European translation begins in 280 BC. with a translation of some passages from the Holy Scriptures.
Semantic translation is the oldest norm of translation. At a fundamental level, this means completely translating each
sentence before starting a new one; is the normative opposite of literal translation (known as literal translation), which
means translating the meaning of each lexical unit sequentially. Jerome Strydonsky was the first to propose the term
"semantic translation". In his Letter to Pammachius, where he noted that "apart from the text of Scripture itself, even its
syntax is endowed with mystery," he translates non verbum e verbo sed sensum de sensu: not word for word, but essence
for essence. However, it is likely that Jerome was not the first to invent the very concept of translating the essence into the
essence. This merit is attributed to Cicero. In his work De optimo genere oratorum ("The Best Speaker"), he remarked on the
translation from Greek into Latin: "I do not think I should count them for the reader as coins, but pay them by weight, as they
are." Nor is he exactly the inventor of the word "word for word" - he borrowed it from Cicero or Horace, who warned a
translator who wanted to retell old stories in a new way. Nec verbo verbum curabit reddere / fidus interpretes: in the word
[as some] exact translator. " Some have interpreted this passage from Horace differently: Boethius in 510 AD and John Scott
Eriugena in the middle of the ninth century. not. they believed that translation was literally the "fault of the exact
translator," and the fear they evoked; Burgundy of Pisa in 1170 and Sir Richard Cherburn in 1702 concluded that Horace gave
advice not to translators but to writers, but it was still assumed that he called the whole translation literal; also John Denham
in 1656 and Andre Lefevere in 1992 regarded this as an attempt by Horace to persuade translators against literal translation.
The Soviet school of translation was formed and strengthened in its unity and integrity in the fight against literalism in the
20-30's of XX century. Behind the free interpretation was a strong tradition that developed in the last century. Soviet
translation studies rejected both free and literal translation, and it was decided to call the established practice of domestic
translation realistic. The term proposed by I. Kashkin was of purely evaluative value and said nothing about the essence of
the method. Literal translation means the reproduction of the construction of the original without any changes and without a
significant change in the order of words in the sentence. Literal translation should be understood as a translation of external
(graphic or phonetic) similarity between a foreign and Ukrainian word or phrase, without taking into account the semantic
differences between them. hence it is clear that a literal translation under certain conditions is quite natural, and a literal one
is never allowed. A literal translation, a kind of "photograph" of the original, can serve as an initial stage for deciphering the
complex places of the original. However, if the text contains syntactic constructions that are not present in the Ukrainian
language, then a literal translation will only complicate the understanding of the meaning of the original. For example, the
literal translation of the following sentences does not contribute to their correct understanding: He had his photo taken.*
Він мав свою фотографію зробленою. The court martial had the spy shot. * Військово-польовий суд мав шпигуна
розстріляним.

"Accuracy" in the understanding of many translation theorists and practitioners means the maximum non-limitation of the
translation to the original both in content and form. (Sobolev, Fitterman, Levitsky). The concept of accuracy is fundamental in
translation. Although in the 19th century. there was another principle of translation: the principle of "adaptation of
translation to existing morality", ie adaptation of translation to the reader's taste, all sorts of decoration. The transition to
the position of exact translation has become a progressive phenomenon in literary life.

The tendency to focus on the original was described as "accuracy" of translation, "fidelity" or later - "equivalence". However,
the very concept of "fidelity" of the translation has changed somewhat over time. In antiquity, the sub-term "faithful
translator" ("fidus interpres") meant, according to A. Lefebvre, "fidelity" to the initiator of the translation, ie pragmatic
adaptation

2. During the times of critical realism in the second half of the XIX century. again domesticated translation prevailed.
“Modernism of the beginning of the XX century returned to the program of exact translation, literal translation; Bryusov
went further in this direction than anyone else, but his general preconditions were not to impoverish the original in relation
to the reader's habits, but to enrich the reader's habits in relation to the original — shared by all translators raised during
this era, from Balmont to Lozynsky. Finally, the Soviet era is the literalism of the modernists, the mitigation of extremes, the
program of clarity, ease, fidelity to the traditional values of Russian verbal culture; if it is necessary to name a typical name,
it will be the name of Marshak of Shakespeare's sonnets "". The period when Vladimir Derzhavin actively wrote on
translation themes falls exactly at the turn of the epochs, "the transition from installation is a reaction to a non-translator
modernists to the establishment of a mature Soviet era, relatively speaking - to the establishment of socialist realism. At the
same time, culture was stabilized, standardized, and cemented, unanimity was instilled, and there was a process that left
only the same "program of clarity, lightness, and fidelity to the traditional values of Russian verbal culture," from the
stylistic diversity of the 1920s to the mid-1930s. . Thus, when alienating translation is restored by German theorists of the
twentieth century, such as Rudolf Panwitz and Walter Benjamin, it is seen as an instrument of cultural innovation. 3
Panwitz's point of view “a translator makes a fundamental mistake when maintaining the status quo. instead of allowing the
language to fall significantly under the influence of a foreign language. " The alienating translation takes much of what
Walter Benjamin called "grammaticality" in order to interfere with the perception of the translation as original, because too
transparent translations prevail in a monolingual society, such as the United States. individual translation methods, such as
Feta, Bryusov, Gasparov in Russian literature, V. Barka and I. Kostetsky in Ukrainian literature, Newman, Pound, Nabokov,
Zukovsky and Blackburn in English and American literature. not only non-traditional translation strategy, but also the
selection of foreign texts that deviate from the dominant literary canon in the culture of the target language ", and therefore
it is possible to experiment in the choice of text for translation, in the development of limited translation methods. thus, the
current situation in the culture of the target language. Changing modern perceptions of translation also require changes in
editing, reviewing, reading translated texts, and training translators.

3. Ivan Franko

Translations: Homer's hymns, translation of the tragedy of Sophocles "King Oedipus", "Sappho and Alcaeus", "Pindar and
Menander", a collection of "Old Gold", Roman poets Horace and Virgil - this is not the end of the list of ancient translations
of Frank. Most of Ivan Yakovlevich's translations from Greek accurately convey both the content and the poetic features of
the original. But Frank's exceptional work is Goethe's translation of Faust with thorough commentary. He also translated the
golden heritage of our antiquity - "A Word about Igor's Regiment".

Lesya Ukrainka

After Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka was perhaps the most prolific and skilled translator.

The poetess began to translate from other literatures in her childhood. At the age of thirteen, she and her older brother
Mykhailo, who performed under the pseudonym Obachny, translated Gogol's "Evenings on a Farm Near Dykanka" into
Ukrainian. And becoming a famous writer, she developed a comprehensive program of translation into Ukrainian of works by
Gogol, Korolenko, Garshin, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy,
Cervantes, Petrarch, Shelra, Morar , Rousseau, Beaumarchais, Burns, Goethe, Schiller, Byron, Walter Scott, Balzac, Beranger,
Heine, Hugo, Lesage, Leopardi, Longfellow, Georges Sand, Steel, Flaubert, Zola, Mickiewicz, Syrokomla, Konopniczewski,
Krasicki , Senkevich, Slovak and many others. Already this list of surnames of world-renowned artists of the artistic word
testifies to Lesya Ukrainka's remarkable awareness of the best achievements of world literature, with which she tried to
acquaint the Ukrainian people in order to raise their intellectual and cultural level.

Panteleimon Kulish

He was one of the first who understood the importance of translating the best works of world literature as a powerful source
of spiritual enrichment of Ukrainian culture.

Translations: Panteleimon Kulish made the first complete translation of the Bible into Ukrainian. He translated almost all of
Shakespeare, Goethe, George Byron, including the poems "Pilgrimage of Childe Harold", "Don Juan", A. Mickiewicz's ballads
"Mermaid", "Chimeras", "Milk Children". Kulish worked tirelessly in the field of translation and was firmly convinced that the
most outstandingworks of European literature should become the achievement of Ukrainian literature.

Starytsky began his poetic work with translations from Alexander Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolai Nekrasov, Heinrich
Heine, George Byron, Adam Mickiewicz, Serbian songs, and others.

Pulyuy Ivan Pavlovych translator of the Bible into Ukrainian.

Throughout his creative life, Grabowski did a great job as a translator of world poetry. The books "From a Stranger's Field",
"Fate", "From the North" (section "Translations"), "Kobza", in the prepared but unpublished collection "Wave" (1899)
contain translations of poetic works from 25 literatures of the world. Thanks to Grabovsky's work, Russian epics, works by
Derzhavin, Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Kindrat Rileyev, Polezhaev, Mikhail Lermontov, Fyodor Tyutchev, Nikolai Ogarev, Alexei
Tolstoy, Kurochkin, Nikolai Nekrasov, Nikolai Dobrolyubov, Mykola Dobrolyubov, etc. sounded in Ukrainian.

Paul Grabowski has translated two poems by George Byron ("Prisoner of Shillion", "Alva's Castle"), two poems by Robert
Burns ("Homa Baglay" (originally "Tom O'Shanter") and "The Old Man's Game"), poems by Percy Shelley, Southey, William
Wordsworth, Tennyson, Henry Longfellow, Elizabeth Browning, Johanna Goethe, Uland, Heinrich Heine, Lenau, Freiligrat,
Georg Herweg, Leopardi, Pierre-Jean Beranger, Victor Huguerre, Dupo , Maurice Maeterlinck, Felicia Gimens, etc.

Poets of Slavic (Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Lusatian), Scandinavian (Swedish, Norwegian,
Finnish) and Hungarian literatures occupy a significant place in Grabowski's translations. The poet-translator dreamed of
publishing in Ukrainian the works of the Hungarian poet Sándor Petőfi and the Italian poetess Ada Negri. Grabowski was one
of the first in Ukraine to turn to Georgian (Ilya Chavchavadze, Baratashvili, Tsereteli), Armenian (Isaakyan, Hovhannes
Tumanyan), and Estonian (Lydia Koidula, Friedrich Kreutzwald) poetry.

Ivan Ogienko's translation of the Bible is the most common and used translation of the Bible into Ukrainian.

Professor Ivan Ogienko (Metropolitan Hilarion) has been working on the translation of the Bible since 1917. The first edition
of the complete Ukrainian translation of the Bible, published by the United Bible Society, was published in 1962.

Samylenko translated Homer's Iliad, Dante's Divine Comedy, plays by Moliere, B. Tristan, Beaumarchais, A. France, poems by
Beranger, Byron, works by O. Pushkin and V. Zhukovsky, I. Nikitin and M. Gogol.

Maxim Rylsky
 Translations: The poet had a clear conviction that translation is an important political and cultural affair: "It is an instrument
of communication between peoples, an instrument of dissemination of advanced ideas and exchange of cultural values, an
instrument of strengthening and growing international consciousness."

