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Observance of the Buddhist Five Precepts, Subjective Wealth, and Happiness

among Buddhists in Bangkok, Thailand

Article  in  Archive for the Psychology of Religion / Archiv für Religionspychologie · September 2010
DOI: 10.1163/157361210X533274

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This paper was published as:

Ariyabuddhiphongs, V., & Jaiwong, D. (2010). Observance of Buddhist Five Precepts, wealth,
and happiness among Buddhists in Bangkok, Thailand. Archive for the Psychology of Religion,
32, 327-344.
Available from:
http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/157361210x533274

Observance of Buddhist Five Precepts, Subjective wealth, and Happiness among Buddhists

in Bangkok, Thailand

Summary

This study tests the Buddhist hypothesis that observance of Buddhist Five Precepts leads

to subjective wealth, and happiness. Gotama Buddha defined happiness as the result of

subjective wealth: having wealth, using wealth, not being in debt, and engaging in a harmless

profession. Four hundred residents of Bangkok participated in the study by responding to scales

assessing the extent of their observance of the Five Precepts, subjective wealth, and domain

satisfactions and life satisfaction. Regression analyses were used to test the hypothesis. The

results confirm that subjective wealth mediates the relationship between observance of the Five

Precepts and happiness. Happiness begins by not transgressing upon oneself and violating

others, and may depend less on what one has than on what one has left after paying off the bills.

Key words

Buddhist Five Precepts, subjective wealth, happiness

 2

Introduction

Gotama Buddha prescribed three basic behavioral principles for Buddhists: not to commit

evil deeds, to perform good deeds, and to purify one’s mind (Dhiganikaya 13/54/55; Note). As

activities, the three behavioral principles become observance of the Five Precepts (sila), giving

(dana), and meditation (phavana). In Thailand, giving is associated with giving food to the

monks; observance of the Five Precepts means pledging to abstain from killing, stealing,

committing sexual misconduct, speaking falsely and idly, and consuming alcohol and

intoxicants; meditation involves mindful attention to one’s breathing or walking

(Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2009).

Of the three activities, mediation and its beneficial effects are most often and extensively

examined. Dispositional and state mindfulness predicted self-regulated behavior and positive

emotional states, and increases in mindfulness over time related to declines in mood disturbance

and stress (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Vipassana meditation resulted in significant change in ego

defense mechanisms, greater maturity and tolerance of common stressors, and heightened self-

esteem and less impulsiveness (Emavardhana & Tori, 1997). Therapeutic interventions based on

mindful meditation seemed to be effective in the treatment of depression, anxiety, psychosis,

borderline personality disorder and suicidal/self-harm behavior, and mindfulness meditation

itself was effective in reducing substance use and recidivism rates in incarcerated populations

(Ivanovski & Malhi, 2007).

The effects of observance of the Five Precepts and giving have not been investigated

because observing the Five Precepts and giving food to the monks are not widely practiced

among westerners. This study briefly reviews the relationship between wealth and happiness,
 3

discusses the Five Precepts, and presents an investigation of the relationships between the

observance of the Five Precepts, subjective wealth (defined by the Buddha as having wealth,

using wealth, not being in debt, and engaging in a harmless profession; Angkuttaranikaya

35/62/205), and happiness. The results are expected to further our understanding of the

antecedents of happiness and contribute to the literature on the psychological study of Buddhism.

Wealth and Happiness

The question of whether money buys happiness (Easterlin, 1973) has become the origin

of a major area of research: the relationship between money, income, or wealth, and subjective

well-being, life satisfaction, or happiness. Research may be divided into national and individual

levels.