The significance of Rylsky's work in translation is truly impressive: "Mr. Tadeusz" and Mickiewicz's lyrics, Voltaire's "Virgin of
Orleans" and Bualo's "Poetic Art". Maxim Rylsky translated Shakespeare's "King Lear" and "Twelfth Night", Moliere's
"Misanthrope", Goethe and Heine, Krylov and Griboyedov, Lermontov and Tyutchev, Neruda and Blok.

16 Білет

1.Neoclassicists entered the history of Ukrainian culture as a group of poets, translators and literary critics, whose work
dates back to the 20s - early 30s of the twentieth century, which in the name of the famous anthology of Yu. The core of this
group consisted of Mykola Zerov, Maksym Rylsky, Mykhailo Dry-Khmara, Pavlo Filipovych, and Oswald Burghardt, who had
been performing under the pseudonym Yuriy Klen since the 1930s. This is the "cluster of five invincible singers" mentioned in
the sonnet "Swans" (1928) by M. Dry Temple. The neoclassicists were an informal association of freelance artists who were
brought together by an attitude to art as a self-sufficient value, a love of the word, a strict poetic form, and the achievements
of world culture. And in those years it was dangerous, because in the Soviet state the utilitarian attitude to culture was
cultivated, the nihilistic attitude to the heritage of the past was encouraged.

Zerov Mykola is a translator of ancient poetry. Mikhail Dry-Khmara knew 19 languages. These are almost all Slavic (because
his specialization as a scientist was Slavic studies): Ukrainian, Russian, Belarusian, Polish, Kashubian, Czech, Serbian, Croatian,
Bulgarian. He knew a number of ancient languages - ancient Slavic, ancient Greek, Latin, Sanskrit. He knew the latest
European languages - Romanian, French, German, Italian, Finnish. The last language studied by Mikhail Panasovich was
English. Maxim Rylsky An unsurpassed translator and a profound theorist of translation.Rylsky translated more than two
hundred thousand poetic lines into Ukrainian. He also has short stories, novels and plays. Translations: The poet had a clear
conviction that translation is an important political and cultural affair: "It is an instrument of communication between
peoples, an instrument of dissemination of advanced ideas and exchange of cultural values, an instrument of strengthening
and growing international consciousness." The significance of Rylsky's work in translation is truly impressive: "Mr. Tadeusz"
and Mickiewicz's lyrics, Voltaire's "Virgin of Orleans" and Bualo's "Poetic Art". Maxim Rylsky translated Shakespeare's "King
Lear" and "Twelfth Night", Moliere's "Misanthrope", Goethe and Heine, Krylov and Griboyedov, Lermontov and Tyutchev,
Neruda and Blok. Filipovich Pavlo translator from French, Latin and Russian, teacher. He translated from French (S.
Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, P. J. Beranger), Russian (O. Pushkin, V. Bryusov, E. Baratynsky).

Valerian Pidmohylny is one of the most prominent Ukrainian translators of French literature. In terms of stylistic accuracy
and linguistic virtuosity, his translations of Anatole France, Balzac, Maupassant, Stendhal, Helvetius, Voltaire, Diderot,
Alphonse Dode, Prosper Merimee, Gustave Flaubert, Victor Hugo, and Georges Duhamel are still considered by many to be
unbelievable. Pidmohylny was the organizer, editor and translator of the multi-volume editions of Guy de Maupassant (10
volumes), Honore de Balzac (only the first volume of the planned multi-volume edition was published in 1934) and Anatole
France (25 volumes).

and the fruitful translation legacy of V. Mysyk deserves special attention, for which in 1977 the poet was awarded the M.
Rylsky Prize. The poetry of Byron, Shakespeare, Pushkin, Shelley, Burns, Longfellow, Keats, Whitman, Goethe, Gelderlin,
Beranger, Jacques Prever and other European authors was published in Mysyk's interpretations in Ukrainian. As a
professional orientalist, V. Mysyk translated the works of many poets of the East: Rudaki (Selected, 1962), Omar Khayyam
(Rubai, 1965), Gafiz (Lyrics, 1971), Firdousi (From Shah-Name, 1975). In 1990, the Dnipro publishing house published the
book “West and East. (Masters of Poetic Translation) ”which contains samples of the best translations by V. Mysyk.

As a graduate of the classical grammar school, Johansen knew ancient Greek, Latin, German and French. He mastered English
on his own, knew Scandinavian and Slavic languages well. His translation includes works by Friedrich Schiller, William
Shakespeare, Edgar Allan Poe and others. Tychyna mastered almost twenty foreign languages on his own, including
Armenian, Georgian, Arabic, Turkish, and Yiddish. He made valuable poetic translations out of them. The whole world of
knowledge harmoniously flowed into the work and complemented the poetic genius of Pavel Tychyna [30]. Pavlo Tychyna's
translations into Ukrainian from forty languages of the world have been preserved. In addition to poetry, Tychyna made
numerous translations (Alexander Pushkin, Yevhen Baratynsky, Alexander Blok, Mykola Tikhonov, Mykola Ushakov, Yanka
Kupala, Yakub Kolas, David Sasunsky, O. Hovhannisyan, O. Tumanyan, Hakob Hakobyan, Ilya Chavchavadze, A. Tsereteli, K.
Donelaitis, S. Neris, A. Ventslova, I. Vazov, Hristo Botev, L. Stoyanov, Nikul Erkay, etc.). Throughout his life, M. Bazhan was
seriously and fruitfully engaged in literary translation, giving the Ukrainian reader a skillfully reproduced word by J. Goethe, J.
Ivashkevych, V. Mayakovsky, A. Mickiewicz, A. Navoi, P. M. Rilke, and S. Rustaveli. , R. Tagore and others. In particular, his
translation by S. Rustaveli "Knight in Tiger Skin" is recognized as the best of the translations into Slavic languages.
2. Mykola Lukash

A brilliant poet and linguist, a connoisseur of more than 20 languages, who in Soviet times presented the Ukrainian reader
with more than 1,000 outstanding works of world literature from 100 authors.

Translations: In 1955, the first translation of Goethe's "Faust" was published, which brought the artist his first fame as a
translator. From the mid-1950s to 1973, Mykola Lukash made most of his best translations - Miguel Cervantes's Don Quixote,
Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron, Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary, Burns and Heine's poetry, Schiller and Verlaine, Rilke,
Hugo, Mickiewicz.

Mykola Lukash was not only a polyglot and a talented translator, but also a folklorist-innovator. He deliberately introduced
little-used Ukrainian words into the translated texts, was an excellent connoisseur of various dialects.

Hryhoriy Porfirovych Kochur is a translator, poet, literary critic, and public figure. Kochur works hard and fruitfully, educating
a new generation of translators. His translations cover 26 centuries, from Archilochus (ancient Greek poetry) to modern
poets, three continents (Europe, America and Asia), about 30 literatures. He is the author of articles on translation theory,
qualified prefaces to publications by foreign authors, numerous reviews and memoirs.

Borys Ten (literary pseudonym of Mykola Vasyliovych Khomychevsky) is an outstanding Ukrainian poet-translator, art critic,
pedagogue, laureate of the prize named after M. Rylsky. He was fond of literary translations from ancient and modern
languages, opera librettos and other musical works; was the author of poetry, literary and art works. But Boris Ten became
famous thanks to the brilliant artistic translations from ancient Greek into Ukrainian of the immortal "Odyssey" and "Iliad" by
Homer. Boris Ten himself considered his translations of the Odyssey and the Iliad to be the main business of his life. Other
translations: from German - "Robbers" and "Wilhelm Tel" by Miller; from English - "Richard III" by Shakespeare; from French -
Chenier's poetry and songs of the French Revolution; translated from Polish by Yu. Slovatsky and A. Mickiewicz, from Russian
by O. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy. He translated a number of plays by Soviet and foreign playwrights for Ukrainian theaters, as
well as texts for vocal works. He was awarded the M. Rylsky Prize (1979) for his translations of the Odyssey and the Iliad. The
only collection of his own sonnets "Star Gardens" was published when the author turned to the eighth decade, in 1970.

Andriy Oleksandrovych Sodomora is a Ukrainian translator, writer, and scientist. Author of translations from ancient Greek
works of Menander, Aristophanes, Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides; from the Latin works of Horace, Ovid, Lucretius, Seneca,
Roman elegiac poets; prose works "Living Antiquity", "Alone with the Word", "Under Another's Shadow", "Gray Wind",
"Lines of Destiny", "Studios of One Poem"; poetry collection "Alone with Lviv". Member of the National Union of Writers of
Ukraine, a full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. Laureate of the Maxim Rylsky Prize, the Hryhoriy Kochur Literary
Prize (2010), the Antonovych Literary Prize and the Mykhailo Vozniak Regional Prize. Honorary citizen of the city of Lviv
(2012). Knight of the Order of Merit of the III degree.

3. Historical sources report that Russian writing, along with Hebrew, spread in Khazaria. An important evidence that the
writing was known in Kievan Rus before the baptism, was found in 1949 in one of the Smolensk mounds clay vessel of the
mid-tenth century. with the ancient Russian inscription "gorouhscha" (mustard).Linguists, analyzing the texts of the treaties
of Russian princes with Byzantium in 911, 944 and 971, believe that they were composed in two languages - Greek and Old
Russian.

The introduction of Christianity significantly accelerated the development of writing and literature in. Back in the 60-70s of
the IX century. Byzantine Emperor Michael III sent to the Slavs two brothers-priests from Thessalonica (Thessaloniki) -
Constantine (in monasticism - Cyril) and Methodius. Despite the persecution of the German clergy, who were interested in
spreading Latin among the Slavs, the brothers preached Christianity in Moravia and other Slavic lands in the Old Slavonic
language. They arranged the Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospels into Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian). At the
beginning of the XI century. in Russia, two writing systems were used: the Cyrillic alphabet, which was based on the Greek
alphabet, and the Glagolitic alphabet, a phonetic system developed by Cyril that was less popular. And even before the ninth
century. the local population used the alphabet of 27 letters, while the classical Cyrillic alphabet has 43 letters.Ukrainian
literary translation has been developing since the beginning of the XIX century (simultaneously with the new Ukrainian
literature in the vernacular) under the conditions of the colonial status of Ukraine and (very often) – direct administrative
bans on the use of the Ukrainian language. 1 already thus radically different from the Russian translation (which was one of
the respected cultural institutions of the Empire), or Polish (where, at least, there has always been a large enough layer
educated readers, ready to read a variety of texts genres in Polish).An interesting (and still little studied) question about
potential ones recipients of Ukrainian translation - because Ukraine began XIX century was almost deprived of its own upper
classes,and Ukrainian-speaking peasants were, for the most part, illiterate and translations of classical foreign texts were not
required. Then readers of "Poltava" in a free translation into Little Russian language ”by Yevhen Hrebinka (published in St.
Petersburg in 1836 year, even during the life of Pushkin) were a few educated Ukrainians (officials in the capitals, or lords in
the estates of the Left Bank), which well understood and Russian. Readers of "Russian Anthology", published in 1854 in Lviv,
where it was first published in Ukrainian fragments from Shakespeare and Give (about vocabulary and style) are printed
These translations are represented by the beginning of Desdemona's song “Poor Woman in thought under the thick shadow
sat ”), were also educated people, who knew both Polish and German very well (from these versions were obviously the first
Ukrainian alterations).

17 Білет

1.The beginning of translation activity on the territory of modern Ukraine dates back to the ninth century, when in 864 the
Byzantine emperor sent the Greek monks Cyril and Methodius to preach Christianity among the Slavic peoples. They began
their work by creating an alphabet known to the world as the Cyrillic alphabet, which was used to translate several religious
texts from Greek into Church Slavonic, including the New Testament, the Psalms, and the Prayer Book. After the official
baptism of Russia in 998, another translated literature appeared, which aimed to acquaint new Christians with the basics of
this religion, its philosophical basis, rites and customs. In the early period of Kievan Rus, which maintained fairly close trade
and cultural relations with other European states of the Middle Ages, the main mediator and transmitter of translated
literature was Bulgaria, but in the first decades of the eleventh century. Prince Yaroslav the Wise realized the need to have
their own translated books . Our translation began on a large scale, on a large scale, at the state level, as evidenced by our
chronicle, led by the first great writer, historian Nestor, who wrote in 1037: "Yaroslav collected many writers and translated
them into the Slovene alphabet." That is, Prince Yaroslav the Wise gathered in the newly built St. Sophia Cathedral many
translators (scribes) who translated into the Old Slavonic language. Today, no one dares to say how many "many" were those
translators, but there were "many", that is, not one. In other words, there was already a whole translation school with its
junior and senior, less experienced and more experienced translators, whose names, unfortunately, the great chronicler did
not tell us, as was customary in similar schools, including Baghdad and Spanish later. , in the 10th and 12th - 13th centuries,
in particular in Spain, where there were two different (and similar to Kyiv) translation schools - Toledo and Northern. Spanish
historians, however, have left descendants the names of leading translators, including the translator (and perhaps the head
of the Spanish or Arabic translators), Gerhard of Cremona, and Ibn Ajub, apparently an Arabic translator. Thus, the
translation school in St. Sophia Cathedral, which trained professional interpreters in Greek, existed before the famous
Spanish and even the famous French school Por-Roal .Quite a large number of translations, dated XI, XII and beg. XIII
century., Distinguishes Kievan Rus not only among the Slavic states, but also in medieval Europe in general. Translated works
of this period belong mainly to religious literature. Widespread patristic literature (ie works of the so-called "fathers of the
church" II - VIII centuries., Which set out the basics of Christian theology and philosophy), homiletic literature (works that
address the theoretical and practical issues of church preaching), as well as the lives of saints, including "Life of St. Irina" and
"Life of Alexis, the man of God" were especially popular .Translations of Byzantine chronicles are essential for the
development of culture. The Chronicle of George Amartol and the Chronicle of John Malala stand out. The first describes the
events of world history with a focus on church history. At the same time, there were translations of books of entirely secular
content, such as "The Tale of Akira the Wise" or "The Tale of Barlaam and Joseph." A kind of knightly novel is a "Eugene's act"
].Most of the translations in the period under review were literal in nature, which is not surprising given the religious nature
of the original sources, but their language was nevertheless closely related to the vernacular of Kievan Rus. Studies have
shown that in some cases, translation skills have risen to a high level of skill. The most notable is the translation of Josephus'
"Jewish War." We do not know the name of the translator, nor can we determine whether the translation was made in the
country or abroad, but two editions of the translation that have survived to this day indicate that the translation was done
quite fluently. There is a stylistic looseness of the translator, which is not tied to the syntax of the original. Maximalist
literalism, characteristic of early Slavic translations, no longer exists. In translation, there is a clear desire to rhythmize the
translated text]. In Kievan Rus, no direct translations of classical ancient literature were made, but fragments of statements
by ancient authors were presented in various collections [].The translations, dated to the second half of the 13th and 14th
centuries, fully correspond to the mood of sub-Mongol Russia (1228-1480). These were works of a utopian and
eschatological nature (that is, those that tell the story of the end of the world). Among them are the "Legends of the Indian
Empire", "The Tale of Macarius of Rome". Most translations were from Greek, but some translators apparently used Latin
and Hebrew. Despite the apparent relocation of the center of Slavic culture to Moscow, Ukrainian culture was sufficiently
developed to retain its translation. In the XV century. new editions of some books of the Old Testament, as well as the
Gospels, appear. In the XVI century. translations of such works as "Logic" by Ausif, "Secret of the Secret", "Six Wings" and
"Psalter" by Fyodor Zhidovin appear. A translation from the German work "Luciferia" was also made [19, p. 167]. According
to some features (transcription of proper names, division of texts and lexical features) they are attributed to direct
translations from Hebrew .

The first translation into Ukrainian is considered to be the Peresopnytsia Gospel, published between 1556 and 1561.
According to researchers, this text played an extremely important role in the formation of the Ukrainian Cossacks. The
translation of the Gospel was performed under the supervision of Archimandrite Gregory of the Peresopnytsia Monastery
and with the participation of the son of Archpriest Michael. Some features of the translation indicate that the translators
used not only the Church Slavonic text, but also its Czech and Polish versions .In the XV-XVI centuries. "spiritual tales" were
spread, which described stories about tycoon kings and the sufferings of Christ. These were indirect translations or
adaptations of Latin originals, most often made from Polish versions. Polish and rarely Czech languages served as
intermediaries for Ukrainian translations of religious and secular books .

2. In the twentieth century, the theory and practice of translation in Russia is developing rapidly. Active translation practice
contributes to the formation of the first theoretical principles of translation and the emergence of leading scientific works on
translation studies.

The new rise of translation activity dates back to the first half of the XX century and is associated with the establishment on
the initiative of M. Gorky publishing house "World Literature", thanks to which readers were able to get acquainted with the
works of Honore de Balzac, Anatole France, Stendhal, Heinrich Heine, Friedrich Schiller. George Gordon Byron, Charles
Dickens, Bernard Shaw, Mark Twain and many other artists. The Soviet school of translation was formed and strengthened in
its unity and integrity in the fight against literalism in the 20-30's of XX century. Behind the free interpretation was a strong
tradition that developed in the last century. Soviet translation studies rejected both free and literal translation, and it was
decided to call the established practice of domestic translation realistic. The term proposed by I. Kashkin was of purely
evaluative value and said nothing about the essence of the method. Describing the practice of realistic translation, the
modern researcher of culture V. Rudnev proposes to call it "synthetic". Rudnev believes that "the task of synthetic
translation ... is to make the reader forget not only that we have a text translated from a foreign language, but also that it is a
text written in a foreign language. Synthetic translation prevailed. in the Soviet translation school "[1, p. 15]. In contrast to
synthetic translation, V. Rudnev distinguishes analytical translation. The main task of analytical translation is not to allow the
reader to forget for a second that in front of his eyes is a text translated from a foreign language, and which has a number of
signs that indicate this. V. Rudnev compares the analytical translation with the Brecht Theater, and the synthetic translation
with the Stanislavsky Theater [1, p. 15]. An example of analytical translation is the translation of "Winnie the Pooh" by A.
Milne, made by V. Rudnev. Outstanding theorists of translation studies in Russia include: Fedorov AV, Komissarov VN,
Barkhudarov LS, Breus EV, Retsker YY, Schweizer OD, Gak VG and other. Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov (1906-1997) - Doctor
of Philology, translator, author of more than 100 publications on the theory and practice of translation.In his book
"Introduction to the Theory of Translation" (Moscow, 1953) set out important for the development of the theory of
translation of thought, in particular the principles of the linguistic concept in translation studies (instead of literary). A.V.
Fedorov first described translation as an object of theoretical study that is perceived as a linguistic activity. Fedorov sharply
criticized Marr's theory of the origin of the world's languages.Vilen Naumovych Komissarov (1924-2005) is an outstanding
translator and scholar, author of more than 100 publications on the theory and practice of translation.His most important
works include: "A Word on Translation" (1973), "Linguistics of Translation" (1980), "Theory of Translation" (1990),
"Naturalness of Artistic Translation" (1991), "General Theory of Translation" (1999), “Modern translation studies. Course of
lectures "(1999-2000).He paid a lot of attention to the problems of training future translators given the imperfection of the
methodology of teaching translation as a profession. He managed to solve these problems by publishing "Theoretical
foundations of methods of teaching translation" (1997) and "Modern translation studies. Textbook "(2004). However, in
parallel there are examples of direct translation from Latin. These probably include the translation-adaptation of the legend
of St. George. Along with religious texts, some scientific works are also translated, including the "Treatise on Logic" by Moses
Maimonides, a Jewish theologian, philosopher and physician (1135-1204) The religious and philosophical treatise Aviasaf,
which is a compilation of various sources and whose authorship is attributed to an Arab scientist of the twelfth century,
reached Eastern Europe through translations of its parts relating to astronomy. The didactic treatise "Aristotle's Gate"
(another name - "Secret of Secrets"), which comes from an Arabic source, was translated in the X - XI centuries. in Latin and
Hebrew. His translation, made in Ukraine four centuries later, was created, apparently, on the basis of the Hebrew text, as it
recorded Hebraisms [19, p. 201].Diplomatic relations of Ukraine with the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, France,
Austria, Poland and Moldavia, which developed in the XVI century. after the creation of the Cossack Christian Republic
(Zaporozhian Sich), give grounds to speak about the existence of written and oral diplomatic translation in the then Ukrainian
state. This activity expanded in the seventeenth century. for the hetmanship of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, who had ambassadors
in most neighboring countries [13, pp. 413 - 414].

3. Descriptive (descriptive) translation studies, also known as the Polysystem Approach, the Manipulation School, the Tel
Aviv-Leuven Axis, the Descriptive, or Empirical, or System School, or the Lower Countries Group (Historical Netherlands),
correlates with the descriptive and a language / culture-oriented approach to translation research, with a particular focus on
its role in cultural history. This approach was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s and rose
sharply in the 1990s, and still has a significant impact among a number of scholars seeking to “study translation as a cultural-
historical phenomenon, to study it. context and determinants, to look for bases that can explain why there is what is
”(Hermans 1999:) Although descriptive translation studies have often been equated with the study of literary translation,
especially in the early stages (see Literary Studies and Translation Studies), it has branched out into several areas, including,
inter alia, technical, audiovisual, and oral.

The interpretive theory of translation, developed by French translators D. Seleskovich and M. Lederer, argues that
communication for people is not through the exchange of units of language, but through linguistic expressions-texts that
have a certain meaning.According to this theory, the translation process includes the following stages: creation of the
original text, the translator's understanding of the content of the speech (and the meaning extracted by it may be identical
to the content embedded in the original message by the original author). As in many other translation models, the translator
is represented as a person who performs two roles: the recipient of the source text (interpreter / listener) and the creator of
the translated text (interpreter / speaker). The central stage in this model is the stage of the translator's understanding of
the meaning of the original message. This process is interpretation, ie the removal of meaning, bypassing its linguistic
expression.