At the national level, research in the U.S. indicated that national income changes were

considered by some to be not related to the levels of subject well-being (Diener, Suh, Lucas, &

Smith, 1999). However, this may be because GDP was a poor measure of people’s well-being,

and measures of household income, male income, and average wages revealed a modest

relationship between material well-being and national happiness (Fischer, 2008). Research in

other nations points to positive relationship between wealth and happiness. In Malaysia, for

example, the association between wealth, a measure of possessions and savings, and life

satisfaction was positive and significant (Howell, Howell & Schwabe, 2006). In Sweden,

happiness increased with income, health and education (Gerdtham & Johannesson, 2001). In

Mexico, the poorest participants reported the least satisfaction and consequently low correlations

were observed between income and subjective-wellbeing in the extremely poor and moderately

poor groups (Lever, 2004). A survey of individuals in 15 countries showed that income was
 4

strongly associated with satisfaction but weakly with happiness (Peiro, 2006). In developing

countries, economic status defined as wealth showed strongest relation with subjective well-

being (Howell & Howell, 2008). A review by Cummins (2000) found significantly different

levels of subjective well-being for people who were considered rich, people who were on

average western incomes, and people who were poor.

At the individual level, the relationships between wealth, money or income, and

happiness or life satisfaction are more complex but money appears to make people happy.

Happiness or life satisfaction was influenced by a person’s notion of what a happy life was

(Rojas, 2007), by an increase in income aspirations (Stutzer, 2004), by the positional treadmill

(keeping up with the Joneses), the hedonic treadmill (adapting aspiration levels to higher income

levels), the multi-option treadmill (spending more money to buy more things), and the time-

saving treadmill (spending more time in time-saving activities; Binswanger, 2006). Individual

happiness was determined not only by absolute income but also by relative income, status,

endowments, cultural context, and income in kind (Dean, 2007), and wealth affected life

satisfaction more than income (Headey, Muffels & Wooden, 2008). Life and financial

satisfaction was also influenced by the amount of time one spent watching television that played

a major role in producing higher material aspirations (Bruni & Stanca, 2006). The relationship

between wealth and life satisfaction was influenced by perceived financial situation and control

over life (Johnson & Krueger, 2006), and people’s satisfaction with income was influenced by

their desires (Solberg, Diener, Wirtz, Lucas, & Oishi, 2002). However, excessive desire for

wealth brings undesirable effects; the values and expectancies for wealth and money, when they

became central to an individual than other values and expectancies, were negatively associated

with adjustment and well-being (Kasser & Ryan, 1993).

 5

Observance of the Buddhist Five Precepts, Wealth, and Happiness

Observance of the Buddhist Five Precepts requires refraining from (1) taking the life of a

living being, (2) taking what is not given, (3) committing sexual misconduct, (4) engaging in

false and idle speeches, and (5) consuming alcohol or intoxicants (Khantipalo Bhikkhu, 1989).

At the beginning of an auspicious ceremony, such as a house warming party or a birthday

celebration in Thailand, Buddhist monks lead the laypersons in their pledge to observe the rules

of the Five Precepts, and at the conclusion of the pledge state that observance of the Five

Precepts leads to happiness, wealth and nibbana (breaking out of the cycle of life and death; Joh

Parian, 1992).

Gotama Buddha mentioned that there were two kinds of happiness (sukkha): happiness

for the ordained persons (ariya sukkha) and happiness for the laypersons (anariya sukka;

Angkuttaranikaya, 33/314/433). He further noted that the laypersons’ happiness was the result

of the four factors of subjective wealth: having wealth, using wealth, not being in debt, and

engaging in a harmless profession (Angkuttaranikaya, 35/62/205). Combining the monks’

statement and Gotama Buddha’s observation, the relationship among observance of the Five

Precepts, subjective wealth and happiness is portrayed in Figure 1, representing the relationship

between Five Precepts and happiness mediated by subjective wealth.

________________

Figure 1 about here.