18 Білет

1.One of the main issues of the modern cultural paradigm is "translator invisibility" - the degree of "presence" of the
translator in translation, which is allowed by certain traditions of translation. Given the concept of "invisibility of the
translator" we can distinguish the following translation strategies: "adaptation to the native language and culture"
("domestication"), ie focus on creating a transparent and smooth style of translation language and "introduction of elements
of foreign language and culture" ("foreignisation ») - translation strategy, which allows a certain violation of the linguistic and
cultural" customs "of the translated text by introducing some elements of" foreign "from the original text. The application of
any of these strategies involves determining the degree of possibility of translation. The type of translation with the
dominance of the translator is used as a creative person who realizes himself through the choice of translation method. The
analysis of translation activity is carried out on the basis of a typological approach, which is characterized by taking into
account translation strategies. This typology is based on a combination of two code parameters (three code levels) and
operations (five transformation categories), and within the cultural code the following strategies can be distinguished:
substitution - naturalization, modernization, subjectization, nationalization (possibility of finding more or less equivalent
analogue), repetition - exoticization, historicization (by simple intervention in the distance time - space); reduction and
exclusion - universalization, dehistoricization (by removing foreign cultural symbols); expansion and addition - exoticization,
historicization (by adding foreign cultural symbols); In order to fully decode the specifics of the mentality of native speakers
of the original language, the translation strategy should include "introduction of elements of a foreign language and culture."
One of the aspects of the translator's dominance as a creative person is the awareness and consideration of the mental
identity of the nation-bearer of the original language and the nation-bearer of the language of translation. Given the
dominant functions of the original text and functional dominants and subdominants, the translator can use the following
strategies in various combinations when creating texts in the language of translation: the strategy of clarifying the genre and
style of the text; strategy for determining the dominant saturation; possible forecasting strategy; trial and error strategy;
compression and decompression strategy; compensation modification strategy; strategy of world perception transfer; literal
translation strategy. The basic principles of the translation strategy are supplemented by an explanation of the legitimacy of
the use of a number of techniques that violate the formal similarity of the translation of the original, but those that ensure
the achievement of a higher level of equivalence. The most common and common of these techniques are moving, adding
and omitting lexical items in the translation process.

2. A translator of such a scale as I. Franko, moreover, a great writer and literary critic, could not help but be interested in
translation as a theorist. I. Franko's translation work has been studied to some extent on the basis of his investigations and
reviews, but the writer's epistolary - from the point of view of translation - is still partly a virgin.

Translation studies as a scientific system that covers the history, theory, methodology, practice, critique and didactics of
translation, began to form into a separate complex general philological discipline in the 20s of the twentieth century. Now
this system is complicated by a number of modern philological research, including sociolinguistics, ethnolinguistics,
linguocultural studies, cognitivism, and others. But the foundations of this science were laid by figures of past epochs.

Translation came to us along with writing, and most Ukrainian writers translated. In the article "Adam Mickiewicz in
Ukrainian Literature" I. Franko quotes the words of L. Borovikowski, who wrote in a letter to M. Maksymovych in 1836 in
connection with the translation of seven poems from the series "Sonety Krymskie" by A. Mickiewicz: "I learned Polish
language in order to be able to benefit Ukraine "[5. - Vol. 26. - P. 386] (Further, referring to this edition, I will indicate only
the volume and page). Most Ukrainian writers can subscribe to these words. I. Franko's translational investigations are
extremely important not only for factual data, but also for remarks and reflections on the essence of translation, which the
author scatters in them with a generous hand.
There was a translation for our poet and an interesting collaboration between the authors of the original and the translation.
He was convinced that no translation will be really alive and good, if in the heart of the translator there is no warm sympathy
for the translated author [T. 35. - P. 405]. Thus, in the preface to his own translation of the collection of fables by W. Boner
(Boneria), a German poet of the XIV century, I. Franko wrote that he called the collection "Treasury" (in the original - der
Edelstein) and put a part of his soul in it [T. 13. - P. 37]. In a letter to A. Krymsky on November 29, 1890, I. Franko wrote: “In
Firduos's poem there is a great power of such a purely human element, which will never become obsolete.

3. In the XIX

Art. translation activity in Ukraine has expanded significantly. Most writers of the time were also translators. Among the
most famous are Ivan Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, Panteleimon Kulish, Levko

Borovykovsky, Pavlo Nishchynsky, Stepan Rudansky, Mykhailo Starytsky, Pavlo Grabovsky, Volodymyr Samylenko, Mark
Vovchko, Mark Kropyvnytsky. In 1918, an independent Ukrainian state emerged - the Ukrainian People's

A republic recognized abroad. Among its ministers were translators. Ivan Ogienko, historian, philologist, philosopher and
Minister of National Education, presents his translation of the Bible. The growth of Ukrainian self-consciousness gave a
strong impetus to original and translation creativity.

In the 1920s, after the collapse of the great empires and the emergence of new states in their place, as well as after the
period of red terror in the Soviet Union was replaced by the NEP (New Economic Policy) era, translation activity in Ukraine
intensified to some extent.

In the late 1290s, for about ten years until the introduction of large-scale bans on everything Ukrainian in the field of
translation, such famous personalities as Ivan Kulyk, a translator of the works of Walter Whitman and other American
proletarian writers, and Mykola Zerov, a translator, worked.

works of ancient and contemporary poets, Hryhoriy Mayfet - researcher of Taras Shevchenko's translations into English and
French, Volodymyr Derzhavin - literary editor and Ukrainian translation critic.

In the twentieth century, the Ukrainian poet Maksym Rylsky gained fame as a theorist and practitioner of translation. He
translated Adam Mickiewicz's epic poem "Mr. Thaddeus", Voltaire's satirical poem "The Virgin of Orleans", Pushkin's poem
"Eugene Onegin", Guy de Maupassant's short story, Jack London's novels and short stories, Nikolai Gogol's novels,
Shakespeare's Russian tragedies

Belarusian, French, German poets. Maxim Rylsky was part of a group of poets and modernist writers accused by the Soviet
authorities of decadence

and detachment from Soviet reality, and like other neoclassicists

his works did not touch on socio-political realities and abstracted from Soviet life in the 1920s. Very seldom in a veiled
satirical form (as in the poem "Chumaks") or even openly, as in the poem "There is a singer in the world

"Languedoc" he opposed the ideological and political pressures that prevailed in life and, in particular, in literature. Such
harsh statements by Maxim Rylsky sometimes caused

that he was first formally criticized and then arrested by the NKVD in 1931 and spent a year in prison. Maksym Rylskyi was
later released from prison, but his neoclassical colleagues Dmytro Zahul, Mykhailo Dry-Khmara, Pavlo Filipovych, and Mykola
Zerov died in Soviet concentration camps.

19 білет.

1.The creative heritage of the author of the first Ukrainian textbook on the theory and practice of translation O.M Finkel has
already become the object of theoretical research. Unfortunately, most of the scientist's articles have been left out of
detailed consideration, and a holistic vision of his concept has not yet been created. The first works on Finkel's views on
translation principles were reviews of his monograph Theory and Practice of Translation (1929). Thus, M.K. Zerov briefly
described all parts of the book and made remarks in terms of translation practice. He stressed its importance: "From this
short translation [in the review] you can already see how much O. Finkel's book gives, the first systematic work on Ukrainian
soil about translation in general .R. Herzfeld criticizes the excessive attempt to aestheticize the work and the eclecticism of
translation views, the lack of a certain systematics, which was a characteristic feature of the development of translation
studies at that time; and since the relevance of the book lies in the selection of materials, a more specific approach to
translation phenomena should be developed. Particular attention is paid to the author's contradictions in some issues, such
as the translation of syntactic constructions . G.J. Mayfet points to the importance of a well-chosen fact, because the
theoretical positions, well illustrated, open opportunities for further work in this direction .G.J. Mayfet also emphasizes the
stylistic tendency in the consideration of translation and related issues with stylization and analogy. Goretsky adds a number
of purely linguistic remarks about the creation of new words, in particular terms, about the word as a unit of translation,
about a synonym. Giving a brief overview of Ukrainian translation studies, Koptilov points to the relevance of many of
Finkel's ideas - in particular, the analysis of translation at different textual levels, creative courage, the stages of translation,
the dominant work, the reproduction of dialectisms and more. Finkel first substantiated the use of the methodology of
translation analysis in poetics (problems of understanding and composition of texts among other texts) and for teaching a
foreign language in high school. The book was extremely valuable in that it contained all the information known at the time
on how to solve translation difficulties; on the other hand, it is an attempt to create a stable system, a certain philosophical
and practical analysis.

2. M.T. Rylsky's translation studies date back to the saddest period of Ukrainian history, because from the 1930s to the early
1960s he had to work under Stalin's repressions, World War II, and postwar ideological purges. MT Rylsky's translation legacy
was studied more than other researchers, but a holistic study that would take into account the progress of translation
studies to M.T. Rylsky and the subsequent use of his theoretical legacy was not carried out. The most thorough works
devoted to MT Rylsky's translation work, which considered his translation studies views, belonged to G.P. Kochur S.G.
Myronyuk . G. Kotsyubi and F. S. Arvatu . In a review of A. Mickiewicz's works translated by MT Rylsky, MI Rudnytsky recalls
how in 1940, at a scientific session of Ivan Franko Lviv State University, MT Rylsky made a report on the essence of
compensation in translation [449, with. 72]. Memoirs of O.M. Egorova [145] and Yu. L. Bulakhovska [57] about MT Rylsky's
translation activity are also valuable.