________________
 6

Although the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20) and the Five Precepts specify rules for

behavior, few psychological studies examine the effects of observing the Ten Commandments or

the Five Precepts. Belief in the Ten Commandments was found to predict a low level of

hostility, more authoritarian and authoritative parenting style, and a more trusting bond with

others (Snell & Overbey, 2008). Thai Buddhists who scored high on money consciousness were

likely to violate the Five Precepts in exchange for a large sum of Thai currency

(Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2007). Buddhist religiousness, defined as the extent a Buddhist engages in

giving, observance of the Five Precepts and meditation, was related to life satisfaction

(Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2009). Whereas there have been numerous studies on the relationship

between religiosity and life satisfaction or happiness (Hackney & Sanders, 2003), there does not

appear to be a published study on the relationship between the observance of the Five Precepts,

subjective wealth, and happiness.

Method

Participants

The population of this study was 4.3 million residents of Bangkok, age between 15-74

years old (National Statistical Office, 2008). A sample size of 400, recommended by Krejcie &

Morgan (1970) for a survey of this type, was chosen and the data were collected proportionally

to the population’s gender and age groups from Bangkok residents at seven shopping centers in

various parts of Bangkok. The second author randomly approached the shoppers at the shopping

centers and requested their cooperation in responding to the questionnaire. Upon obtaining

positive responses, he gave the participants copies of the questionnaire and ball-point pens,

waited while the participants were responding to the questions, and answered any questions the
 7

participants might have. The questionnaire included a short letter explaining the purpose of the

study, stating the voluntary nature of the study, and promising anonymity of the responses. At

the conclusion, he thanked the participants and gave the ball-point pens as a token of

appreciation for their responses. About 5% of the shoppers approached declined to participate.

Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the sample.

________________

Table 1 about here.

________________

The gender ratio of the sample is 47/53 male to female. The participants tend to be

young: two out of five participants (40.3%) are in the 15-34 year age bracket; almost a quarter

(23.3%) is in the 35-44 year age group; and the rest (36.5%) is in the 45-74 age range.

Educational attainment is almost equally distributed: 44.5% for less than bachelor’s degree as

against 45.3% for bachelor’s degree. The sample is drawn from students or unemployed group

(24.8%), government or state enterprise employees (35.8%), and private enterprise employees

(26.8%). Half (50.9%) earns income of Baht 20,000 per month or less, considerably less than

the average household income for Bangkok (Baht 35,007 or US$1,000; National Statistical

Office, 2009).

Measurements

The scales used in this study were written in Thai language, translated into English and

presented in the Appendix, except the Satisfaction With Life Scale that was adapted from the

English version.
 8

Observance of the Five Precepts. Observance of the Five Precepts was assessed by using

the Buddhist Five Precepts Scale (Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2007). The respondents were asked if for

a compensation of one million Baht (approx. US$28,570) they would engage in tasks or

activities that violate any one of the Five Precepts. The responses range from 1. yes, 2. maybe,

and 3. no. Observance of the Five Precepts is a linear combination of five items; high scores on

this scale indicate high degree of observance of the Five Precepts. Reliability analysis of the

scale yields an alpha of .69.

Subjective Wealth. Subjective wealth was assessed by the 6-item Subjective Wealth

Scale, written to represent the four factors identified by Gotama Buddha. This definition of

subjective wealth, i.e. having wealth, using wealth, not being in debt and engaging in a harmless

profession, goes beyond the common understanding of wealth as accumulation of cash,

valuables, durable goods, or fixed assets. It encompasses the ideas of earning money and

accumulating assets as well as the uses of money, the freedom from having no debt, and earning

one’s living from a profession that does not cause harms to others. Because of the similarity of

the ideas of having and using wealth, having wealth is represented by 1 item (#6), and using

wealth by 1 item (#4). Not being in debt (#1 & 2) and engagement in a harmless profession (#3

& 5) are each represented by 2 items.

To check face validity, the items were given to 30 M.B.A. students to categorize into four

groups: having wealth, using wealth, not being in debt and engagement in a harmless profession.