3. In the history of Ukrainian translation of the twentieth century, there are figures who determined its development for
many years to come. Hryhoriy Kochur belongs to them. Speaking in Kyiv in 2000 at the international conference "Languages,
Cultures and Translation in the Context of European Cooperation", Yefim Etkind, a well-known Russian translator and former
dissident, said: "Ukraine can be proud to have such pillars of literary translation as Hryhoriy Kochur. and Mykola Lukash. No
European country can boast of such translators who would translate from more than three dozen languages. Ukraine holds
the championship here. ”In the year of the centenary of G. Kochur, it is worth dwelling in more detail on his contribution to
the development of the history, theory and practice of Ukrainian literary translation. The amazing combination of the poet,
translator, historian, theorist and critic of translation in one person enabled G. Kochur to leave a deep mark in Ukrainian
translation studies. Among the numerous poetic translations of the Master, which were included in the collection "Third
Echo" [2] - works of ancient literature (ancient Greek and Roman) and modern literature of the world (English, German,
French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Polish, Russian, Belarusian, Slovak, Czech, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, etc.). They are
the best and most complete manifestation of the translator's creative style, an example of the embodiment of his concept of
poetic translation. However, it can also be analyzed on the basis of an in-depth study of theoretical and literary-critical works
of G. Kochur, which are collected in the newly published excellent book "Literature and Translation" [3]. Such a study
provides grounds for several general conclusions. As a translation theorist, G. Kochur substantiated the thesis of the
multiplicity of translation interpretations, which is due to a number of objective (complexity of the object and historical and
cultural context of translation) and subjective factors (interpretive position and individual style of the translator). In the
article "Masters of Translation" [3, 109-121], he used a comparison of literary translation with the performance of a piece of
music, which is unique, but performed differently by each musician. Kochur's comparison has already become a classic and
textbook. In the article "Verlaine's" Poetic Art "[6] Kochur presented a sample method of comparative analysis of
translations, comparing the poetic versions of the poem by P. Verlaine, which belong to M. Rylsky, M. Orest, M.
Tereshchenko and I. Kostetsky. Kochur's conclusion about the need to preserve the national originality of the original in the
poetic translation, in particular in the reproduction of the rhythm of the poem, is theoretically significant. Hryhoriy Kochur
professed the principle of source-oriented translation (cf. source orientation translation, fr. Translation sourciste), which
provides for the maximum possible approximation of the reader of the translation to the original. Moreover, this principle
was used by Metro in translations of works of both ancient and modern literature. The source-centric method excludes
“domestication” as a form of assimilation of the original, allows moderate alienation (exoticization) of the translated text,
emphasizing the foreign language affiliation of the original. This approach encourages the translator to self-limit, to restrain
his own "self" to accurately imitate the figurative-semantic structure and stylistic form of the original and fully fits into the
neoclassical school of translation, to which Kochur belonged.
20.Problems monograph RP Zorivchak Phraseological unit as a translation category
In recent years, after analyzing the work of our scientists, we can note that interest and significance
to rich and informative art of speech, which has been kept by our people for many centuries, has
increased. In this connection there are plenty of problems in comparative literature and translation
theory, which have been investigated and still are waiting for the research continuation.
Consequently, translation questions of phraseological units into other languages, study the level of
their presence in general artistic translation are the most significant tasks in Translation Studies
Science. From the 1940s phraseological units have been examined in diverse aspects of Kazakh
Linguistics, such as structural-typological, semantic-morphological and thematic. For the first time
founder of Kazakh phraseology I.Kenesbayev laid the theoretical foundation for the General Turkic
Phraseology Science. Currently, theoretical and practical problems of phraseological units
(A.Kaydar, A.Bolganbayev, G.Kaliyev, S.Isabekova, A.Aldasheva, G.Smagulova, S.Satenova and
others), their stylistic functions (M.Sergaliyev, G.Kusimova, G.Boranbayeva), their use in work of
fiction (O.Aytbayev, B.Shalabay, Kh.Kozhakhmetova, M.Zhanibekov), classification of
phraseological units by meaningful, thematic aspects (A.Eleshova, R.Zhaysakova), particular
categories of phraseological units (F.Orazbayeva, A.Baytaliyeva, R.Tayeva), phraseological units'
dialectical features (Sh.Sarybayev, K.Kalybayeva, S.Mustafauly), comparative research of
phraseological units with the data of peculiar languages (A.Amanzholov, Z.Akhmetzhanova,
R.Valikhanova, M.Abdigaliyeva, P.Dauletova and others) and other matters have been studied in
various prospects of Linguistics. Nevertheless, comprehensive exploring of Kazakh language
phrasicon is one of the basic points at the present time» (Avakova, 2009). Translation of
phraseological units into other languages is one of the less investigated directions in Translation
Studies Science. Among the first O.Aytbayev studied the translation problems of phraseological
units into Kazakh language in M.Gorky' work, in his research work "Phraseological phenomenon in
translation" he analyzed theoretical opinions concerning to translation of general set expressions.
The scholar divided translation of the phraseological units, proverbs and sayings into 3 ways:
"Firstly, if we totally present subject meanings of the words in proverbs and sayings it is possible to
translate them exactly. Secondly, to translate subject meanings of some words just a bit changing
them. Thirdly, it is necessary to use phraseological units, proverbs and sayings of the translatable
language" (Ⱥytbayev, 1975). Critic M.Karatayev studied explicitly the principles of idiom
translation relating to translation of the novel "Quietly flows the Don" and expressed his correct
solution to the point. Translations of idioms into Kazakh language in the work of N.V.Gogol,
different methods of delivering were examined in the book of Candidate of Philological Science
S.Talzhanov "About fiction translation". This question was also studied from all sides in the thesis
work of prominent researcher R.Sarsenbayev. Besides, the research work and scientific articles of
K.Sagyndykov, A.Aldasheva, G.Aytzhanova are devoted to the given problem. As one of the most
unique investigation among them we can name a study guide of A.Aldasheva published in 2006
"Translation Studies: linguistic and lingvocultural problems". In the book the language of prose
work translated from Russian into Kazakh language is studied from the scholars' views, from the
aspects of linguistic and lingvocultural sciences. An accurate scientific analysis was done about
translation and Kazakh national culture, the role of translation in the lexical- grammatical system
development of Kazakh literary language, national view in translation, singularity of word selection
in translation and so on. Apart from this, in the section named "Phraseological units in translation
versions", national-ethnic characteristics in the semantics of phraseological units, their functions,
equivalent phraseological units and phraseological locution translated word for word are given. The
scholar believes that it is significant to pay attention to the semantic structure of fixed phrase in the
translation language and after studying other researchers' opinions the author came to a conclusion
that: "Word for word, adequate and free translation methods are used to translate phraseological
combination. Stylistic functions’ transferrings of phraseological units translated word for word,
adequate and free differ from each other. The most significant feature of phraseological locution in
each language is close connection between set of patterns which can be basis for phraseological
combination and material, social and moral culture of the people. In other words, it is quite possible
to know cultural-national customs and traditions of the people through meaning and etymology of
the basic component of phraseological units. Phraseological locution appeared from the people’s
worldview experience can have no adequate or close equivalent in the second language. For
instance, fixed phrases used to denote symbolic function through the meaning, symbolic
wordcombinations which have national distinctive indications (rainy day, black envy); phrases
concerning to theologicalreligious concepts and notions (to fill up the cup, the salt of the earth);
idioms (Cousin seven times removed, to twirl the goat horn, to tighten one's belt); phrases based on
national-daily philosophy (women’s brain, goldfish memory ); phraseological units centered around
customs and traditions (to recruit smb) can have no exact and adequate equivalent meanings in
Kazakh language as they are mainly related to the national-cultural entity of Russian people, it is
quite common situation" (Ⱥldasheva, 2006).
21.Translation as intercultural communication according to Cherednichenko's book
An Internet search on the topic of intercultural communication or cross-cultural communication
yields over three million results. In recent years practitioners in a wide variety of fields — scientific
cooperation, academic research, business, management, education, health, culture, politics,
diplomacy, development, and others — have realised just how important intercultural
communication is for their everyday work.
Fast travel, international media, and the Internet have made it easy for us to communicate with
people all over the world. The process of economic globalisation means that we cannot function in
isolation but must interact with the rest of the world for survival. The global nature of many widely
diverse modern problems and issues such as the environment, governance of the Internet, poverty
and international terrorism call for cooperation between nations. Intercultural communication is no
longer an option, but a necessity.
At the same time, lack of knowledge of another culture can lead, at the best, to embarrassing or
amusing mistakes in communication. At the worst, such mistakes may confuse or even offend the
people we wish to communicate with, making the conclusion of business deals or international
agreements difficult or impossible. Donnell King of the Pellissippi State Technical Community
College provides examples: A General Motors auto ad with 'Body by Fisher' became 'Corpse by
Fisher' in Flemish. Pepsi Cola's 1960s 'Come Alive With Pepsi' campaign, when it was translated for
the Taiwanese market, conveyed the unsettling news that 'Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the
grave'.
Because important decisions in business, politics, education, health, and culture effect citizens of
more than one nation, the question of whether communication between people of different nations is
effective and whether all parties emerge with the same understanding is of crucial importance.
Individuals who deal with people from other cultures want to learn how to improve their
performance through improving their communication skills. Numerous resources are now available.
We invite you to explore our portals, and to get in touch with feedback.
22.Extratranslational factors in the pragmatics of translation
Pragmatics of translation is a wide notion which covers not only pragmatic meaning of a word, but
some problems connected with various levels of understanding by speech acts communicants of
certain meanings or messages,  depending on linguistic or paralinguistic factors [6, 214],  that is,
background knowledge. A well-known linguist Konissarov points out that pragmatic aspect of
translation should be considered from three points. One of them is conveying pragmatic meaning of
words [2, 101]. This point chiefly pertains to the translation of national realia and equivalent lacking
words that is, various names.
The term pragmatic meaning of a word is not yet fully investigated. But some linguists point out that
the pragmatic component of the word meaning, which is realized in various kinds of emotive and
stylistic connotations, is individually-occasional or collectively used meanings [3, 43-44]. They
reflect the conditions of a language unit use, the conditions such as situation and  place of
communication, subject and purpose of communication; social, ethnic, and individual
peculiarities  of communicants, their attitude towards one another [1, 38-39] Irrespective of the fact
whether pragmatic aspects are singled out into a certain type of a word meaning or whether it is
considered among other components of its meaning, pragmatic meaning, which is fixed in a word,
plays an important role and its retention ensures complete communicative adequacy of translation to
the original.
Pragmatics as a linguistic term means the analysis of language in terms of the situational context,
within which utterances are made, including the knowledge and beliefs of the speaker and the
relation between speaker and listener [5, 1518]. Pragmatic information is actualized in translating
the equivalent–lacking lexical units, first of all personal names, geographical names, national realia
by way of transcription and transliteration.  But in some cases, while translating the names of states,
boroughs, counties and provinces explication of their implicit information is needed. For
example: Georgia – штат Джорджія (США) (In case the context indicates that the author writes
or speaks about the USA)
Alberta – провінція Альберта (Канада)
Surrey – графство Сурей (Англія).
Explication is also required in cases when one and the same name designates several
notions: ALBANY – Олбані – поетична назва Шотландії
Олбані – чоловіча тюрма на острові Уайт (Англія)
Олбані – річка у центральній частині Канадu.
Олбані – порт і курортне місто у південно-західній частині Австралії.
The communicative situation at translating names having different meanings should be also taken
into consideration. Thus, the word LINCOLN may be used in the following phrases: 1) He is from
Lincoln only last year – Він закінчив коледж Лінкольна (в Оксфорді) тільки минулого року.
2) He participated in Lincoln while a student – Коли він був студентом, він брав участь у
скачках “Лінкольн”. 3) He owns Lincoln breeds – Він є володарем лінкольнської породи
довгошерстих вівців.
As a rule, personal names are translated be means of transcription or transliteration (or both
combined). But when a proper name acquires the connotation as an important pragmatic factor, it
should be translated on a communicative but not on a semantic level. For example: MIDAS –
1) Багата людина; 2) Людина, яка постійно примножує багатство.
As to the meaning of national realia it is more often than not rendered by means of transcription or
transliteration, but very often explication of their national meaning is also necessary. Thus, kulish,
borsh are rendered by way of descriptive translation – thick meal cooked with grain. The same with
the English national realia Class list – список випускників університету, які отримали ступінь
бакалавра з відзнакою; Classman – випускник університету, який отримав ступінь бакалавра з
відзнакою.
While translating the names of national holidays the pragmatic approach is also required. For
example, Easter Monday translated word-for-word does not give any notion of this holiday. Its
interpretation as перший понеділок після Пасхи is more understandable for the Ukrainian recipient.
Some additions in the translation help to make it more accurate and exact. For example, It was
Friday and soon they’d go out to get drunk. (Braine. Room at the Top) In the Russian translation by
Kudriavtseva and Ozers’ka the sentence
is Была пятница, день получки. Вскоре эти люди выйдут на улицу и напьются. For making
this information explicit it was necessary to add not only день получки but to explain that in Great
Britain the people receive payment weekly, on Friday.
There are cases when generalization is used for replacing the proper name, usually of shops, clubs,
colleges, schools etc. For example: I could see my mother going in Warren’s Sports and Games – Я
бачив, як моя мама заходила у спортивний магазин.
In some cases the word which designates national realia is not important in the semantic structure of
the text. Then the translator may employ the method of omission. For example: There were pills and
medicines all over the place and everything smelled like Vicks Nose Drops. Vicks is the name of
pharmaceutical firm which products are not sold in Ukraine and they are unknown for the
Ukrainians. So, in translation it may be omitted.
Sociolinguistic aspect of the theory of translation includes the consideration of translation as socially
determined communicative process, social norm of translation and viewing translation as the
reflection of a social world. The objects of description are various kinds of socially conditioned
pragmatic relations, which determine the essence of translation as communicative act: pragmatics of
source text, which determines  its functional type; pragmatics of target text, oriented to a different
culture [4, 18]; orientation of the translator for meeting the requirements of the society, that is, social
norm of translation; pragmatics of the language units of both source and target languages, the
pragmatics, which is connected with stratification and situational varieties of lexicon.
The importance of socio linguistic factors for reaching adequacy of translation can’t be
underestimated. It may be illustrated by possible translations of the personal pronoun you, which
may be translated as ти and ви. Pragmatic approach to the analysis of the situation will show the
translator the right way.
To sum up the above said, it is necessary to stress the importance of the translator’s background
knowledge. That is, profound knowledge of history, culture, mode of life of the country, the
language of which he studies and is supposed to know for being a good translator.
Translating process reveals double pragmatic orientation. On one hand, it is realized within inner
lingual communication and thus being oriented to the original. On the other hand, translation is a
concrete speech act which is pragmatically oriented to a certain recipient. Pragmatic task of the
translation aims at ensuring maximal equivalency with the original. Pragmatic aspect of the
translation is very important especially in translation of nationally-biased units of lexicon.

23.Stages of the translation process

Most translation clients, when first contacting a translation agency or independent translator, don’t
expect to be offered various stages or steps for the service requested; all they know is that they have
a text that they need written in either a different language or a set of languages. So let’s have a closer
look at the three main stages of the translation process, and why each stage is so important.
Step 1: Translation
Translation means to render a text that is in one particular language, to another language. It’s the
accurate transference of information in order to represent the original document to the target
document.
This step is typically done with a computer assisted translation tool, or CAT, such as Wordfast or
Trados. These tools divide the original text into segments, generally full sentences, to enable the
translator to translate segment by segment. It’s very common in the translation industry to use
translation tools, but today it has become quite essential for anyone working effectively in this field.
Possibly the only problem this method has is that the translator doesn’t have a clear or overall vision
of the text.
Step 2: Editing
Today, when we refer to editing in the field of translation, we are referring to reviewing what has
been completed in the previous step; we review the translation created from the original text. In this
step, the editor also works with a translation tool, however his or her task is not about translating, but
more about revising segment by segment, ensuring that the translator has made an accurate and
faithful translation of the original document; that they have completely understood the text and not
missed any information; that there have been no omissions, and that any guidelines given by the
customer have been fully complied with.
Generally, at this stage, the editor will begin work with a CAT tool, which means that they won’t be
able to clearly see the text as a whole, however, during the final stages of editing they will ensure
that the sentences and the document as a whole make perfect sense in the overall context of the
project or document.
Step 3: Proofreading
In this final stage, we know that the translation and editing stages of the text have been completed,
so in the proofreading or correction stage it should not be necessary to refer to the original text. This
final review will focus mainly on the premise that the translated text sounds natural and reads
smoothly in the target language, in addition to detecting any inconsistencies with regard to
punctuation and capitalization. Document formatting must be checked for possible issues relating to
fonts and images, plus the document must be checked for any typographical errors.
All three steps must be followed in order to obtain a final translated product of the highest quality.
Each of these steps is essential for different reasons, and these steps should be clearly explained to
translation clients to make them aware of their importance.