The result of face validity check was satisfactory; greater than 80 percent of the students

assigned the items to the right categories. The respondents were asked to indicate the extent to

which the items reflect their position on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1. least or not at all

true, to 5. very true. Reliability analysis of the scale yields an alpha of .66.
 9

Happiness. Happiness was assessed by two scales that capture different facets of

subjective well-being or happiness: domain satisfactions and satisfaction with life. Domain

satisfactions refer to satisfaction with various aspects of life whereas satisfaction with life is a

global judgment of life achievements (Diener et al, 1999).

Domain Satisfactions. Domain satisfactions were assessed with the 7-item Domain

Satisfactions Scale, representing satisfactions in seven domains of life: work, family, leisure,

health, finances, self, and one’s group (Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2009). The respondents were asked

to indicate their agreement with the items on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1. disagree

absolutely, to 7. agree absolutely. Reliability analysis of the scale yields an alpha of .83.

Domain satisfactions variable is a linear combination of 7 items.

Satisfaction With Life. The 5-item Satisfaction With Life Scale is a Thai-language

adaptation of Satisfaction With Life Scale (Pavot & Diener, 1993). The first author wrote the

scale in Thai after the English version. The original scale and the Thai version were then

presented to six independent linguists for evaluation; five linguists evaluated the translation as

good and one evaluated the translation as adequate. The Thai scale was further edited for clarity

at the suggestions of the independent linguists. The respondents were asked to indicate their

agreement to the items on a 7-point Likert scale from 1. not at all, to 7. very much. Reliability

index for the scale is .86. Satisfaction With Life variable is a linear combination of 5 items.

Happiness is a linear combination of domain satisfactions and satisfaction with life.

Results

Responses to observance of the Five Precepts, subjective wealth, domain satisfactions

and satisfaction with life were summed. Table 2 displays the means, and standard deviations of
 10

the observance of the Five Precepts, subjective wealth, domain satisfactions, satisfaction with

life, gender differences, and correlations of the four subjective wealth factors with the

respondents’ gender, age, education, and income. Data in Table 2 reveal that Thai women tend

to observe the Buddhist Five Precepts more than Thai men. This finding corresponds with the

result of an earlier research that found Thai women giving food to the monks, observing the Five

Precepts, and practicing meditation more frequently than did Thai men (Ariyabuddhiphongs &

Sriwong, 2007). Education is related to subjective wealth, and domain satisfactions, and age and

income are related to satisfaction with life.

_______________

Table 2 about here.

_______________

To test the mediation effect of subjective wealth on the relationship between observance

of the Five Precepts and happiness, regression analyses were made in three steps: step 1—

subjective wealth on observance of the Five Precepts; step 2—happiness on observance of the

Five Precepts; and step 3—happiness on observance of the Five Precepts and subjective wealth

(Baron & Kenny, 1986). Results of regression analyses are presented in Table 3.

_______________

Table 3 about here.

_______________

The relationship between happiness and observance of the Five Precepts is greater in step

2 than in step 3, indicating that there is a mediation effect (Baron & Kenny, 1986) and the
 11

mediation effect is significant (Sobel’s [1982] test, z = 4.57, p < .001). The hypothesized

mediation effect of subjective wealth on the relationship between observance of the Five

Precepts and happiness is supported.

Because the Buddhist Five Precepts contains five behavioral injunctions and subjective

wealth consists of four factors, an examination of the individual effects of the Five Precepts and

subjective wealth factors will yield a better understanding of the impact of each precept and

subjective wealth factor. An examination of the effects of demographic variables will also help

in the assessment of any spurious correlations among demographic and other variables. To

highlight the effects of each of observance of the Five Precepts, subjective wealth factors, and

demographic variables, a regression of happiness on individual observance of the Five Precepts,

subjective wealth factors, and gender, age, education, and income was made. Table 4 contains

the results of the regression analysis.

_______________

Table 4 about here.

________________

The regression analysis reveals that observance of three precepts (Precept 1: not taking

life; Precept 2: not taking what is not given; and Precept 4: no false and idle speech) predicts

happiness whereas observance of Precept 3 (no sexual misconduct) and Precept 5 (no alcohol

and intoxicants consumption) does not. Three of the four subjective wealth factors (having

wealth, using wealth, and having a harmless profession) predict happiness; the third factor (not

being in debt) does not. None of the demographic variables predicts happiness.
 12

Discussion

Using a Buddhist framework, this study tests the relationship between observance of the

Five Precepts, subjective wealth and happiness. The results of the study indicate that the

relationship between observance of the Buddhist Five Precepts and happiness is mediated by

subjective wealth, or having wealth, using wealth, not being in debt, and engaging in a harmless

profession.

A regression analysis of happiness on the each of the Five Precepts, subjective wealth

factors, and demographic variables reveals that Precept 3 (no sexual misconduct), Precept 5 (no

alcohol and intoxicants consumption) and a subjective wealth factor (not being in debt) do not

predict happiness. The results seem to reflect the current economic and social malaises in

Thailand. The country has become the sex tourism destination (Bishop & Robinson, 1999), and

foreign women are replacing Thai women in prostitution (Hanenberg & Rojanapithayakorn,

1998); national consumption of alcohol ranks third in the world (Center for Alcohol Studies,

2008); and the total debt for each household (Baht 151,168; US$4,321) is four times the

household income (Baht 35,007; US$1,000; National Statistical Office, 2009).

This study contributes to the psychological study of Buddhism and the study of

happiness or subjective well-being on three issues. The first issue concerns the components of

subjective wealth. Whereas wealth in other studies is operationally defined as GDP (Diener et

al, 1999), household income, male income, and average wage (Fischer, 2008), or dollar amounts

(Johnson & Krueger, 2006), this study operationally defines Buddhist concept of subjective

wealth as consisting of having wealth, using wealth, not being in debt, and engaging in a

harmless profession. Psychological research supports the Buddha’s definition of subjective

 13

wealth: having wealth—Britons who received medium-sized lottery wins of between £1,000 and

£120,000 exhibited significantly better psychological health, even two years after the lottery win

(Gardner & Oswald, 2007); the use of wealth—spending money with the intention to acquire life

experience made people happier than spending money to acquire material possessions (Van

Boven, 2005); the advantage of not being in debt—money had to be earned and spent and the

increased level of credit card debts led to a decrease in the sense of well-being (Kaun, 2005); and

engaging in a harmless profession—the structure of psychological well-being that consists of

self-acceptance, positive relations, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery, and

autonomy reflects the position of persons engaging in harmless professions (Keyes, Shmotkin, &

Ryff, 2002). Although an argument may be made that acquisition and use of money need to be

separated from the notion of the kind of job one has, objective measures of financial success as

well as the job that satisfies humane pragmatism ideology, such as helping employees to become

better adjusted persons, predict managerial success (Jaskolka, Beyer, & Trice, 1985).

The second issue involves the operational definition of subjective well-being or

happiness. Whereas subjective well-being has been defined as pleasant and unpleasant affects,

domain satisfactions, and life satisfaction (Diener et al, 1999), research studies tend to use the

Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) to

measure affects, and a single question (Oishi, Diener, Lucas, & Suh, 1999), three questions

(Johnson & Krueger, 2006), or the Satisfaction With Life scale (Pavot & Diener, 1993) to

measure life satisfaction. Few studies (Hart, 1999; Oishi & Diener, 2001) examined domain

satisfactions. This study defines happiness as consisting of domain satisfactions and life

satisfaction, capturing satisfactions with various aspects of life as well as satisfaction with life in

general. Perhaps, the combination of domain satisfactions and life satisfaction produces greater
 14

magnitude of wealth-to-happiness correlations than those found in earlier studies (Johnson &

Krueger, 2006; Kasser & Ryan, 1993; Oishi et al, 1999).

The third issue involves practical application of the observance of the Five Precepts,

subjective wealth and happiness, citing as an example the effect of observing the fifth Precept on

alcohol consumption. Although the relationship between observance of the 5th Precept on

alcohol consumption and happiness is not significant in this study, a reasonable argument may be

made that a reduction or abstention of alcohol consumption would mean having wealth in the

Buddhist definition—more money to spend on other types of consumption or increased savings.