24.Translation of proper names and geographical names

Proper Name Translation
Before any translation of proper names, it is necessary to specify them in relevant reference
materials:Encyclopedia, reference books, geographical atlas and etc.
In a case of impossibility of verifying the translation of the proper names in the reference materials,
a translator can deal with the following ways:
• Accurate meaning conveyance
• Pronunciation conveyance
• Combined method
Method 1. Accurate meaning conveyance
According to this method a literal (word by word translation) is applied, with final phrase being
composed. One of the main difficulties a translator may come across is the absence of semantic
equivalence of source words in a target language.
Method 2. Pronunciation conveyance
According to this method proper names are translated based on the rules of transliteration and
transcription.The disadvantage of this method is impossibility to convey the meaning of source
words.
Method 3. Combined method.
Today this method which combines the first two methods is proved to be one of the most widely-
spread. When applying this method, a translator tries to convey the meaning of the words in rather
long names, and when it is impossible to convey the pronunciation of the words.
Rules for Translation of Geographical Names
In translating of geographical names a translator must follow the following rules:
1. Find conventional translation in geographical reference books
2. Literal translation
3. Transliteration.
4. Apply both literal translation and transliteration.
Translation of Company Names
The translation of companies’ manes can cause troubles for translators because of the absence of any
possibility of finding an appropriate variant of translation in reference books. It is done by the
following two methods:
• transliteration
• literal (word by word translation).
The first method is applied for translation of different commercial organizations and companies. The
second one is applied for translations of names of non-commercial and state organizations.
Special attention should be paid to the translation of legal organizational form (type of business) of
foreign companies. A translator should remember that the same legal organization forms can have
different legal functions, structures and so on.. a translator can follow two ways:
• application of the term of a target country
• source name transcription.
25.The concept of genre and stylistic dominant
The beginning of the XXth century heralded a new literary era marked by the predomination of the
dystopian genre over the utopian one. In fact, it took utopia over five centuries (since T. More’s
“Utopia” was written) to become disillusioned as for the unembodied bright new dawn and to be
transformed into its direct opposite – negative utopia, anti-utopia, dystopia. The genre of dystopia
has been in the centre of the interest of literature studies, both Ukrainian and abroad, namely it was
highlighted in the works by N. Arsentieva, B. Lanin, L. Yurieva, L. Sargent, O. Kopach, H. Sabat,
Yu. Zhadanov, O. Yevchenko, and many others. Nevertheless, dystopia hasn’t found its complete
reflection in the field of translation studies yet, it is just paving the way towards it, offering
numerous unique lexical and stylistic devices for the construction of a new society, a new state, a
new world image, dimmed by pessimistic foreshadowing and rapid technological development that
may become crucial for the mankind. Thus, the aim of the research is to determine and to compare
the genre and stylistic dominants which mainly form the XXth century dystopian genre represented
by the three greatest novels “We” by Eugene Zamiatin, “Brave New World” by Aldous Huxley and
“1984” by George Orwell and to analyze their translations made by Gregory Zilboorg (into English),
Serhii Marenko and Viktor Shovkun (into Ukrainian) correspondingly. The object of the study is
represented by the genre and stylistic features characteristic of the dystopian novels that are
fundamental in the development of the genre. In the course of the research which is closely
connected with linguistics and literature studies, a number of methods were implied, namely
comparative, contextual, component, structural analyses, etc.
26.Linguistic aspects of translation of fiction
anslation from one tongue to another is altogether too complicated
and mysterious a process to provide clear-cut conclusions about the
novelists' art, but I still believe it is possible to distinguish
the nature of fiction translation from the translation of other
genres.
2.1 What are included in translation of fiction?
Translation of fiction is much more complicated than the translation
of other genres, as it deals not only with bilingual, but also
bi-cultural and bi-social transference, including the entire complex
of emotions, associations, and ideas, which intricately relate
different nations' languages to their lifestyles and traditions.
2.2 What's the core of fiction translation?
Translation of fiction involves the exchange of the social
experience of individuals in the fictional world with readers in
another culture or society. Both the social factor and the authorial
factor (authorial individualism) are emphasized in the process of
fiction translation. The two kinds of style mentioned above, i.e.
authorial style and text style concern both social and authorial
factors of fiction and distinguish one novel/short story from
another. Therefore, the reproduction of style (both authorial style
and text style) is considered the core in translation of fiction. It
is also a difficult task for the translator of fiction to explore
the style of a novel/short story and the message the author conveys
about social life, human relationships, etc.
2.3 Social consequences of fiction translation
Prose fiction has a much greater social influence than the other two
literary genres. A best seller may have millions of readers, and
sometimes popular novels are adapted into films, which further
increases their audiences. To exert a large-scale social influence
is also the novelists' purpose. Lu Xun once explained his purpose as
a novel writer: “This slide convinced me that medical science was
not so important after all. People of a weak and backward country,
however strong and healthy they might be, could only serve to be
made examples of or as witness of such futile spectacles; and it was
not necessarily deplorable if many of them died of illnesses. The
most important thing, therefore, is to change their spirit, and
since at that time I felt that literature was the best means to this
end, I decided to promote a literary movement.” He considered his
literary works as a textbook for enlightening China's oppressed
millions and expected wide acceptation of his works. The same is
true for translation of fiction. Since the May 4th Revolution, a
great number of western novels have been introduced to Chinese youth
via translation, which are real eye-opener to Chinese readers for
understanding the outside world. That's why translation of fiction
still has a large-scale social influence, and this is why more and
more fiction is being translated into other languages.
To sum up, translation of fiction depends largely on various
factors, including aesthetic conventions, historical and
cultural-social circumstances, authorial individualism and the
author's worldview, among which reproduction of the fictional style
is regarded as its core. It's impossible for either the linguistic,
communicative, or philological approach to cover all the features of
fiction translation. Although the introduction of literary
stylistics to translation of fiction brings out a new perspective in
the study of fiction translation and particularly emphasizes
stylistic analysis, it is limited to the study of translation of the
text style, leaving out the authorial style, which has a wider scope
involving social, cultural and ideological factors. The
sociosemiotic approach takes into consideration various aspects of
the philological, linguistic, communicative, and other approaches of
translation and extends considerably the base for recognizing the
meaningfulness of both lexical content, rhetoric form and
cultural-social value. Therefore it has been found to be relatively
comprehensive. We consider it the best approach to studying
translation of fiction and solving the potential problems in
translation of fiction.
3.What is the sociosemiotic approach?
Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translator of the Bible, is well
known for his works in semantic structure and translation theory.
His comments on sociosemiotics are quite positive and throw some
light on the nature of the sociosemiotic approach: “Perhaps the most
pervasive and crucial contribution to understanding the translation
process is to be found in sociosemiotics, the discipline that treats
all systems of signs used by human societies. The great advantage of
semiotics over other approaches to interlingual communication is
that it deals with all types of signs and codes, especially with
language as the most comprehensive and complex of all systems of
signs employed by humans. No holistic approach to translating can
exclude semiotics as a fundamental discipline in encoding and
decoding signs.” (Nida, 1993)
The sociosemiotic approach helps one understand better not only the
meanings of words, sentences and discourse structures, but also the
symbolic nature of distinguishing between designative and
associative meanings. It also emphasizes the fact that everything
about a message carries meaning.
The theoretical basis for the sociosemiotic approach is Halliday's
sociosemiotic theory of language. He emphasizes the unity of the
text (language), context (linguistic or non-linguistic), and social
structure and advocates that language is a unique system of signs
with a social function, capable of expressing the meaning of all the
other sign systems. However, Peter Newmark's classification of the
functions of language into expressive function, informative
function, vocative function, aesthetic function, phatic function and
metalingual function is much superior to Halliday's classification
into ideational function, interpersonal function and textual
function. The core of this approach is Charles Morris's semiotic
approach to meaning. He treats a sign as a tripartite entity and
classifies meaning in three dimensions of semantics, syntax and
pragmatics, namely designative/referential meaning, linguistic
meaning and pragmatic/associative meaning. The most significant part
of this approach is that social semiotics does not just concern
itself with what people say and do and how they do it; it also
focuses on when (in what context) and why, i.e. the large-scale
social consequences of such words and actions.
4.Application of the sociosemiotic approach to translation of
fiction
The sociosemiotic approach is particularly applicable in translation
of fiction.
4.1 Translation of fiction does not only reproduce the message, but
also the style, i.e. the way in which the message is conveyed. The
sociosemiotic approach to meaning is suitable for translation of
fiction. According to the sociosemiotic theory, verbal signs have
three types of meaning: designative meaning which indicates the
relationship between verbal signs and their referents, linguistic
meaning which indicates the relationship between signs, and
pragmatic meaning which indicates the relationship between verbal
signs and interpretants. A text may simultaneously have three types
of meaning, or just two types of meaning, or only one type of
meaning.
The clear distinction of those three meanings is helpful for
fictional translators to recognize the entire style that a
novel/short story conveys. By examining the author's choice of words
and sentence patterns, fictional translators can have a clear idea
of the designative and linguistic meaning, and thus may better
reproduce the text style of the original by exploring the author's
intention, the reader's interpretation, and the potential social
consequences of the novel/short story. Translators can recognize the
pragmatic meaning which indicates the relationship between the
author and reader, and thus can properly reproduce the authorial
style of the original.
4.2 According to the sociosemiotic approach, the text is a semantic
unit with meaning and function. It is a product in the sense that it
is an output, something that can be represented in systematic terms.
It is also a process in the sense of ongoing semantic choices, a
movement through the network of potential meanings, with each set of
choices constituting the environment for a further set. A
novel/short story actually is a unity of meaning, style (how to
convey meaning) and function (why to convey meaning) which we cannot
discuss separately. Peter Newmark's classification of the functions
of language is suitable for us to explore the unity of meaning,
style and function in translation of fiction. He distinguishes six
functions of language:
Expressive function: The core of the expressive function is the
mind of the author, his/her worldview and intention of the prose
fiction.
Information function: The core of the informative function of
language is the external situation, the facts of a topic, reality
outside language, including reported ideas or theories in the
prose fiction.
Vocative function: The core of vocative function of language is
the readership, the expected social consequences of the author's
work.
Aesthetic function: This function of fictional language is
designed to please the senses and provide fun through the use of
figures of speech, symbols, plot design, etc.
Phatic function: This function of language often relates to speech
and dialogues in prose fiction, which is used for maintaining a
friendly contact with the audience rather than for imparting
information.
Metalingual function: It indicates a language's ability to
explain, name, and criticize its own features. However, this
function is seldom connected to fictional language.
Most prose fiction works may contain all three types of meaning and
the five functions mentioned previously, through which fictional
translators can easily and thoroughly analyze the SL prose fiction
and have a better understanding of the authorial and text style of
the novel/short story, thus achieving equivalence in meaning and
similarity in style and function in the translation.
4.3 The whole process involved in the translation of fiction is
rather complicated, including encoding of the message by the prose
fiction writer, and decoding and reencoding of the message by the
fictional translator. The message, including meaning, style and
function, is what the prose fiction author wishes to convey through
his/her fiction in the order of pragmatic level (intention of the
author or the theme of the fiction), semantic level (choice of
words), syntactical level (choice of sentence patterns, etc.) and
discourse level (integrating the former three levels into the entire
discourse). This is the process how the fiction writer encodes
his/her message. However, how the translator decodes the message is
in the reverse order. At first, the translator comes across the
whole discourse of the prose fiction, and then he/she analyzes it at
the syntactical, semantic and finally pragmatic levels. At the end,
the translator perceives the message conveyed by the SL text. The
most important thing is how the translator re-encodes the message
he/she understands, which is the basis of the translating activity.
The order is very similar to the fiction writer's encoding process,
but the language employed is different.
4.4 The translation criteria deriving from the sociosemiotic
approach are “correspondence in meaning and similarity in style and
function,” which turns out to be well suited to verify the quality
of fiction translation. “Correspondence in meaning” is actually
correspondence in designative meaning, linguistic meaning and
pragmatic meaning; “similarity in style” is similarity in both
authorial style and text style, “similarity in function” is
similarity in the six functions advocated by Peter Newmark. The
translation of meanings and reflection of styles and functions,
therefore, should rely on both linguistic context and non-linguistic
context, i.e. culture and society. A qualified translator should
acquire language competence and cultural knowledge of both TL and
SL, and take pains to reduce the loss and distortion in his/ her
translation. Thus, the translation may achieve the translation
criteria—correspondence in meaning and similarity in style and
function.
Thus it can be seen that the sociosemiotic approach is applicable
and necessary to translation of fiction and it offers fresh insights
into the authorial and text style, as well as into the dialectical
relation between linguistic form and fictional reality, or into the
way that fictional discourse is organized. The sociosemiotic
approach is unique in its ability to shed light on the various
functions of the linguistic medium of prose fiction, on the
literary, cultural conventions and authorial individualism, on
author's worldview and social consequences of the fiction. It is
likewise to be hoped that more fictional translators become familiar
with sociosemiotics, a field not only offering a useful theory for
translation of fiction, but also providing a sophisticated method of
translation criticism.
HANDOUT 3
Equivalence in Translation
Volume 4, No. 4
October 2000
Equivalence in Translation: Between Myth and Reality
by Vanessa Leonardi
the comparison of texts in different languages inevitably involves a
theory of equivalence. Equivalence can be said to be the central
issue in translation although its definition, relevance, and
applicability within the field of translation theory have caused
heated controversy, and many different theories of the concept of
equivalence have been elaborated within this field in the past fifty
years.
whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and
amplified by loanwords or loan translations, neologisms or
semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions
The aim of this paper is to review the theory of equivalence as
interpreted by some of the most innovative theorists in this
field—Vinay and Darbelnet, Jakobson, Nida and Taber, Catford, House,
and finally Baker. These theorists have studied equivalence in
relation to the translation process, using different approaches, and
have provided fruitful ideas for further study on this topic. Their
theories will be analyzed in chronological order so that it will be
easier to follow the evolution of this concept. These theories can
be substantially divided into three main groups. In the first there
are those translation scholars who are in favour of a linguistic
approach to translation and who seem to forget that translation in
itself is not merely a matter of linguistics. In fact, when a
message is transferred from the SL to TL, the translator is also
dealing with two different cultures at the same time. This