Household expenditure on alcohol in Ireland was Euro 1,675 in 1999 (Finfacts Ireland, 2008); a

reduction of 50% of the consumption level would mean a sum of Euro 838 available for saving

or other expenditure for each household. Similar saving would be result for any other country.

Also, violation of this Precept brings adverse consequences, such as marital dissolution

(Ostermann, Sloan & Taylor, 2005), ill health and social life discord (Ramstedt, 2002), and

family and occupational problems (Wilsnack et al, 2000). Observance of the Five Precepts

brings peace of mind to the persons who undertake to refrain from harming themselves by

consuming alcohol and intoxicants, and harming others by killing, stealing, violating others’

loved ones, and speaking falsely and idly. Perhaps, the path to happiness begins with oneself,

by limiting alcohol consumption and abstaining from other intoxicants, thereby increasing

wealth.

Limitations

Limitations of this study need to be pointed out. The first has to with the venue of the

survey in seven shopping centers of Bangkok. People who visit shopping centers may not
 15

represent the city’s population; students and the unemployed at 24.8% of the sample are

probably over-represented. Although the sample size (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970) is reasonable

for the city of Bangkok the bias is difficult to assess. The second limitation concerns the wide

recognition that subjective well-being questions are sensitive to the conditions of the interview.

Interviewing people who are shopping or window-shopping about life satisfaction, domains

satisfaction, and subjective wealth may adversely affect the quality of the information gathered.

There is probably a bias in subjective well-being and status variables due to place and conditions

of the survey. Such bias is difficult to assess and future research need to carefully consider the

place and conditions of the survey.

This study was conducted in Thailand, a predominantly Theravada Buddhist country

where the pronouncement of the Five Precepts is a part of religious activities. Opportunity for

replication in a western country may be limited unless it is conducted among Buddhists who

follow Theravada traditions. The relationship between observance of the Five Precepts and

subjective wealth or happiness may be difficult to replicate because westerners may not be

familiar with the Five Precepts, particularly the fifth Precept on prohibition of alcohol

consumption. The Buddhist definition of subjective wealth, especially not being in debt, should

however be easily understood by anyone who is heavily in debt. Happiness may not be so much

as what one has but what one has left after paying all the bills.
 16

Note

Numbers refer to volume/paragraph/page numbers of the Thai language version of the

Tipitaka scripture published by Mahamakut Royal College in commemoration of the 200 years

of the Royal Chakri Dynasty, Rattanakosin, B.E. 2525

Acknowledgement

The authors thank Raymond F. Paloutzian, Thomas J. Knutson, and Paul T.J. James for

their encouragement and insightful comments on the earlier draft of this paper.
 17

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Appendix

Observance of Buddhist Five Precepts Scale

For a compensation of a million Baht (US$28,570), would you accept the following tasks?

1. Work for a year as a chicken slaughterer.

2. Sell your employer’s secret to a competing company.

3. Have sex with a stranger.

4. Write a false report so that your employer, a bank, would lend Baht 100 million (US$2.8

million) to a client.

5. Drink a bottle of whisky (375 ml) every day for a year.

Subjective wealth Scale

The following sentences describe your financial and work status. Please indicate the extent to

which each sentence describes your status, from 1. least/not at all true, to 5. very true.

1. I have so many debts I could not repay them all. (No debt; reverse scored)

2. I have to pay a large amount of credit card debt every month. (No debt; reversed scored)

3. My job is an honest one. (Harmless profession)

4. I have some saving every month. (Having wealth)

5. My job does not cause problem to other people. (Harmless profession)

 24

6. I have enough income to spend every month. (Using wealth)

Domain Satisfactions Scale

The following sentences describe your satisfaction with several domains in your life. Please

indicate the extent of your agreement with each sentence, from 1. disagree absolutely to 7. agree

absolutely.

1. I have good health.

2. There is no serious problem in my family.

3. I have friends who help me when I have problems.

4. I have a good job or position.

5. I have enough salary to spend and save.

6. I have leisure time to spend with my family.

7. I am satisfied with myself.

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Table 1

Demographic characteristics of the sample (N = 400)

Number Percent

Gender: Male 188 47.0

Female 212 53.0

Age: 15-24 years 73 18.3

25-34 years 88 22.0
35-44 years 93 23.3
45-54 years 78 19.5
55-64 years 44 11.0
65-74 years 24 6.0

Education: Less than Bachelor’s degree 178 44.5

Bachelor’s degree 181 45.3
Higher than Bachelor’s degree 41 10.3

Occupation: Student/Unemployed 99 24.8

Housewife 1 0.3
Agricultural workers 3 0.8
Government/State enterprise employees 143 35.8
Private enterprise employees 107 26.8
General workers 12 3.0
Business owners 18 4.5
Retired and others 17 4.3

Monthly Income (Baht): 0-10,000 105 26.3

10,001-20,000 98 24.6
20,001-30,000 67 16.8
30,001-40,000 47 11.8
40,001 or more 83 20.8
Table 2

Observance of the Five Precepts, Subjective Wealth, Domain Satisfactions and Satisfaction with Life: Means, Standard Deviations, Gender
Difference, and Correlations of with Respondents’ Age, Education, and Income (N = 400)

Gender Differences Correlations With

M SD Male Female t df Age Education Income

M, SD M, SD
Observance of the Five Precepts 13.46 1.98 12.87, 2.16 13.98, 1.63 -5.82*** 398 .03 .05 .02

Subjective Wealth 22.67 4.11 22.41, 4.18 22.90, 4.05 -1.18 398 .001 .06** .08

Domain Satisfactions 34.86 7.32 34.57, 7.01 35.11, 7.58 -0.74 398 -.01 .13** .08

Satisfaction With Life 22.21 6.45 22.28, 6.60 22.15, 6.34 0.20 398 .19*** -.07 .22***

** p < .01, *** p < .001

Table 3

Regression Analysis for Observance of the Five Precepts Predicting Happiness Mediated by
Subjective Wealth (N = 400)

Variables B SE B β R2

Step 1: Subjective wealth on observance of the Five Precepts

Observance of the Five Precepts .54 .10 .26*** .07
Step 2: Happiness on observance of the Five Precepts
Observance of the Five Precepts 1.61 .31 .26*** .07
Step 3: Happiness on observance of the Five Precepts and
Subjective Wealth
Observance of the Five Precepts .95 .29 .15*** .22
Subjective Wealth 1.22 .14 .40***

*** p < .001

 28

Table 4

Regression Analysis for Observance of Each of the Five Precepts and Factors of Subjective Wealth
Predicting Happiness (N = 400)

Variables B SE B β p

Precept 1: Not taking life of a living being 1.84 .86 .11 .03
Precept 2: Not taking what is not given 2.89 1.47 .10 .05
Precept 3: No sexual misconduct 1.80 .95 .10 .06
Precept 4: No false & idle speech -3.22 1.65 -.10 .05
Precept 5: No alcohol & intoxicants .46 .95 .02 .63
Having wealth 3.63 .69 .32 <.001
Using wealth 1.24 .61 .11 .04
Not being in debt -.01 .33 -.01 .78
Engaging in a harmless profession .62 .32 .09 .05
Gender -1.45 1.14 -.06 .20
Age -.00 .56 -.00 .97
Education -.01 .55 .01 .89
Income .44 .28 .10 .12
R2 = .30
 Happiness
Having Wealth

Observance of Subjective Using Wealth

the Five Wealth
Precepts

Not Being in
Debt

Engaging in a
Harmless
Profession

Figure 1. Relationship between observance of the Five Precepts and happiness,

mediated by subjective wealth.

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