particular aspect seems to have been taken into consideration by the
second group of theorists who regard translation equivalence as
being essentially a transfer of the message from the SC to the TC
and a pragmatic/semantic or functionally oriented approach to
translation. Finally, there are other translation scholars who seem
to stand in the middle, such as Baker for instance, who claims that
equivalence is used 'for the sake of convenience—because most
translators are used to it rather than because it has any
theoretical status' (quoted in Kenny, 1998:77).
1.1 Vinay and Darbelnet and their definition of equivalence in
translation
Vinay and Darbelnet view equivalence-oriented translation as a
procedure which 'replicates the same situation as in the original,
whilst using completely different wording' (ibid.:342). They also
suggest that, if this procedure is applied during the translation
process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text in the
TL text. According to them, equivalence is therefore the ideal
method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms,
clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of
animal sounds.
With regard to equivalent expressions between language pairs, Vinay
and Darbelnet claim that they are acceptable as long as they are
listed in a bilingual dictionary as 'full equivalents' (ibid.:255).
However, later they note that glossaries and collections of
idiomatic expressions 'can never be exhaustive' (ibid.:256). They
conclude by saying that 'the need for creating equivalences arises
from the situation, and it is in the situation of the SL text that
translators have to look for a solution' (ibid.: 255). Indeed, they
argue that even if the semantic equivalent of an expression in the
SL text is quoted in a dictionary or a glossary, it is not enough,
and it does not guarantee a successful translation. They provide a
number of examples to prove their theory, and the following
expression appears in their list: Take one is a fixed expression
which would have as an equivalent French translation Prenez-en un.
However, if the expression appeared as a notice next to a basket of
free samples in a large store, the translator would have to look for
an equivalent term in a similar situation and use the expression
Échantillon gratuit (ibid.:256).
1.2 Jakobson and the concept of equivalence in difference
Roman Jakobson's study of equivalence gave new impetus to the
theoretical analysis of translation since he introduced the notion
of 'equivalence in difference'. On the basis of his semiotic
approach to language and his aphorism 'there is no signatum without
signum' (1959:232), he suggests three kinds of translation:
Intralingual (within one language, i.e. rewording or paraphrase)
Interlingual (between two languages)
Intersemiotic (between sign systems)
Jakobson claims that, in the case of interlingual translation, the
translator makes use of synonyms in order to get the ST message
across. This means that in interlingual translations there is no
full equivalence between code units. According to his theory,
'translation involves two equivalent messages in two different
codes' (ibid.:233). Jakobson goes on to say that from a grammatical
point of view languages may differ from one another to a greater or
lesser degree, but this does not mean that a translation cannot be
possible, in other words, that the translator may face the problem
of not finding a translation equivalent. He acknowledges that
'whenever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and
amplified by loanwords or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic
shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions' (ibid.:234). Jakobson
provides a number of examples by comparing English and Russian
language structures and explains that in such cases where there is
no a literal equivalent for a particular ST word or sentence, then
it is up to the translator to choose the most suitable way to render
it in the TT.
There seems to be some similarity between Vinay and Darbelnet's
theory of translation procedures and Jakobson's theory of
translation. Both theories stress the fact that, whenever a
linguistic approach is no longer suitable to carry out a
translation, the translator can rely on other procedures such as
loan-translations, neologisms and the like. Both theories recognize
the limitations of a linguistic theory and argue that a translation
can never be impossible since there are several methods that the
translator can choose. The role of the translator as the person who
decides how to carry out the translation is emphasized in both
theories. Both Vinay and Darbelnet as well as Jakobson conceive the
translation task as something which can always be carried out from
one language to another, regardless of the cultural or grammatical
differences between ST and TT.
It can be concluded that Jakobson's theory is essentially based on
his semiotic approach to translation according to which the
translator has to recode the ST message first and then s/he has to
transmit it into an equivalent message for the TC.
1.3 Nida and Taber: Formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence
Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence,
namely formal equivalence—which in the second edition by Nida and
Taber (1982) is referred to as formal correspondence—and dynamic
equivalence. Formal correspondence 'focuses attention on the message
itself, in both form and content', unlike dynamic equivalence which
is based upon 'the principle of equivalent effect' (1964:159). In
the second edition (1982) or their work, the two theorists provide a
more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence.
Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the
closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase. Nida and Taber make it
clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language
pairs. They therefore suggest that these formal equivalents should
be used wherever possible if the translation aims at achieving
formal rather than dynamic equivalence. The use of formal
equivalents might at times have serious implications in the TT since
the translation will not be easily understood by the target audience
(Fawcett, 1997). Nida and Taber themselves assert that 'Typically,
formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic
patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message,
so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly
hard' (ibid.:201).
Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according
to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original
in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on
the TC audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience.
They argue that 'Frequently, the form of the original text is
changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back
transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in
the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the
message is preserved and the translation is faithful' (Nida and
Taber, 1982:200).
One can easily see that Nida is in favour of the application of
dynamic equivalence, as a more effective translation procedure. This
is perfectly understandable if we take into account the context of
the situation in which Nida was dealing with the translation
phenomenon, that is to say, his translation of the Bible. Thus, the
product of the translation process, that is the text in the TL, must
have the same impact on the different readers it was addressing.
Only in Nida and Taber's edition is it clearly stated that 'dynamic
equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct
communication of information' (ibid:25).
Despite using a linguistic approach to translation, Nida is much
more interested in the message of the text or, in other words, in
its semantic quality. He therefore strives to make sure that this
message remains clear in the target text.
1.4 Catford and the introduction of translation shifts
Catford's approach to translation equivalence clearly differs from
that adopted by Nida since Catford had a preference for a more
linguistic-based approach to translation and this approach is based
on the linguistic work of Firth and Halliday. His main contribution
in the field of translation theory is the introduction of the
concepts of types and shifts of translation. Catford proposed very
broad types of translation in terms of three criteria:
The extent of translation (full translation vs partial
translation);
The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is
established (rank-bound translation vs. unbounded translation);
The levels of language involved in translation (total translation
vs. restricted translation).
We will refer only to the second type of translation, since this is
the one that concerns the concept of equivalence, and we will then
move on to analyze the notion of translation shifts, as elaborated
by Catford, which are based on the distinction between formal
correspondence and textual equivalence. In rank-bound translation an
equivalent is sought in the TL for each word, or for each morpheme
encountered in the ST. In unbounded translation equivalences are not
tied to a particular rank, and we may additionally find equivalences
at sentence, clause and other levels. Catford finds five of these
ranks or levels in both English and French, while in the Caucasian
language Kabardian there are apparently only four.
Thus, a formal correspondence could be said to exist between English
and French if relations between ranks have approximately the same
configuration in both languages, as Catford claims they do.
One of the problems with formal correspondence is that, despite
being a useful tool to employ in comparative linguistics, it seems
that it is not really relevant in terms of assessing translation
equivalence between ST and TT. For this reason we now turn to
Catford's other dimension of correspondence, namely textual
equivalence which occurs when any TL text or portion of text is
'observed on a particular occasion ... to be the equivalent of a
given SL text or portion of text' (ibid.:27). He implements this by
a process of commutation, whereby 'a competent bilingual informant
or translator' is consulted on the translation of various sentences
whose ST items are changed in order to observe 'what changes if any
occur in the TL text as a consequence' (ibid.:28).
As far as translation shifts are concerned, Catford defines them as
'departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from
the SL to the TL' (ibid.:73). Catford argues that there are two main
types of translation shifts, namely level shifts, where the SL item
at one linguistic level (e.g. grammar) has a TL equivalent at a
different level (e.g. lexis), and category shifts which are divided
into four types:
Structure-shifts, which involve a grammatical change between the
structure of the ST and that of the TT;
Class-shifts, when a SL item is translated with a TL item which
belongs to a different grammatical class, i.e. a verb may be
translated with a noun;
Unit-shifts, which involve changes in rank;
Intra-system shifts, which occur when 'SL and TL possess systems
which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution,
but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding
term in the TL system' (ibid.:80). For instance, when the SL
singular becomes a TL plural.
Catford was very much criticized for his linguistic theory of
translation. One of the most scathing criticisms came from
Snell-Hornby (1988), who argued that Catford's definition of textual
equivalence is 'circular', his theory's reliance on bilingual
informants 'hopelessly inadequate', and his example sentences
'isolated and even absurdly simplistic' (ibid.:19-20). She considers
the concept of equivalence in translation as being an illusion. She
asserts that the translation process cannot simply be reduced to a
linguistic exercise, as claimed by Catford for instance, since there
are also other factors, such as textual, cultural and situational
aspects, which should be taken into consideration when translating.
In other words, she does not believe that linguistics is the only
discipline which enables people to carry out a translation, since
translating involves different cultures and different situations at
the same time and they do not always match from one language to
another.
1.5 House and the elaboration of overt/ouvet/ and covert/covert/ translation
House (1977) is in favour of semantic and pragmatic equivalence and
argues that ST and TT should match one another in function. House
suggests that it is possible to characterize the function of a text
by determining the situational dimensions of the ST.* In fact,
according to her theory, every text is in itself is placed within a
particular situation which has to be correctly identified and taken
into account by the translator. After the ST analysis, House is in a
position to evaluate a translation; if the ST and the TT differ
substantially on situational features, then they are not
functionally equivalent, and the translation is not of a high
quality. In fact, she acknowledges that 'a translation text should
not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent
situational-dimensional means to achieve that function' (ibid.:49).
Central to House's discussion is the concept of overt and covert
translations. In an overt translation the TT audience is not
directly addressed and there is therefore no need at all to attempt
to recreate a 'second original' since an overt translation 'must
overtly be a translation' (ibid.:189). By covert translation, on the
other hand, is meant the production of a text which is functionally
equivalent to the ST. House also argues that in this type of
translation the ST 'is not specifically addressed to a TC audience'
(ibid.:194).
House (ibid.:203) sets out the types of ST that would probably yield
translations of the two categories. An academic article, for
instance, is unlikely to exhibit any features specific to the SC;
the article has the same argumentative or expository force that it
would if it had originated in the TL, and the fact that it is a
translation at all need not be made known to the readers. A
political speech in the SC, on the other hand, is addressed to a
particular cultural or national group which the speaker sets out to
move to action or otherwise influence, whereas the TT merely informs
outsiders what the speaker is saying to his or her constituency. It
is clear that in this latter case, which is an instance of overt
translation, functional equivalence cannot be maintained, and it is
therefore intended that the ST and the TT function differently.
House's theory of equivalence in translation seems to be much more
flexible than Catford's. In fact, she gives authentic examples, uses
complete texts and, more importantly, she relates linguistic
features to the context of both source and target text.
1.6 Baker's approach to translation equivalence
New adjectives have been assigned to the notion of equivalence
(grammatical, textual, pragmatic equivalence, and several others)
and made their appearance in the plethora of recent works in this
field. An extremely interesting discussion of the notion of
equivalence can be found in Baker (1992) who seems to offer a more
detailed list of conditions upon which the concept of equivalence
can be defined. She explores the notion of equivalence at different
levels, in relation to the translation process, including all
different aspects of translation and hence putting together the
linguistic and the communicative approach. She distinguishes
between:
Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level,
when translating from one language into another. Baker
acknowledges that, in a bottom-up approach to translation,
equivalence at word level is the first element to be taken into
consideration by the translator. In fact, when the translator
starts analyzing the ST s/he looks at the words as single units in
order to find a direct 'equivalent' term in the TL. Baker gives a
definition of the term word since it should be remembered that a
single word can sometimes be assigned different meanings in
different languages and might be regarded as being a more complex
unit or morpheme. This means that the translator should pay
attention to a number of factors when considering a single word,
such as number, gender and tense (ibid.:11-12).
Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of
grammatical categories across languages. She notes that
grammatical rules may vary across languages and this may pose some
problems in terms of finding a direct correspondence in the TL. In
fact, she claims that different grammatical structures in the SL
and TL may cause remarkable changes in the way the information or
message is carried across. These changes may induce the translator
either to add or to omit information in the TT because of the lack
of particular grammatical devices in the TL itself. Amongst these
grammatical devices which might cause problems in translation
Baker focuses on number, tense and aspects, voice, person and
gender.
Textual equivalence, when referring to the equivalence between a
SL text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion.
Texture is a very important feature in translation since it
provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and analysis of
the ST which can help the translator in his or her attempt to
produce a cohesive and coherent text for the TC audience in a
specific context. It is up to the translator to decide whether or
not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as the coherence of the
SL text. His or her decision will be guided by three main factors,
that is, the target audience, the purpose of the translation and
the text type.
Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to implicatures and
strategies of avoidance during the translation process.
Implicature is not about what is explicitly said but what is
implied. Therefore, the translator needs to work out implied
meanings in translation in order to get the ST message across. The
role of the translator is to recreate the author's intention in
another culture in such a way that enables the TC reader to
understand it clearly.
1.7 Conclusion
The notion of equivalence is undoubtedly one of the most problematic
and controversial areas in the field of translation theory. The term
has caused, and it seems quite probable that it will continue to
cause, heated debates within the field of translation studies. This
term has been analyzed, evaluated and extensively discussed from
different points of view and has been approached from many different
perspectives. The first discussions of the notion of equivalence in
translation initiated the further elaboration of the term by
contemporary theorists. Even the brief outline of the issue given
above indicates its importance within the framework of the
theoretical reflection on translation. The difficulty in defining
equivalence seems to result in the impossibility of having a
universal approach to this notion.